Memory Units

Computers use memory in random access memory (RAM), which stores information temporarily and in
storage drives, which permanently store data. RAM allows your computer to switch between programs
and have large files ready to view.

Importance of Memory Units

Speed: Memory units make it possible to store and retrieve instructions and data quickly, which reduces
processing instances and boosts overall system performance. This is crucial when handling huge
amounts of data or operating complicated programs.

Temporary storage: Memory units serve as temporary storage for data and programs that are currently
in use, allowing users to quickly move between programs and files without waiting for data to be loaded
from a storage device.

Multitasking: Memory units allow computer systems and different digital devices to do many tasks
simultaneously because they can store and retrieve data for multiple programs simultaneously.

Reliability: Memory devices are extremely reliable because they’re made to resist normal wear and tear.
They are a strong and reliable storage option because they are less vulnerable to damage from outside
forces like shock or vibration.

Accessibility: Memory units are readily available and can be quickly updated or changed. This makes
increasing a system’s memory capacity simple, enabling users to manage more data and execute
demanding programs.

Energy efficiency: Memory units use less power than standard hard drives, resulting in lower heat
generation and reduced cooling requirements. This makes them more energy-efficient, specifically
crucial for devices like smartphones and laptops with limited battery life.

Types of memory units

Different kinds of memory units are utilized in computers, and each has its own purpose. Let’s observe
some common types:

Memory Units

RAM (Random access memory): RAM is like a quick and temporary workspace in your computer. It stores
data and programs that your computer is actively using. When you open a file or run the software, it gets
loaded into RAM, so your laptop can access it quickly. However, RAM is only sometimes permanent
storage, so everything in RAM is lost when you switch off your computer.

ROM (read-only memory): ROM is a memory that stores essential records that your laptop needs to start
up and run essential functions. It carries firmware or software programs. This is permanently
programmed into the computer’s circuitry. The records in ROM cannot be modified, so it is secure and
reliable.
Cache Memory: Cache memory is a volatile memory used to store data or often accessed instructions.
Since the cache memory accesses data more quickly than RAM, this can enhance system performance.
Data can be accessed more quickly thanks to the greater proximity of cache memory to the CPU.

Virtual Memory: Virtual memory is a method of increasing available memory by utilizing hard drive
space. When RAM is at capacity, the computer temporarily transfers some data to the hard drive to
make room in RAM for different programs. This method enhances computer performance when running
numerous programs by allowing the machine to store more information than is feasible in RAM.

Flash Memory: Flash memory is a non-volatile memory frequently appearing in solid-nation drives, USB
drives, and memory cards. It is extra reliable and faster than traditional hard drives, making it
appropriate for usage in devices that are portable. Transistors used in flash memory for data storage
remain current even if the power has been switched off.

Registers: Registers are small, quick memory units found on the CPU. They can temporarily store data
during processing, like computation results or the content of certain memory addresses. Although
registers are the quickest type of memory currently accessible, their production costs are also the
highest.

What is CPU (Central Processing Unit) | Computer Basics?

A Central Processing Unit, or CPU, is functionally the most important component of a computer system.
Without a CPU, any computer is more or less non-functional. It is generally referred to as the ‘brain’ of
the computer due to the vast number of functions it performs.

A CPU is essentially a hardware that performs functions related to input and output, processing and
storage of data for a computer system. It is the main control center for all operations that happen in a
computer system.

A CPU can be installed or inserted into a CPU socket. These sockets are usually located on the
motherboard. Further, a CPU is provided with a heat sink. This heat sink helps in absorbing and
dissipating heat. This helps in keeping the CPU cool and functioning smoothly. A CPU performs several
essential features. Some of those features are:

It can perform various types of data processing operations.CPU can store data, instructions, programs,
and intermediate results.
It controls the functions of all the significant parts of a computer.

The central processing unit has three significant parts. And those parts of CPU are:

Storage unit or memory.

Control unit.

ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

The most basic function of a CPU is to act on commands that are programmed into it through the RAM
or the Random Access Memory of the computer system. When the CPU receives an instruction
presented in binary form, the instruction is converted into signals that each part of the processor can
work on. Finally, after the instruction is decoded, it is executed.

In the past, most CPUs had a single processing core. This made them considerably slower. Today, almost
all CPUs work with multiple cores, which makes them more efficient and able to perform a greater
volume of work.

What are the Different Parts of the CPU?

A CPU has various components which are dedicated to performing certain specific functions. The various
components are:

The Storage or the Memory Unit:

As per its name, this unit is dedicated to storing all information and data that is saved on the computer
system. This data is supplied whenever the user needs it. It is also sometimes referred to as the internal
storage unit.

There are also two types of memories in a computer, including primary memory and secondary memory.
Some functions that are performed by the memory unit are:
It is used for storing intermediate results of processing.

It can store all the data and instructions that are required for processing.All inputs and outputs are
transmitted with the help of the main memory.

It helps in storing the final results of processing. This is done before these results are released to an
output device.

The Control Unit:

This part of the CPU is responsible for handling all operations of the system. But does not actually carry
out specific functions related to data processing. This unit uses electrical signals to execute all processes
for the system. It controls the transfer of data, input/output functions and coordinates all internal
working of the hardware.

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU):

As the name indicates, this unit mainly consists of two subsections. The first is the arithmetic section,
and the second is the logic section. The function of the arithmetic section is to perform various
arithmetic operations. Some arithmetic operations that are usually performed include addition, division,
multiplication, and subtraction.

You should note that all complex operations are performed by making repetitive use of the operations
that are mentioned above. The logic section, on the other hand, performs the function of carrying out
logic operations. Some logic operations are comparing, merging, selecting, and matching data.

The Types of CPU

If we look at the market’s current statistics, then it is not difficult to deduce that AMD and Intel
manufacture most CPUs. Both of these manufacturers have built their CPUs. This is not to say that there
are no other types of CPUs in the market. In this section, we will learn just what those different types of
CPUs are.

We have created a list of those different types of CPUs. And that list is mentioned below.

Single Core CPU

This is the oldest type of computer CPUs. These CPUs were used during the 1970s. As the name
indicates, these types of CPUs only have a single core that processes different operations.This means that
the CPU can only process one operation at a time. The CPU continuously switches between different sets
of data streams whenever more than one program is started. This is why this type of CPU is not suitable
for multitasking. This is because this would reduce the quality of performance of the CPU.

It is almost essential to note that these CPUs are primarily dependent on the clock speed. These CPUs
are also used in various devices to the present day. For example, these CPUs are used in modern
smartphones.

Dual-Core CPU

Dual-Core CPUs contain two cores within a single Integrated Circuit (IC). Each core also has its cache and
controller. These controllers and cache are linked together to work as a single unit. This is why these
CPUs can work faster than the single-core processors. These types of CPUs are better at handling
multitasking more efficiently in comparison to single-core processors.

Quad-Core CPU

Quad-Core CPUs come with two dual-core processors present within a single integrated circuit (IC) or
chip. This means that a quad-core processor contains a chip with four independent units, also known as
cores.These cores are capable of reading and executing various instructions provided by the CPU.

The cores can also run multiple instructions at the same time. This increases the overall speed for
programs that are compatible with parallel processing.
Readers might be interested to learn that quad-core CPUs use a technology that allows all the four
independent processing units or cores to run parallelly on a single chip. This integrates the multiple cores
within a single CPU. And it results in higher performance that can be generated without even boosting
the overall clock speed.

Input Devices

Input device enables the user to send data, information, or control signals to a computer. The Central
Processing Unit (CPU) of a computer receives the input and processes it to produce the output.

Keyboard

The keyboard is a basic input device that is used to enter data into a computer or any other electronic
device by pressing keys. It has different sets of keys for letters, numbers, characters, and functions.
Keyboards are connected to a computer through USB or a Bluetooth device for wireless communication.

Types of keyboards: There can be different types of keyboards based on the region and language used.
Some of the common types of keyboards are as follows:

QWERTY Keyboard:

Keyboard

It is the most commonly used keyboard with computers in modern times. It is named after the first six
letters of the top row of buttons and is even popular in countries that do not use Latin-based alphabet. It
is so popular that some people think that it is the only type of keyboard to use with computers as an
input device.
ii) AZERTY Keyboard:

AZERTY keyboard

It is considered the standard French keyboard. It is developed in France as an alternative layout to the
QWERTY layout and is mainly used in France and other European countries. Some countries have
manufactured their own versions of AZERTY.

Its name is derived from the first six letters that appear on the top left row of the keyboard. The Q and W
keys in AZERTY keyboard are interchanged with A and Z keys in QWERTY keyboard. Furthermore, in
AZERTY keyboard M key is located to the left of the L key.

AZERTY keyboard differs from QWERTY keyboard not only in the placement of letters but also in many
other ways, e.g., it gives emphasis on accents, which is required for writing European languages like
French.

DVORAK Keyboard:
DVORAK keyboard

This type of keyboard layout was developed to increase the typing speed by reducing the finger
movement while typing. The most frequently used letters are kept in a home row to improve typing.

Mouse

The mouse is a hand-held input device which is used to move cursor or pointer across the screen. It is
designed to be used on a flat surface and generally has left and right button and a scroll wheel between
them. Laptop computers come with a touchpad that works as a mouse. It lets you control the movement
of cursor or pointer by moving your finger over the touchpad. Some mouse comes with integrated
features such as extra buttons to perform different buttons.

The mouse was invented by Douglas C. Engelbart in 1963. Early mouse had a roller ball integrated as a
movement sensor underneath the device. Modern mouse devices come with optical technology that
controls cursor movements by a visible or invisible light beam. A mouse is connected to a computer
through different ports depending on the type of computer and type of a mouse.

Common types of the mouse:

i) Trackball Mouse:
Trackball mouse

It is a stationary input device that has ball mechanism to move the pointer or cursor on the screen. The
ball is half inserted in the device and can be easily rolled with finger, thumb or the palm to move the
pointer on the screen. The device has sensor to detect the rotation of ball. It remains stationary; you
don’t need to move it on the operating surface. So, it is an ideal device if you have limited desk space as
you don’t need to move it like a mouse.

Mechanical Mouse:

It has a system of a ball and several rollers to track its movement. It is a

corded type of mouse. A mechanical mouse can be used for high
performance. The drawback is that they tend to get dust into the mechanics
and thus require regular cleaning.

Optical Mouse:
An optical mouse uses optical electronics to track its movement. It is more
reliable than a mechanical mouse and also requires less maintenance.
However, its performance is affected by the surface on which it is operated.
Plain non-glossy mouse mat should be used for best results. The rough
surface may cause problems for the optical recognition system, and the
glossy surface may reflect the light wrongly and thus may cause tracking
issues.

iv) Cordless or Wireless Mouse:

As the name suggests, this type of mouse lacks cable and uses wireless
technology such as IrDA (infrared) or radio (Bluetooth or Wi-Fi) to control
the movement of the cursor. It is used to improve the experience of using a
mouse. It uses batteries for its power supply

Scanner
The scanner uses the pictures and pages of text as input. It scans the
picture or a document. The scanned picture or document then converted into
a digital format or file and is displayed on the screen as an output. It uses
optical character recognition techniques to convert images into digital ones.
Some of the common types of scanners are as follows:

Types of Scanner:

i) Flatbed Scanner:

It has a glass pane and a moving optical CIS or CCD array. The light
illuminates the pane, and then the image is placed on the glass pane. The
light moves across the glass pane and scans the document and thus
produces its digital copy. You will need a transparency adapter while
scanning transparent slides

Handheld Scanner:
It is a small manual scanning device which is held by hand and is rolled over
a flat image that is to be scanned. The drawback in using this device is that
the hand should be steady while scanning; otherwise, it may distort the
image. One of the commonly used handheld scanners is the barcode scanner
which you would have seen in shopping stores.

iii) Sheetfed Scanner:

In this scanner, the document is inserted into the slot provided in the
scanner. The main components of this scanner include the sheet-feeder,
scanning module, and calibration sheet. The light does not move in this
scanner. Instead, the document moves through the scanner. It is suitable for
scanning single page documents, not for thick like books, magazines, etc.It
is suitable for scanning single page documents, not for thick objects like
books, magazines, etc.

Drum Scanner:

Drum scanner has a photomultiplier tube (PMT) to scan images. It does not
have a charge-coupled device like a flatbed scanner. The photomultiplier
tube is extremely sensitive to light. The image is placed on a glass tube, and
the light moves across the image, which produces a reflection of the image
which is captured by the PMT and processed. These scanners have high
resolution and are suitable for detailed scans.

v) Photo Scanner:

It is designed to scan photographs. It has high resolution and color depth,

which are required for scanning photographs. Some photo scanners come
with in-built software for cleaning and restoring old photographs.

Output Devices

The output device displays the result of the processing of raw data that is
entered in the computer through an input device. There are a number of
output devices that display output in different ways such as text, images,
hard copies, and audio or video. They bridge the gap between digital data
and human perception, letting users engage with computer-generated
information. Understanding the many forms of output devices and their
importance in computing is essential for making informed decisions while
selecting the right devices for certain applications.

Monitor
The monitor is the display unit or screen of the computer. It is the main
output device that displays the processed data or information as text,
images, audio or video.

The types of monitors are given below.

i) CRT Monitor

CRT monitors are based on the cathode ray tubes. They are like vacuum
tubes which produce images in the form of video signals. Cathode rays tube
produces a beam of electrons through electron guns that strike on the inner
phosphorescent surface of the screen to produce images on the screen. The
monitor contains millions of phosphorus dots of red, green and blue color.
These dots start to glow when struck by electron beams and this
phenomenon is called cathodoluminescence.

The main components of a CRT monitor include the electron gun assembly,
deflection plate assembly, fluorescent screen, glass envelope, and base.The
front (outer surface) of the screen onto which images are produced is called
the face plate. It is made up of fiber optics.

There are three electron beams that strike the screen: red, green, and blue.
So, the colors which you see on the screen are the blends of red, blue and
green lights.The magnetic field guides the beams of electrons. Although
LCDs have replaced the CRT monitors, the CRT monitors are still used by
graphics professionals because of their color quality.
LCD Monitor

The LCD monitor is a flat panel screen that is compact and light-weight as
compared to CRT monitors. It is based on liquid crystal display technology
which is used in the screens of laptops, tablets, smart phones, etc. An LCD
screen comprises two layers of polarized glass with a liquid crystal solution
between them. When the light passes through the first layer, an electric
current aligns the liquids crystals. The aligned liquid crystals allow a varying
level of light to pass through the second layer to create images on the
screen.

The LCD screen has a matrix of pixels that display the image on the
screen.Old LCDs had passive-matrix screens in which individual pixels are
controlled by sending a charge. A few electrical charges could be sent each
second that made screens appear blurry when the images moved quickly on
the screen.

Modern LCDs use active-matrix technology and contain thin film transistors
(TFTs) with capacitors. This technology allows pixels to retain their charge.
So, they don?t make screen blurry when images move fast on the screen as
well as are more efficient than passive-matrix displays.
LED monitor

The LED monitor is an improved version of an LCD monitor. It also has a flat
panel display and uses liquid crystal display technology like the LCD
monitors. The difference between them lies in the source of light to backlight
the display. The LED monitor has many LED panels, and each panel has
several LEDsto backlight the display, whereas the LCD monitors use cold
cathode fluorescent light to backlight the display.Modern electronic devices
such as mobile phones, LED TVs, laptop and computer screens, etc., use a
LED display as it not only produces more brilliance and greater light intensity
but also consumes less power.

iv) Plasma Monitor

The plasma monitor is also a flat panel display that is based on plasma
display technology. It has small tiny cells between two glass panels. These
cells contain mixtures of noble gases and a small amount of mercury. When
voltage is applied, the gas in the cells turns into a plasma and emits
ultraviolet light that creates images on the screen, i.e., the screen is
illuminated by a tiny bit of plasma, a charged gas. Plasma displays are
brighter than liquid crystal displays (LCD) and also offer a wide viewing
angle than an LCD.

Plasma monitors provide high resolutions of up to 1920 X 1080, excellent

contrast ratios, wide viewing angle, a high refresh rate and more. Thus, they
offer a unique viewing experience while watching action movies, sports
games, and more.

Applications of Monitor
o Personal Computing: Monitors are commonly used in personal computers for

everyday operations such as online surfing, document editing, video viewing,

and gameplay.

o Workstations: Monitors are necessary in professional settings such as

workplaces since they serve as the primary display for employees'

workstations. Users may view and edit documents, spreadsheets,
presentations, and other work-related apps with them.

o Design and Multimedia: Graphic designers, video editors, and other

multimedia workers rely on monitors. High-resolution monitors with precise

color reproduction are utilized to develop and edit visual material.

o Gaming: Gaming monitors give immersive experiences with high refresh rates

and short reaction times. Gamers use monitors to display fast-paced action,
colorful images, and fluid gameplay.

o Education: Monitors are used in educational institutions, such as schools and

universities, to facilitate learning. They display educational content,

multimedia presentations, interactive learning materials, etc.
Printer
o Impact Printers

o Character Printers

o Dot Matrix printers

o Daisy Wheel printers

o Line printers

o Drum printers

o Chain printers

o Non-impact printers

o Laser printers

o Inkjet printers

A printer produces hard copies of the processed data. It enables the user, to
print images, text or any other information onto the paper. Users can pick
from various printer types, such as inkjet, laser, or dot matrix, to meet their
printing demands. Printers enable the generation of tangible copies for
record-keeping, presentations, marketing materials, and other purposes,
from household to professional settings. Printers are essential for personal
and commercial use due to their simplicity and adaptability.

Based on the printing mechanism, the printers are of two types: Impact
Printers and Non-impact Printers.

o Impact Printers: They are of two types:

A. Character Printers

i. Dot Matrix printers

ii. Daisy Wheel printers

B. Line printers

i. Drum printers

ii. Chain printers

o Non-impact printers: They are of two types:

 A. Laser printers

B. Inkjet printers

Impact Printer
The impact printer uses a hammer or print head to print the character or
images onto the paper. The hammer or print head strikes or presses an ink
ribbon against the paper to print characters and images.

Impact printers are further divided into two types.

A. Character Printers

B. Line printers

A) Character Printers

Character printer prints a single character at a time or with a single stroke of

the print head or hammer. It does not print one line at a time. Dot Matrix
printer and Daisy Wheel printer are character printers. Today, these printers
are not in much use due to their low speed and because only the text can be
printed. The character printers are of two types, which are as follows:

i) Dot Matrix Printer

Dot Matrix Printer is an impact printer. The characters and images printed by
it are the patterns of dots. These patterns are produced by striking the ink
soaked ribbon against the paper with a print head. The print head contains
pins that produce a pattern of dots on the paper to form the individual
characters. The print head of a 24 pin dot matrix contains more pins than a
9 pin dot matrix printer, so it produces more dots which results in better
printing of characters. To produce color output, the black ribbon can be
changed with color stripes. The speed of Dot Matrix printers is around 200-
500 characters per second.

Daisy Wheel Printer

Daisy Wheel Printer was invented by David S. Lee at Diablo Data Systems.It
consists of a wheel or disk that has spokes or extensions and looks like a
daisy, so it is named Daisy Wheel printer. At the end of extensions, molded
metal characters are mounted. To print a character the printer rotates the
wheel, and when the desired character is on the print location the hammer
hits disk and the extension hits the ink ribbon against the paper to create
the impression. It cannot be used to print graphics and is often noisy and
slow, i.e., the speed is very low around 25-50 characters per second. Due to
these drawbacks,these printers have become obsolete.

B) Line Printers:

Line printer, which is also as a bar printer, prints one line at a time. It is a
high-speed impact printer as it can print 500 to 3000 lines per minute. Drum
printer and chain printer are examples of line printers.

i) Drum Printer:
Drum printer is a line printer that is made of a rotating drum to print
characters. The drum has circular bands of characters on its surface. It has a
separate hammer for each band of characters. When you print, the drum
rotates, and when the desired character comes under the hammer, the
hammer strikes the ink ribbon against the paper to print characters. The
drum rotates at a very high speed and characters are printed by activating
the appropriate hammers. Although all the characters are not printed at a
time, they are printed at a very high speed. Furthermore, it can print only a
predefined style as it has a specific set of characters. These printers are
known to be very noisy due to the use of hammering techniques

Chain Printer:
Chain printer is a line printer that uses a rotating chain to print characters.
The characters are embossed on the surface of the chain. The chain rotates
horizontally around a set of hammers, for each print location one hammer is
provided, i.e., the total number of hammers is equal to the total number of
print positions.

The chain rotates at a very high speed and when the desired character
comes at the print location, the corresponding hammer strikes the page
against the ribbon and character on the chain.They can type 500 to 3000
lines per minute. They are also noisy due to the hammering action.

Non-Impact Printer:
Non-impact printers don't print characters or images by striking a print head
or hammer on the ink ribbon placed against the paper. They print characters
and images without direct physical contact between the paper and the
printing machinery. These printers can print a complete page at a time, so
they are also known as page printers. The common types of non-impact
printers are Laser printer and Inkjet printer:
i) Laser Printer:

A laser printer is a non-impact printer that uses a laser beam to print the
characters. The laser beam hits the drum, which is a photoreceptor and
draws the image on the drum by altering electrical charges on the drum. The
drum then rolls in toner, and the charged image on the drum picks the
toner. The toner is then printed on the paper using heat and pressure. Once
the document is printed, the drum loses the electric charge,and the
remaining toner is collected. The laser printers use powdered toner for
printing instead of liquid ink and produce quality print objects with a
resolution of 600 dots per inch (dpi) or more.

Inkjet Printer:

The inkjet printer is a non-impact printer that prints images and characters
by spraying fine,ionized drops of ink. The print head has tiny nozzles to
spray the ink. The printer head moves back and forth and sprays ionized
drops of ink on the paper, which is fed through the printer. These drops pass
through an electric field that guides the ink onto the paper to print correct
images and characters.
An inkjet printer has cartridges that contain ink. Modern inkjet printers are
color printers that have four cartridges containing different colors: Cyan,
Magenta, Yellow, and Black. It is capable of printing high-quality images with
different colors. It can produce print objects with a resolution of at least 300
dots per inch (dpi).

Applications of Printer
o Personal and Home Use: Printers are frequently used in homes to print papers,

pictures, and other personal stuff. Individuals can use them to make tangible
copies of vital information or photographs for personal use.

o Offices and enterprises: Printers are required in offices and enterprises. They

print commercial enterprise papers, reports, contracts, invoices, and

documents. Employees can utilize printers to create physical copies of crucial
information, which aids in communication and record-keeping.

o Education: Students and teachers utilize printers at educational institutions

such as schools and universities. They are used to print assignments,

worksheets, study materials, project reports, and educational tools.

o Printing and Publishing: Printers are critical in the publishing and printing

industries. They're used on a massive scale to print publications, including

newspapers, brochures, flyers, and other published goods.

o Advertising and Marketing: Printers are employed in the advertising and

marketing industry to create promotional materials such as posters, banners,

flyers, business cards, and product labels.

Introduction to Operating Systems

A computer system has many resources (hardware and software),
which may be required to complete a task. The commonly required
resources are input/output devices, memory, file storage space, CPU,
etc. The operating system acts as a manager of the above resources
and allocates them to specific programs and users, whenever
necessary to perform a particular task. Therefore the operating system
is the resource manager i.e. it can manage the resource of a computer
system internally. The resources are processor, memory, files, and I/O
devices. In simple terms, an operating system is an interface
between the computer user and the machine.

It is very important for you that every computer must have an

operating system in order to run other programs. The operating
system mainly coordinates the use of the hardware among the various
system programs and application programs for various users.

An operating system acts similarly like government means an

operating system performs no useful function by itself; though it
provides an environment within which other programs can do
useful work.

Below we have an abstract view of the components of the computer

system:
In the above picture:

 The Computer Hardware contains a central processing

unit(CPU), the memory, and the input/output (I/O) devices and it
provides the basic computing resources for the system.

 The Application programs like spreadsheets, Web browsers,

word processors, etc. are used to define the ways in which
these resources are used to solve the computing problems of the
users. And the System program mainly consists of compilers,
loaders, editors, OS, etc.

 The Operating System is mainly used to control the hardware

and coordinate its use among the various application programs
for the different users.

 Basically, Computer System mainly consists of hardware,

software, and data.
OS is mainly designed in order to serve two basic purposes:

1. The operating system mainly controls the allocation and use of

the computing System’s resources among the various user and
tasks.

2. It mainly provides an interface between the computer hardware

and the programmer that simplifies and makes feasible for
coding, creation of application programs and debugging

Pandas

SASS/SCSS

JavaScript

Spring Boot
 HTML 5 References

Docker

Python Built-in Functions

Kotlin

C++ Programs

Java Examples

Java 8

Tkinter

Elasticsearch

GIT Guide

Linux Guide

Matplotlib

Java 9

Java Wrapper Classes

Index

Explore:

Tutorials Library

MCQ Tests

Curious?

Learn Coding!

 INTRODUCTION TO OS

o Introduction to Operating System

 o Evolution of Operating System

o Types of Operating System

 PROCESS & MULTITHREADING

o Operating System Processes

o Process Scheduling

o CPU Scheduling

o First Come First Serve

o Shortest Job First

o Priority Scheduling

o Round Robin Scheduling

o Multilevel Queue Scheduling

o Multilevel Feedback Queue Scheduling

o Comparision of Scheduling Algorithms

o Introduction to Threads

o Process Synchronization

o Classical Synchronization Problems

o Bounded Buffer Problem

o Dining Philosophers Problem

o Readers Writer Problem

o Semaphores in OS
 o Deadlocks

o Classical Problems of Synchronization

o Deadlock Prevention in OS

o Deadlock Avoidance in OS

o Deadlock Detection and Recovery

 CPU SCHEDULING

o HRRN Scheduling

o Shortest Remaining Time First

o Longest Job First Scheduling

o Longest Remaining Time First Scheduling

 MEMORY MANAGEMENT

o Partition Allocation Methods

o Memory Management

o Virtual Memory

o File System

o Banker's Algorithm

o Secondary Storage

o Resource Allocation Graph

o System Calls

o Memory Management
 o Logical and Physical Address

o Swapping in OS

o Contiguous Memory Allocation

o Paging in OS

o Page Table in OS

o Segmentation in OS

o Paging Vs Segmentation

o Contiguous Vs Non-Contiguous

o Paging Vs Swapping

o Internal Vs External Fragmentation

o Virtual Memory in OS

o Demand Paging in OS

o Copy on Write in OS

o Page Fault in OS

o Page Replacement Algorithm

o Thrashing in OS

Introduction to Operating Systems

A computer system has many resources (hardware and software), which may be required
to complete a task. The commonly required resources are input/output devices,
memory, file storage space, CPU, etc. The operating system acts as a manager of the
above resources and allocates them to specific programs and users, whenever necessary
to perform a particular task. Therefore the operating system is the resource manager i.e.
it can manage the resource of a computer system internally. The resources are
processor, memory, files, and I/O devices. In simple terms, an operating system is an
interface between the computer user and the machine.

It is very important for you that every computer must have an operating system in order
to run other programs. The operating system mainly coordinates the use of the
hardware among the various system programs and application programs for various
users.

An operating system acts similarly like government means an operating

system performs no useful function by itself; though it provides an environment
within which other programs can do useful work.

Below we have an abstract view of the components of the computer system:

In the above picture:

 The Computer Hardware contains a central processing unit(CPU), the memory,

and the input/output (I/O) devices and it provides the basic computing resources
for the system.

 The Application programs like spreadsheets, Web browsers, word

processors, etc. are used to define the ways in which these resources are used to
 solve the computing problems of the users. And the System program mainly
consists of compilers, loaders, editors, OS, etc.

 The Operating System is mainly used to control the hardware and coordinate its
use among the various application programs for the different users.

 Basically, Computer System mainly consists of hardware, software, and data.

OS is mainly designed in order to serve two basic purposes:

1. The operating system mainly controls the allocation and use of the computing
System’s resources among the various user and tasks.

2. It mainly provides an interface between the computer hardware and the

programmer that simplifies and makes feasible for coding, creation of application
programs and debugging

Two Views of Operating System

1. User's View

2. System View

Operating System: User View

The user view of the computer refers to the interface being used. Such systems are
designed for one user to monopolize its resources, to maximize the work that the user is
performing. In these cases, the operating system is designed mostly for ease of use, with
some attention paid to performance, and none paid to resource utilization.

Operating System: System View

The operating system can be viewed as a resource allocator also. A computer system
consists of many resources like - hardware and software - that must be managed
efficiently. The operating system acts as the manager of the resources, decides between
conflicting requests, controls the execution of programs, etc.
Operating System Management Tasks

1. Process management which involves putting the tasks into order and pairing
them into manageable size before they go to the CPU.

2. Memory management which coordinates data to and from RAM (random-

access memory) and determines the necessity for virtual memory.

3. Device management provides an interface between connected devices.

4. Storage management which directs permanent data storage.

5. An application that allows standard communication between software and your

computer.

6. The user interface allows you to communicate with your computer.

Types of Operating System

Given below are different types of Operating System:

1. Simple Batch System

2. Multiprogramming Batch System

3. Multiprocessor System

4. Desktop System

5. Distributed Operating System

6. Clustered System

7. Realtime Operating System

8. Handheld System
Functions of Operating System

1. It boots the computer

2. It performs basic computer tasks e.g. managing the various

peripheral devices e.g. mouse, keyboard

3. It provides a user interface, e.g. command line, graphical user

interface (GUI)

4. It handles system resources such as the computer's memory and

sharing of the central processing unit(CPU) time by various
applications or peripheral devices.

5. It provides file management which refers to the way that the

operating system manipulates, stores, retrieves, and saves data.

6. Error Handling is done by the operating system. It takes

preventive measures whenever required to avoid errors.

Types of Operating System

Given below are different types of Operating System:

1. Simple Batch System

2. Multiprogramming Batch System

3. Multiprocessor System

4. Desktop System

5. Distributed Operating System

6. Clustered System
 7. Realtime Operating System

8. Handheld System

Functions of Operating System

1. It boots the computer

2. It performs basic computer tasks e.g. managing the various

peripheral devices e.g. mouse, keyboard

3. It provides a user interface, e.g. command line, graphical user

interface (GUI)

4. It handles system resources such as the computer's memory and

sharing of the central processing unit(CPU) time by various
applications or peripheral devices.

5. It provides file management which refers to the way that the

operating system manipulates, stores, retrieves, and saves data.

6. Error Handling is done by the operating system. It takes

preventive measures whenever required to avoid errors.
 Pandas

SASS/SCSS

JavaScript

Spring Boot

HTML 5 References

Docker

Python Built-in Functions

Kotlin

C++ Programs

Java Examples

Java 8

Tkinter

Elasticsearch

GIT Guide

Linux Guide

Matplotlib

Java 9

Java Wrapper Classes

Index

Explore:

Tutorials Library
MCQ Tests

Curious?

Learn Coding!

 INTRODUCTION TO OS

o Introduction to Operating System

o Evolution of Operating System

o Types of Operating System

 PROCESS & MULTITHREADING

o Operating System Processes

o Process Scheduling

o CPU Scheduling

o First Come First Serve

o Shortest Job First

o Priority Scheduling

o Round Robin Scheduling

o Multilevel Queue Scheduling

o Multilevel Feedback Queue Scheduling

 o Comparision of Scheduling Algorithms

o Introduction to Threads

o Process Synchronization

o Classical Synchronization Problems

o Bounded Buffer Problem

o Dining Philosophers Problem

o Readers Writer Problem

o Semaphores in OS

o Deadlocks

o Classical Problems of Synchronization

o Deadlock Prevention in OS

o Deadlock Avoidance in OS

o Deadlock Detection and Recovery

 CPU SCHEDULING

o HRRN Scheduling

o Shortest Remaining Time First

o Longest Job First Scheduling

o Longest Remaining Time First Scheduling

 MEMORY MANAGEMENT

o Partition Allocation Methods

o Memory Management

o Virtual Memory

o File System

o Banker's Algorithm

o Secondary Storage

o Resource Allocation Graph

o System Calls

o Memory Management

o Logical and Physical Address

o Swapping in OS

o Contiguous Memory Allocation

o Paging in OS

o Page Table in OS

o Segmentation in OS

o Paging Vs Segmentation

o Contiguous Vs Non-Contiguous

o Paging Vs Swapping

o Internal Vs External Fragmentation

o Virtual Memory in OS

o Demand Paging in OS
 o Copy on Write in OS

o Page Fault in OS

o Page Replacement Algorithm

o Thrashing in OS

Introduction to Operating Systems

A computer system has many resources (hardware and software), which may be required
to complete a task. The commonly required resources are input/output devices,
memory, file storage space, CPU, etc. The operating system acts as a manager of the
above resources and allocates them to specific programs and users, whenever necessary
to perform a particular task. Therefore the operating system is the resource manager i.e.
it can manage the resource of a computer system internally. The resources are
processor, memory, files, and I/O devices. In simple terms, an operating system is an
interface between the computer user and the machine.

It is very important for you that every computer must have an operating system in order
to run other programs. The operating system mainly coordinates the use of the
hardware among the various system programs and application programs for various
users.

An operating system acts similarly like government means an operating

system performs no useful function by itself; though it provides an environment
within which other programs can do useful work.

Below we have an abstract view of the components of the computer system:

In the above picture:

 The Computer Hardware contains a central processing unit(CPU), the memory,

and the input/output (I/O) devices and it provides the basic computing resources
for the system.

 The Application programs like spreadsheets, Web browsers, word

processors, etc. are used to define the ways in which these resources are used to
solve the computing problems of the users. And the System program mainly
consists of compilers, loaders, editors, OS, etc.

 The Operating System is mainly used to control the hardware and coordinate its
use among the various application programs for the different users.

 Basically, Computer System mainly consists of hardware, software, and data.

OS is mainly designed in order to serve two basic purposes:

1. The operating system mainly controls the allocation and use of the computing
System’s resources among the various user and tasks.
 2. It mainly provides an interface between the computer hardware and the
programmer that simplifies and makes feasible for coding, creation of application
programs and debugging

Two Views of Operating System

1. User's View

2. System View

Operating System: User View

The user view of the computer refers to the interface being used. Such systems are
designed for one user to monopolize its resources, to maximize the work that the user is
performing. In these cases, the operating system is designed mostly for ease of use, with
some attention paid to performance, and none paid to resource utilization.

Operating System: System View

The operating system can be viewed as a resource allocator also. A computer system
consists of many resources like - hardware and software - that must be managed
efficiently. The operating system acts as the manager of the resources, decides between
conflicting requests, controls the execution of programs, etc.

Operating System Management Tasks

1. Process management which involves putting the tasks into order and pairing
them into manageable size before they go to the CPU.

2. Memory management which coordinates data to and from RAM (random-

access memory) and determines the necessity for virtual memory.

3. Device management provides an interface between connected devices.

4. Storage management which directs permanent data storage.

5. An application that allows standard communication between software and your

computer.
 6. The user interface allows you to communicate with your computer.

Types of Operating System

Given below are different types of Operating System:

1. Simple Batch System

2. Multiprogramming Batch System

3. Multiprocessor System

4. Desktop System

5. Distributed Operating System

6. Clustered System

7. Realtime Operating System

8. Handheld System

Functions of Operating System

1. It boots the computer

2. It performs basic computer tasks e.g. managing the various peripheral devices
e.g. mouse, keyboard

3. It provides a user interface, e.g. command line, graphical user interface (GUI)

4. It handles system resources such as the computer's memory and sharing of the
central processing unit(CPU) time by various applications or peripheral devices.

5. It provides file management which refers to the way that the operating system
manipulates, stores, retrieves, and saves data.

6. Error Handling is done by the operating system. It takes preventive measures

whenever required to avoid errors.
Advantages of Operating System

Given below are some advantages of the Operating System:

 The operating system helps to improve the efficiency of the work and helps to
save a lot of time by reducing the complexity.

 The different components of a system are independent of each other, thus failure
of one component does not affect the functioning of another.

 The operating system mainly acts as an interface between the hardware and the
software.

 Users can easily access the hardware without writing large programs.

 With the help of an Operating system, sharing data becomes easier with a large
number of users.

 We can easily install any game or application on the Operating system easily and
can run them

 An operating system can be refreshed easily from time to time without having
any problems.

 An operating system can be updated easily.

 There are various operating systems that are accessible in open source. Example:
Unix/Linux these can easily run on the personal computer with no cost that
means Free.

 An operating system is mainly used to hide the complexity of the hardware.

 AN operating system easily manages the computer as programming becomes

easier.

 With the help of an operating system, multitasking becomes easier.

Disadvantages of an Operating system

Given below are the drawbacks of using an operating system:

  Expensive
There are some open-source platforms like Linux. But some operating systems
are expensive. Also, users can use free operating systems but generally, there is a
bit difficulty to run them than others. On the other hand, operating systems like
Microsoft Windows having GUI functionality and other in-built features are very
expensive.

 Virus Threat
Operating Systems are open to virus attacks and sometimes it happens that
many users download the malicious software packages on their system which
pauses the functioning of the Operating system and also slows it down.

 Complexity
Some operating systems are complex in nature because the language used to
establish them is not clear and well defined. If there occurs an issue in the
operating system then the user becomes unable to resolve that issue.

 System Failure
An operating system is the heart of the computer system if due to any reason it
will stop functioning then the whole system will crashes.

Examples of Operating System

 Windows

 Android

 iOS

 Mac OS

 Linux

 Window Phone OS

 Chrome OS
Features of Operating Systems
Here is a list of some important features of operating systems:

1. Provides a platform for running applications

2. Handles memory management and CPU scheduling
3. Provides file system abstraction
4. Provides networking support
5. Provides security features
6. Provides user interface
7. Provides utilities and system services
8. Supports application development
DOS Full Form
DOS stands for Disk Operating System.
DOS basically refers to any kind of operating system but was majorly used for
MS-DOS. DOS provides a command line in which the users can give
instructions in the form of commands.MS-DOS gained much popularity in the
1980s and early 1990s. It was considered a stand-alone operating system.
The early versions of DOS were simple in functioning but then subsequent
versions were made which had additional features.

Characteristics

 Efficient file management – DOS helps in efficient file management.

The file operations such as creation, editing and deletion of files is
easy.
 Correct environment – It provides the user an environment where user
can do input, output and give commands on the command line
efficiently.
 Single user operating system – It can have only one user at a time on
the computer.
 Space – It has a maximum space of 2 GB.
 Specification – It is a 16 bit operating system.

Advantages

 The commands in DOS are easy to remember and use.

  DOS is free of cost and can be installed easily.
 It gives us direct access to the BIOS calls.
 It can run on smaller machines and therefore the booting process is
much faster than other operating systems.
 DOS is very lightweight and it allows access to hardware.
 It does not have the overhead of a multitasking operating system.

Disadvantages

 DOS doesn’t support multitasking.

 It only has 2 GB of space which cannot be extended.
 It can only have a single user at a time.
 It is not compatible with other browsers.
 It doesn’t support networking.
 Automatic IRQ ordering is not supported by the OS.
 Not nearly as fancy in the graphics department.

Examples of DOS commands

Here are some basic commands of DOS –

 DIR – Displays the contents of a directory.

 ERASE – Delete files.
 MOVE – Move files to another directory.
 EDIT – Launches the text editor.
 CLS – Clears the screen

UNIX Full Form

UNIX was earlier known to be UNICS, which stands for UNiplexed
Information Computing System..

UNIX is a popular operating system, first got released in 1969. UNIX is a

multi-tasking, powerful, multi-user, a virtual OS which could be implemented
on a variety of platforms(Eg. Desktops, Laptops, Servers, and mobile devices,
etc).
History
The development of UNIX system got started at Bell Labs by the
scientists, Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie and various others. The first
version of this operating system was written in assembly language, but later
during 1973, Version 4 was written in C language. During the 1990s, the UNIX
system started gaining popularity as the Linux distributions were developed by
several programmers. In 2000, Apple released its own UNIX system, known
as Darwin, which later became MacOS.

The UNIX system basically comprises three components:

 Shell: It acts as an interface between the kernel and the user. The user
has to go under the authentication check before entering into the
shell.
 Program: It can be said that everything inside UNIX is either a file or a
program. A process is a program under execution having unique
PID(program Identifier), used to identify it.
 Kernel: The Kernel is responsible for allocating time and memory to
programs. It also handles file storage and communication while
responding to the system calls.
Syntax:

command option(s) filename(s)

Characteristics of UNIX
Characteristics of UNIX

 Portability: The UNIX system is written in HLL which makes it easier to

understand, modify and transport it to other machines. This feature of
UNIX operating system helps the user to change and compile the
code on a new machine.
 Multi-tasking: UNIX supports more than one process to run at a time
i.e., if a process is running, then other processes can also be run in
the background.
 Pipes and Filters: UNIX contains pipes and filters which help in making
of complex programs from simpler programs.
 Shell :UNIX has a simple interface which helps the user to perform
various functions. The shell hides the intricate hardware details from
the user.
 Extensive Library: The UNIX has a support of extensive library which
makes it a useful and relevant

Advantages of UNIX

 The main advantage of Unix is its portability which helps the user to run
the program on different machines.
 UNIX makes minimum use of physical memory usage while running the
various tasks flawlessly.
 UNIX is capable to perform complex tasks with the minimal load and
efficiently.
 It supports Hierarchical File system which helps for easy maintenance
and efficiency.
 UNIX system is secure due to its strong server validation and
authentication.

Disadvantages of UNIX

 UNIX operating system is command line based which increases the

difficulty for the casual users to use it. It is meant for expert
programmers who know command line commands very well.
 Documentation of various UNIX tools is hard to find.
 The commands used are cryptic, makes use of special characters which
makes it difficult for new users to handle
What is Windows?

Windows is a graphical operating system developed by Microsoft. It allows

users to view and store files, run the software, play games, watch videos,
and provides a way to connect to the internet. It was released for both home
computing and professional works.

Microsoft introduced the first version as 1.0

It was released for both home computing and professional functions of

Windows on 10 November 1983. Later, it was released on many versions of
Windows as well as the current version, Windows 10.

History of Java

In 1993, the first business-oriented version of Windows was released, which

is known as Windows NT 3.1. Then it introduced the next versions, Windows
3.5, 4/0, and Windows 2000. When the XP Windows was released by Microsoft
in 2001, the company designed its various versions for a personal and
business environment. It was designed based on standard x86 hardware,
like Intel and AMD processor. Accordingly, it can run on different brands of
hardware, such as HP, Dell, and Sony computers, including home-built PCs.

History of Microsoft Windows

Since 1983, Microsoft is producing Windows. The founder of Microsoft 'Bill
Gates' announced for Microsoft Windows on 10 November 1983 and released
the first version of Windows in 1985. The following table contains history of
Windows from edition 1 to 10.
Features of Windows
Microsoft Windows includes a lot of features to help users. Some of its
excellent features are as follows:

1. Control Panel: Windows provides a Control Panel feature that includes many

tools to configure and manage the resources on their computer. For example,
users can change settings for audio, video, printers, mouse, keyboard,
network connections, date and time, power saving options, user accounts,
installed applications, etc.

2. Cortana: Windows 10 introduced a feature named Cortana, which is able to

accept voice commands. It can perform various tasks such as it can answers
your questions, search data on your computer, online purchases, set
 reminders, and appointments, etc. Furthermore, it acts like other voice-
activated services such as Google Assistant, Alexa, or Siri, including one
more benefit of searching the information on your computer. To open the
Cortana in Windows 10, press Window key + S.

3. File Explorer: It is also known as Windows Explorer, which displays your files

and folders on the computer. It allows users to browse the data on the hard
drive, SSD and other inserted removable disks like pen drives and CDs, and
you can manage the content according to the requirements such as delete,
rename, search, and transfer the data.
4. Internet browser: As the internet browser is very important to search for
anything, view pages, online shopping, play games, watch videos, etc.
Windows come with a pre-installed internet browser. in Windows 10, the
Edge internet browser is the default browser. Furthermore, Internet Explorer
was the default browser in Microsoft Windows from the Windows edition 95
to 8.1 version.

5. Microsoft Paint: Since November 1985, Microsoft Windows comes with pre-

installed Microsoft Paint. It is a simple software to create, view, and edit an

image. It offers several tools to draw an image, crop, resize, and save an
 image with a different file extension.

6. Taskbar: Windows comes with a taskbar that displays currently opened

programs, it also allows users to access any specific programs. Additionally, it

includes the notification area on the right side that shows date and time,
battery, network, volume, and other background running applications.

7. Start menu: Microsoft Windows contains a start menu to the left side of the

taskbar. It displays programs and utilities that are installed on the computer.
It can be simply opened by clicking on the Start menu button or pressing the
 start key on the keyboard.

8. Task Manager: Windows includes the task manager feature that provides
detail of the running applications or programs on the computer. You can also
check how much of the system resources, such as RAM, CPU, disk I/O, are
being used by each of the applications.

9. Disk Cleanup: It is used to free up disk space with the help of deleting

temporary or unnecessary files. It also helps to enhance the performance of

the computer, and boost storage space to download the programs and
documents. To open Disk Cleanup, follow the below steps:
 1. Open the File Explorer by pressing Window + E.

2. Then, right-click on any disk drive and select Properties option from
the drop-down list.

3. Now, click on the Disk Cleanup.

Introduction to Programming Languages

Introduction:
A programming language is a set of instructions and syntax used to create
software programs. Some of the key features of programming languages
include:

1. Syntax: The specific rules and structure used to write code in a

programming language.
2. Data Types: The type of values that can be stored in a program, such
as numbers, strings, and booleans.
3. Variables: Named memory locations that can store values.
4. Operators: Symbols used to perform operations on values, such as
addition, subtraction, and comparison.
5. Control Structures: Statements used to control the flow of a
program, such as if-else statements, loops, and function calls.
6. Libraries and Frameworks: Collections of pre-written code that can
be used to perform common tasks and speed up development.
7. Paradigms: The programming style or philosophy used in the
language, such as procedural, object-oriented, or functional.
Examples of popular programming languages include Python, Java, C++,
JavaScript, and Ruby. Each language has its own strengths and weaknesses
and is suited for different types of projects.

A programming language is a formal language that specifies a set of

instructions for a computer to perform specific tasks. It’s used to write
software programs and applications, and to control and manipulate computer
systems. There are many different programming languages, each with its own
syntax, structure, and set of commands. Some of the most commonly used
programming languages include Java, Python, C++, JavaScript, and C#. The
choice of programming language depends on the specific requirements of a
project, including the platform being used, the intended audience, and the
desired outcome. Programming languages continue to evolve and change
over time, with new languages being developed and older ones being updated
to meet changing needs.

machine language, or low level language. So after knowing the basics, we are
ready to create a very simple and basic program. Like we have different
languages to communicate with each other, likewise, we have different
languages like C, C++, C#, Java, python, etc to communicate with the
computers. The computer only understands binary language (the language of
0’s and 1’s) also called machine-understandable language or low-level
language but the programs we are going to write are in a high-level language
which is almost similar to human language.
The piece of code given below performs a basic task of printing “hello world! I
am learning programming” on the console screen. We must know that
keyboard, scanner, mouse, microphone, etc are various examples of input
devices, and monitor(console screen), printer, speaker, etc are examples of
output devices.
main()
{
clrscr();
printf(“hello world! I am learning to program");
getch();
}
At this stage, you might not be able to understand in-depth how this code
prints something on the screen. The main() is a standard function that you will
always include in any program that you are going to create from now onwards.
Note that the execution of the program starts from the main() function. The
clrscr() function is used to see only the current output on the screen while the
printf() function helps us to print the desired output on the screen. Also,
getch() is a function that accepts any character input from the keyboard. In
simple words, we need to press any key to continue(some people may say
that getch() helps in holding the screen to see the output).
C Python C++

C# R Ruby

COBOL ADA Java

Fortran BASIC Altair BASIC

Visual BASIC
True BASIC GW BASIC

QBASIC PureBASIC PASCAL

Turbo Pascal GO ALGOL

Swift
LISP SCALA

Rust Prolog Reia

Racket Scheme Simula

Perl PHP Java Script

CoffeeScript VisualFoxPro Babel

Logo Lua
Smalltalk

Matlab F F#

Dart Datalog dbase

Haskell dylan Julia

ksh metro Mumps

Nim OCaml pick

TCL D CPL

Curry ActionScript Erlang

Clojure DarkBASCIC Assembly

Most Popular Programming Languages –

C
  Python
 C++
 Java
 SCALA
 C#
R
 Ruby
 Go
 Swift

Basic Terminologies in Programming Languages:

 Algorithm: A step-by-step procedure for solving a problem or performing

a task.
 Variable: A named storage location in memory that holds a value or
data.
 Data Type: A classification that specifies what type of data a variable
can hold, such as integer, string, or boolean.
 Function: A self-contained block of code that performs a specific task
and can be called from other parts of the program.
 Control Flow: The order in which statements are executed in a program,
including loops and conditional statements.
 Syntax: The set of rules that govern the structure and format of a
programming language.
 Comment: A piece of text in a program that is ignored by the compiler or
interpreter, used to add notes or explanations to the code.
 is ignored by the compiler or interpreter, used to add notes or
explanations to the code.
 Debugging: The process of finding and fixing errors or bugs in a
program.
 IDE: Integrated Development Environment, a software application that
provides a comprehensive development environment for coding,
debugging, and testing.
 Operator: A symbol or keyword that represents an action or operation to
be performed on one or more values or variables, such as + (addition),
– (subtraction), * (multiplication), and / (division).
 Statement: A single line or instruction in a program that performs a
specific action or operation.
Basic Example Of Most Popular Programming Languages:
Here the basic code for addition of two numbers are given in some popular
languages (like C, C++,Java, Python, C#, JavaScript etc.).

C++
// C++ program for sum of 2 numbers
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

int main()
{
int a, b, sum;
a = 10;
b = 15;
sum = a + b;
cout << "Sum of " << a << " and " << b
<< " is: " << sum; // perform addition operation
return 0;
}
// This code is contributed by Susobhan Akhuli
C
Python3
Java
C#
Javascript
PHP
Scala
HTML
Cobol
Dart
 Go
Julia
Kotlin
Perl
Swift
Output
Sum of 10 and 15 is: 25
Advantages of programming languages:

1. Increased Productivity: Programming languages provide a set of

abstractions that allow developers to write code more quickly and
efficiently.
2. Portability: Programs written in a high-level programming language
can run on many different operating systems and platforms.
3. Readability: Well-designed programming languages can make code
more readable and easier to understand for both the original author
and other developers.
4. Large Community: Many programming languages have large
communities of users and developers, which can provide support,
libraries, and tools.

Disadvantages of programming languages:

1. Complexity: Some programming languages can be complex and

difficult to learn, especially for beginners.
2. Performance: Programs written in high-level programming languages
can run slower than programs written in lower-level languages.
3. Limited Functionality: Some programming languages may not have
built-in support for certain types of tasks or may require additional
libraries to perform certain functions.
4. Fragmentation: There are many different programming languages,
which can lead to fragmentation and make it difficult to share code
and collaborate with other developers.