Chapter 1: Introduction

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 What is an Operating System?

 A program that acts as an intermediary between a user of a computer

and the computer hardware

 Operating system goals:

 Execute user programs and make solving user problems easier
 Make the computer system convenient to use
 Use the computer hardware in an efficient manner

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 Computer System Structure

 Computer system can be divided into four components:

 Hardware – provides basic computing resources
 CPU, memory, I/O devices
 Operating system
 Controls and coordinates use of hardware among various
applications and users
 Application programs – define the ways in which the system
resources are used to solve the computing problems of the
users
 Word processors, compilers, web browsers, database
systems, video games
 Users
 People, machines, other computers

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.3 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Four Components of a Computer System

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.4 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 What Operating Systems Do
 Depends on the point of view
 Users want convenience, ease of use
 Don’t care about resource utilization
 But shared computer such as mainframe or minicomputer must keep all
users happy
 Users of dedicated systems such as workstations have dedicated
resources but frequently use shared resources from servers
 Handheld computers are resource poor, optimized for usability and battery
life
 Some computers have little or no user interface, such as embedded
computers in devices and automobiles

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.5 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Operating System Definition

 OS is a resource allocator
 Manages all resources
 Decides between conflicting requests for efficient and fair resource
use

 OS is a control program
 Controls execution of programs to prevent errors and improper use
of the computer
 Special concern with operations and control of I/O devices

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.6 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Operating System Definition (Cont.)

 No universally accepted definition

 ―The one program running at all times on the computer‖ is the

kernel.

 Everything else is either a

 system program
 an application program.

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.7 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Computer System Organization
 Computer-system operation
 One or more CPUs, device controllers connect through common
bus providing access to shared memory
 Concurrent execution of CPUs and devices competing for
memory cycles

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 Computer-System Operation
 I/O devices and the CPU can execute concurrently

 Each device controller is in charge of a particular device type

 Each device controller has a local buffer

 CPU moves data from/to main memory to/from local buffers

 Device controller informs CPU that it has finished its operation by

causing an interrupt

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.9 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Common Functions of Interrupts
 Interrupt transfers control to the interrupt service routine generally,
through the interrupt vector, which contains the addresses of all the
service routines

 Interrupt architecture must save the address of the interrupted

instruction

 Incoming interrupts are disabled while another interrupt is being

processed to prevent a lost interrupt

 A trap is a software-generated interrupt caused either by an error or a

user request

 An operating system is interrupt driven

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.10 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Interrupt Handling

 While executing a process, an interrupt triggers.

 It is handled by the IHR.
 The process starts its execution again.

 However what will happen if while handling an interrupt, another interrupt

triggers?

 It can be handled using two approaches

 Sequential approach
 Nested approach

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.11 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Sequential Interrupt Handling

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 Nested Interrupt Handling

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.13 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Context Switching
 A context switch is the computing process of storing and restoring
the state (context) of a CPU so that execution can be resumed from
the same point at a later time.

 This enables multiple processes to share a single CPU.

 The context switch is an essential feature of a multitasking operating

system.

 Context switches are usually computationally intensive and much of

the design of operating systems is to optimize the use of context
switches

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.14 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 I/O Structure
 After I/O starts, control returns to user program only upon I/O
completion
 After I/O starts, control returns to user program without waiting for
I/O completion

 Wait instruction idles the CPU until the next interrupt

 Wait loop
 No simultaneous I/O processing

 System call – request to the operating system to allow user to

wait for I/O completion
 Device-status table contains entry for each I/O device
indicating its type, address, and state
 Operating system indexes into I/O device table to determine
device status and to modify table entry to include interrupt

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.15 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Storage Structure
 Main memory – only large storage media that the CPU can access
directly
 Random access
 Typically volatile
 Secondary storage – extension of main memory that provides large
nonvolatile storage capacity

 Magnetic disks – rigid metal or glass platters covered with magnetic

recording material
 Disk surface is logically divided into tracks, which are subdivided
into sectors
 The disk controller determines the logical interaction between the
device and the computer

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.16 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Storage Hierarchy
 Storage systems organized in hierarchy
 Speed
 Cost
 Volatility

 Caching – copying information into faster storage system; main

memory can be viewed as a cache for secondary storage

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.17 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Storage-Device Hierarchy

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 Computer-System Architecture
 Most systems use a single general-purpose processor (PDAs through
mainframes)
 Most systems have special-purpose processors as well

 Multiprocessors systems growing in use and importance

 Also known as parallel systems, tightly-coupled systems
 Advantages include:
1. Increased throughput
2. Economy of scale
3. Increased reliability – graceful degradation or fault tolerance
 Two types:
1. Asymmetric Multiprocessing (Master-Slave)
2. Symmetric Multiprocessing (Peers)

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.19 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Symmetric Multiprocessing Architecture

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.20 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 A Dual-Core Design

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 Operating System Structure

 Multiprogramming needed for efficiency

 Single user cannot keep CPU and I/O devices busy at all times
 Multiprogramming organizes jobs (code and data) so CPU always has one
to execute (as a busy lawyer)
 A subset of total jobs in system is kept in memory
 One job selected and run via job scheduling
 When it has to wait (for I/O for example), OS switches to another job

 Timesharing (multitasking) is logical extension in which CPU switches jobs

so frequently that users can interact with each job while it is running, creating
interactive computing
 Response time should be < 1 second
 Each user has at least one program executing in memory process
 If several jobs ready to run at the same time  CPU scheduling
 If processes don’t fit in memory, swapping moves them in and out to run
 Virtual memory allows execution of processes not completely in memory

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 Memory Layout for Multiprogrammed System

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.23 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Operating-System Operations
 Interrupt driven by hardware
 Software error or request creates exception or trap
 Division by zero, request for operating system service
 Other process problems include infinite loop, processes modifying each
other or the operating system
 Dual-mode operation allows OS to protect itself and other system
components
 User mode and kernel mode
 Mode bit provided by hardware
 Provides ability to distinguish when system is running user code
or kernel code
 Some instructions designated as privileged, only executable in
kernel mode
 System call changes mode to kernel, return from call resets it to
user

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.24 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Transition from User to Kernel Mode
 Timer to prevent infinite loop / process hogging resources
 Set interrupt after specific period
 Operating system decrements counter
 When counter zero generate an interrupt
 Set up before scheduling process to regain control or terminate
program that exceeds allotted time

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.25 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Process Management
 A process is a program in execution. It is a unit of work within the
system. Program is a passive entity, process is an active entity.
 Process needs resources to accomplish its task
 CPU, memory, I/O, files

Initialization data
 Process termination requires reclaim of any reusable resources
 Single-threaded process has one program counter specifying
location of next instruction to execute

Process executes instructions sequentially, one at a time, until
completion
 Multi-threaded process has one program counter per thread
 Typically system has many processes, some user, some operating
system running concurrently on one or more CPUs
 Concurrency by multiplexing the CPUs among the processes /
threads

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.26 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Process Management Activities
The operating system is responsible for the following activities in
connection with process management:

 Creating and deleting both user and system processes

 Suspending and resuming processes
 Providing mechanisms for process synchronization
 Providing mechanisms for process communication
 Providing mechanisms for deadlock handling

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.27 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Memory Management
 All data in memory before and after processing

 All instructions in memory in order to execute

 Memory management determines what is in memory when

 Optimizing CPU utilization and computer response to users

 Memory management activities

 Keeping track of which parts of memory are currently being used
and by whom
 Deciding which processes (or parts thereof) and data to move into
and out of memory
 Allocating and deallocating memory space as needed

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.28 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Storage Management

The operating system provides uniform, logical view of physical storage

media.
Logical storage unit — file.
Physical storage media — disk, tapes, …

The operating system maps files onto physical

media and access these files via the storage
devices.

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 File-System Management
 A file is a collection of related information defined by
its creator.
 Represent programs and data.
 Data: numeric, alphabetic, or binary. free-form or non-free form.

 Files usually organized into directories to make

them easier to use.

 Multiple user can access to the same file.

 Access control on most operating systems to determine who
can access what.

 OS activities include (chapters 10 and 11):

 Creating and deleting files and directories.
 Primitives to manipulate files and directories.
 Mapping files onto secondary storage.
 Backup files onto stable (non-volatile) storage media.

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.30 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Mass-Storage Management
 Computer system must provide secondary storage
to back up main memory.
 Disks are used as the principal storage medium for
programs and data.

 Disks are frequently used as the source and

destination of program processing.
 Proper management is of central importance.
 Speed of computer operation hinges on disk subsystem.

 OS activities:
 Free-space management.
 Storage allocation.
 Disk scheduling.

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.31 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 End of Chapter 1

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009