INSTRUCTIONAL

MATERIAL in
Construction
Estimates

Prepared by:

Erwin B. Lumilan
Arch. Razel B. Tacay

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 The very fast pace in the development of science and technology has
remarkably changed the role of the teacher as traditional dispenser of information
to that of a facilitator of the teaching-learning process bringing about a
revolutionized delivery system of educational institutions like the Isabela State
University. Hence, the development of innovative instructional materials.

Instructional materials are those items used in aid of instruction for efficient
and effective delivery of the teaching – learning process. These include books,
manuals, modules and other materials such as educational multimedia projects,
lecture guides, handouts, syllabi, musical and dramatic compositions, scripts, films
and power point slides.

POLICY

The Instructional Material Development Committee (IMDC) shall support

the professional growth of teachers and staff to develop and produce multi-media
learning resources that will contribute to the transformation of the youth into
competent, innovative, and technology-literate citizens.

GOALS

The Instructional Material Development Committee seeks to provide an

alternative and innovative delivery system that will produce relevant and state-of-the-
art instructional materials for student and faculty consumption.

The Instructional Material Development Committee (IMDC) aims to:

1. formulate policies and guidelines on the review,
patenting, and circulation of teacher-made instructional materials;
2. initiate trainings to hone faculty and students in courseware development and
instructional material production;
3. coordinate with the university administrators the proper implementation of IMDC
programs and efficient utilization of the IMDC’s learning resources;

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 4. evaluate, recommend and approve various instructional materials;
5. recommend the publication of instructional materials;
6. provide copies of produced instructional materials to the library, and
7. conduct researches n courseware development, acceptability of instructional
materials, etc.

ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY

City of Ilagan campus
City of Ilagan 3300 Isabela Philippines

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION

CERTIFICATION

THIS IS TO CERTIFY that this Instructional Material entitled CONSTRUCTION

ESTIMATE, was reviewed examined, and found adherent to the Instructional Material
Development Standards and is now ready for use.

JAIMEE M. SALADINO, MAIE __________________

Chair, BTVTED Program Date

ALLEN A. ALEJANDRO, MTE __________________

Subject Specialist Date

MICHELLLE G. QUIJANO, Ph.D. __________________

College Dean Date

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 ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY
Ilagan City Campus
Ilagan, Isabela

MODULE in Construction Estimate

Title of the module: INTRODUCTION TO ESTIMATES

Building construction estimating is the determination of probable construction costs of any given
project. Many items influence and contribute to the cost of a project; each item must be analyzed,
quantified, and priced. Because the estimate is prepared before the actual construction, much study and
thought must be put into the construction documents. The estimator who can visualize the project and
accurately determine its cost will become one of the most important persons in any construction
company.

In this module, you will learn something about the basic information on how to estimate concrete,
lumber, roofing, and other components needed for the building construction.

Learning Content: CHAPTER 1

CONCRETE
Concrete is either Plain or Reinforced. As per definition, Plain concrete is an artificial stone as a result of
mixing cement, fine aggregates, coarse aggregates, and water. The conglomeration of these materials
producing a solid mass is called plain concrete.

Reinforced concrete, on the other hand, is a block of concrete with reinforcement property embedded
in such a manner that the two materials act together in resisting forces.

TYPES OF CONCRETE

1. Ordinary Portland cement.

2. Rapid Hardening Portland Cement which is preferred when high early strength concrete is
desired.
3. Blast Furnace or Sulfate Cement used on concrete structures designed to resist chemical attack.
4. Low Heat Portland Cement is used for massive sections designed to reduce the heat of
hydration.

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 5. Portland Pozzolan Cement with a low hardening characteristic concrete.
6. High Alumina Cement

High Alumina is also called aluminous cement or cement fundu. Its chemical composition is different
from that of Portland cement for having predominant alumina oxide content of at least 32% by weight.
The alumina lime is within the limit of 0.85% to 1.3%.

MAIN COMPOSITION OF CEMENT:

• 1.6 to 65% Lime

• 1.8 to 25% Silica

• 3.0 to 8% Alumina

• 3.0 to 5% Iron Oxide

• 2.0 to 5% Magnesia

• 1.0 to 5% Sulfur Trioxide

AGGREGATES
Classifications:

1. COARSE- such as crushed stones, crushed gravel or natural gravel with particles retained on a 5
mm sieve.
2. FINE- such as crushed stone, crushed gravel, sand or natural sand with particles passing on a 5
mm sieve.

SIZE OF AGGREGATES

COARSE (gravel) – maximum nominal size varies from 40,20, 14, or 10 mm diameter

NOTE: good practice demand maximum size should not exceed 25% of the minimum thickness of the
member structure nor exceed the clear distance between the reinforcing bars and the form.

PRINCIPLES OF CONCRETE MIXING

The purpose is to select the optimum proportion of cement, water, and aggregates to meet the
following requirements:

1. Workability
2. Strength
3. Durability
4. Economy

To attain the desired strength and quality of concrete required under the following procedures:

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 1. Water cement ratio is first determined at the very first hour of mixing to meet the requirements
of strength and durability.
2. Cement-aggregate ratio is chosen and established to satisfy the workability requirements. It
ability to fill all the voids between steel bars and the forms without necessary exerting much
effort in tamping.

ACI REQUIREMENTS FOR CONCRETE

1. Fresh concrete shall be workable. Fresh concrete could freely flow around the reinforcements to
fill all the voids inside the form.
2. Hardened concrete shall be strong enough to carry the design load.
3. Hardened concrete could withstand the conditions to which it is expected to perform.
4. Concrete should be economically produced.

CONCRETE MIXTURE CLASSIFICATION

a. Designed Mixture
 The contractor is responsible for stablishing the mixture proportion that will achieve the
required strength and workability as specified in the plan.

b. Prescribed Mixture
 Designing engineers specify the mixture proportion. The contractors responsibility is only to
prode a properly mixed concrete containing the right proportions as prescribed in the plan.

UNIT OF MEASURE

TABLE 1-1

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For instance:

A) In solving problems, the probability of committing an error is substantially high when several digit
numbers are being used.

EXAMPLE:

1. It is easier to use 0.10 m, the approximate equivalent of 4 inches than 0.1016 exact equivalents, be it
by multiplication or by division processes.

8 ÷ 0.10 = 80 by inspection and analysis

8 ÷ 0.1016 = 78.7 by long process of division

B) To memorize the values given in the table is not a necessary and practical estimate. The simple guide
will be adopted so that one could easily determine the equivalent values from English to Metric or vice
versa.

EXAMPLE:

1. To convert Meter to Feet: Divide by 0.30

 Say: 6.00 ÷ 0.30 m = 20 ft

2. To convert Feet to Meters: Multiply by 0.30

 Say: 30 ft x 0.30 = 0.90 m

3. To convert Inches to meters, just remember the following values:

1 inch 2.5 cm 0.025 m

2 inches 5.0 cm 0.050 m

3 inches 7.5 cm 0.075 m

4 inches 10.0 cm 0.10 m

5 inches 12.5 cm 0.125 m

EXAMPLE:

a) What is the meter length equivalent to 7 inches? By simple analysis, 7 inches could be the sum
of 4 and 3, therefore:

4inches = 0.10 m

3 inches = 0.075 m

Answer = 0.175 m

b) How about 21 inches?

5 x 4 inches = 20 + 1 = 21 inches Since 4 inches = 0.10 m

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 1 inch = 0.025 (multiply)

5 x 0.10 m = 0.50 + 0.025 = 0.525 m

2 WAYS OF CONCRETE PROPORTIONING

1) VOLUME METHOD- the most common and convenient way to use an empty plastic bag of
cement.
2) MEASURING BOX - for sand and gravel and sometimes measuring aggregates and water by
weight is used in a concrete batching plant for ready-mix concrete or as specified in the plan.

Table 1-2

The table above shows a constant mixture for all classes at 0.50 and 1.0 cubic meters respectively.

ORDER SPECIFICATION FOR COARSE AGGREGATE

1) Kind of gravel, either crushed stone or natural gravel from the creek.
2) Minimum and maximum size of the stone must be specified and should be free from mixed
cause sand is cheaper than gravel.
3) Natural gravel from the creek requires screening to obtain a well-graded coarse aggregate.

FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN ACTUAL CONCRETE AD MASONRY WORK

1) Inaccurate volume of delivered aggregates which is very common. The delivery truck should be
measured to check if the volume of aggregates being delivered is exactly as ordered.
2) Dumping aggregates on uneven ground surfaces and grass areas reduces the net volume of
aggregates.

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 3) Improper measuring of the aggregates during the mixing operation. A common practice when
the work is on its momentum where laborers fails to observe the right measuring of aggregates
being delivered to the mixer.
4) Cement and fine aggregates for grouting concrete joints are mostly overlooked in the estimating
processes.
5) Cement waste due to reckless handling and hauling.
6) Pure cement powder used by mason in plastering operations to prevent the plaster from sliding
downward is not considered in estimating.
7) Pilferage of materials that could be avoided with an effective system of construction
management.

CONCRETE SLAB SAMPLE COMPUTATION

A proposed concrete pavement has a general dimension of 10 cm. thick, 3 m wide and 5 m long.
Determine the quality of cement in bags, sand, and gravel in cubic meters required using a class “C”
mixture.

SOLUTION 1:

1) Determine the volume of the proposed concrete pavement.

Volume = thickness x width x length

V = 0.10 x 3.0 x 5.0

V = 1.5 cubic meter

2) Refer to Tables 1-2. Using a 40 kg cement class C mixture; multiply the volume by the
corresponding values:

Cement : 1.5 x 6.0 = 9.0 bags

Sand : 1.5 x 0.50 = 0.75 cu.m

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 Gravel : 1.5 x 1.0 -= 1.5 cu.m

3) Take note that the computation is for a 40 kg cement. Suppose there is no 40 kg cement and
what is available is 50 kg per bag. How many bags will be ordered using the latter

SOLUTION 2:

1) Knowing the volume to be 1.5 cubic meters, refer again to tables 1-2 under 50 kg. cement, using
class “C” mixture; multiply the volume by the corresponding values.

Cement : 1.5 x 5.0 = 7.5 bags

Sand : 1.5 x .50 = 0.75 cu.m

Gravel : 1.5 x 1.0 = 1.5 cu.m

ESTIMATING CONCRETE SLAB BY THE AREA METHOD

TABLE 1-3

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 TABLE 1-4

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POST AND FOOTING

Structurally, the post is always supported by a slab called footing or foundation. Estimating the quantity
of materials for these types of structural could be done by:

1. Volume method

2. Area and Linear Meter Method combined for post and footing.

EXAMPLE:

A concrete post 4.00 m high with cross-sectional dimensions of 40 cm x 40 cm is supported by a footing

slab 20 m thick by 1.2 m square. Using class “A” concrete, find the quantity of cement, sand, and gravel
if there are 12 posts of the same sizes.

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SOLUTION:

A. VOLUME METHOD 1. Find the volume of the 12 posts

Volume = Sectional area x height c no. of post

Volume = 12 post x ( 0.40 x 0.40 ) x 4.00 ht

V = 7.68 cubic meters

1. Solve for the volume of the 12 footing slabs. V = 12 ( 0.20 x 1.20 x 1.20)
V = 3.456 cubic meters

2. Find the total volume. Add 1 and 2 Total Volume = 7.68 + 3.456
V = 11.136 cubic meter

3. Refer to table 1-2 using 40 kg cement class “ A “ concrete , multiply:

Cement : 11.136 x 9.0 = 100.20 bags

Sand : 11.136 x 0.50 = 5.56 cubic meter

Gravel : 11.136 x 1.0 = 11.136 cubic meter

Note: click the link below to watch the video in computing cubic meter by volume method.

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=guGHRcT8pEU&t=43s

B. LINEAR METER AND AREA METHOD

1. Find the total length of 12 posts.

L = 12 posts x 4.00 m, ht

L= 48 meters

2. Refer to tables 1-4 along the 40 x 40 cm column size class “ A “ mixture; multiply.
Cement : 48 x 1.440 = 69.12 bags

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 Sand : 48 x 0.080 = 3.84 cu.m

Gravel : 48 x 0.160 = 7.68 cu.m

3. Find the area of the footing slab Area = 12 pcs ( 1.2 x 1.2)
= 17.28 sq.m

4. Refer to table 1-3 using 40 kg cement class “ A “ mixture for 20 cm thick slab; multiply:
Cement : 17.28 x 1.80 = 31.1 bags

Sand : 3.84 x 0.100 = 1.72 cu.m

Gravel : 17.28 x0.200 = 3.48 cu.m

5. Add results of step 2 and 4

Cement : 69.13 + 31.1 = 100.2 bags

Sand : 3.84 + 1.72 = 5.56 cu.m

Gravel : 7.68 + 3.45 = 3.46 cu.m

Note: click the link below to watch the video in computing Area method for cubic meter.

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x0Fsg0LvEY8

Learning Content: CHAPTER 2

MASONRY
CONCRETE HOLLOW BLOCKS

Concrete Hollow Block is popularly known as CHB. Classified as load-bearing and non-bearing blocks.

LOAD BEARING

Those thickness ranges from 15 to 20 cm and are used to carry load aside from its own weight.

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NON-BEARING

Blocks intended for walls, partitions, fences, dividers and the like carrying its own weight whose
thickness ranges from 7 to 10 cm.

Standard hollow block has three cells and two half cells at both ends having a total of four. These hollow
cells vary in sizes as there are different manufacturers using different types of mold. Hence, it is
recommended that concrete with bigger cells be considered in estimating for a more realistic result.

To know the quality of materials needed for a certain masonry work made of concrete hollow blocks
which generally comprises of the following items.

1. Concrete hollow blocks

2. Cement and sand for block laying
3. Cement, sand and gravel filler for the hollow core or cell
4. Cement and fine sand for plastering
5. Cement, sand and gravel for foundation or footing
6. Reinforcing steel bars and 7. Tie wires

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A concrete hollow block wall has a general dimension of 3.00 m high by 4.00 m long. Determine the
number of CHB, cement and sand required to construct the wall.

SOLUTION 1 (FUNDAMENTAL METHOD)

1. Divide the height of the fence by the length of one block

3.00 ÷ 0.20 = 15 layers

2. Divide the length of the fence by the length of one block

4.00 ÷ 0.40 = 10 pcs

3. Multiply the result of step 1 by step 2

15 x 10 = 150 pcs

SOLUTION 2 ( BY AREA METHOD)

FIGURE 2-3

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One(1) square meter requires 12.5 pcs of concrete hollow blocks ( See figure 2-3). Therefore, multiply
the entire area of the wall by 12.5, and find the total number of CHB required.

1. Area of the fence: 3.00 x 4.00 m = 12 sqm

2. Multiply : 12.00 sq m x 12.5 = 150 pcs

Note: click the link below to watch the video on how to estimate CHB or concrete hollow blocks

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9wy6xYbPqrw&t=47s

TYPES OF CONCRETE BLOCKS

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 TABLE 2-6

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S ta n d a rd c o m m o n ty p e a re th o s e w ith th re e h o llo w c o re s .

The mortar for block laying is a mixture of cement and sand laid in between the layer of the blocks at
approximately ½ of an inch or 12 mm as bonding materials. The hollow core is filled with concrete, a
mixture of mortar and gravel. And to fill the core with pure mortar alone is a very costly construction
undertaking o the advantage of cement manufacturer at the expense of the contractor.

EXAMPLE:

A masonry wall with 15 cm thick requires 1500 pcs of 2 ore stretcher blocks, 100 pcs single end block,
120 pcs half block, 200 corner blocks and 80 pcs beam block.

Find the cement sand and gravel using class “B” mortar mixture.

SOLUTION:

1. Itemized the blocks according to the category and indicate the number of pcs.

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  2-core 15 cm stretcher blocks….1500 pcs
 Single end block……………………….100 pcs
 Half block…………………………………120 pcs
 l-corner block……………………………200 pcs
 beam Block……………………………….80 pcs
2. Refer to tables 2-6 under column class “B” mixture, and multiply the number of blocks
by each corresponding value in the table to get the cement, sand, and gravel required.
a. 1500 –stretcher blocks

i. Cement : 1500 x 0.0623 = 93.45 bags

ii. Sand : 1500 x 0.0030 = 4.50 cu.m

iii. Gravel : 1500 x 0.0045 = 6.75 cu.m

b. 100 – single end block

i. Cement : 100 x 0.0612 = 6.12 bags

ii. Sand : 100 x 0.0044 = 0.45 cu.m

iii. Gravel : 100 x 0.0075 = 0.75 cu.m

c. 120- half block

i. Cement : 120 x 0.0270 = 3.24 bags

ii. Sand : 120 x 0.0020 = 0.24 cu.m

iii. Gravel : 120 x 0.0035 = 0.42 cu.m

d. 200- L corner block

i. Cement : 200 x 0.0590 = 11.80 bags

ii. Sand : 200 x 0.0020 = 0.82 cu.m
iii. Gravel : 200 x 0.0070 = 1.40 cu.m
e. 80 – beam block

i. 80 x 0.0488 = 3.90 bags

ii. 80 x 0.0040 = 0.32 cu.m
iii. 80 x 0.0070 = 0.56 cu.m
EXERCISE:

From the following figure, find the number 15 x 20 x 45 cm adobe stone, the cement and sand required
to construct the fence using (a) class A mixture (b) class C mixture. The plan specifies plastering both
sides of the wall using class B mixture.

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RETAINING WALL

Practical use of gravity retaining wall is controlled by height limitations. The required wall cross section
increases with heights due to the effect of the triangular soil pressure distributed behind the retaining
wall.

Ground water level rises into the backfill behind a retaining wall due to either changing ground water
condition or percolating water surface, the lateral pressure against the wall is also changed. The
combined effect of soil and water pressure causes overturning moments and siding forces. This is
greater than the condition where there is no water.

To avoid the rise of water that is building up behind the retaining wall, a weep hole or collector drainage
system or both are provided as part of the design construction. Weep holes should be at least 3 inches
in diameter provided with s granular soil filter fabric at the wall to prevent backfill erosion. The
horizontal spacing ranges from 120 to 300 cm apart.

For taller walls, two or more rows of weep holes may be provided with a typical vertical spacing of 150
cm.

RETAINING WALL CRITERIA

1. Base and stem of the retaining wall must be capable of resisting the internal shear and
bending moments developing as a result of soil and other loadings.

2. Wall must be safe against overturning.

3. Wall structure must be safe against sliding.
4. Bearing capacity of the foundation material supporting wall must not be exceeded.
RIP-RAP AND GROUTED RIP-RAP

Rip-rap is either with or without grout, with or without filter backing. Stones intended for rip-raping
shall consist of rocks which re nearly rectangular in section as possible. The stone shall be tough, durable

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 and dense. It shall be resistant to the action of air and water and suitable in all aspects for the purpose
intended. Adobe stone shall not be used unless specified.

CLASS OF STONE FOR RIP-RAPING

CLASS A Stone ranging from 15 to 25 kilograms with at least 50% of the stones weighing more than 20
kilograms

CLASS B Stone ranging from 30 to 70 kg with at least 50% of the stones weighing more than 50 kg

CLASS C Stones ranging from 60 to 100 kg with at least 50% of stones weighing more than 80 kg

CLASS D Stones weighing from 100 to 200 kg with at least 50% of the stones weighing more than 150 kg.

ACTIVITY: VOLUME OF CONCRETE

SUNKEN ROAD-WIDENING RIPRAP

Learning Content: CHAPTER 3

METAL REINFORCEMENTS
STEEL BARS

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Steel reinforcement bars are provided with distinctive markings identifying the name of the
manufacturer with its initial brand and the bar size number including the type of steel bars presented as
shown:

BAR, SPLICE, HOOK AND BEND

The quality of steel reinforcing bars, one has to consider the additional length for the hook, the bend the
splice whose length varies depending upon the limitations as prescribed by the NBC.

EXAMPLE

Determine the length of the splice joint for a 16 mm and 20 mm steel bars under the following
conditions:

a. Tensile reinforcement of a beam

b. Compressive reinforcement of a column
SOLUTION ( 16 mm steel bars)

a. Classification of the reinforcement is under tension. Multiply:

25 x 16 mm = 550 mm or 55 cm

b. For the reinforcement under compression, multiply:

20 x 16 mm + 150 mm = 470 mm or 47 cm

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Concrete hollow block reinforcement could be determined in different ways:

1. Direct counting method

The vertical and horizontal reinforcements are counted individually in the plan. The length is also
determined by the elevation. The hook, bend ad lapping splices are imaginably calculated and added to
its length because it is very rare to see a plan in a large-scale drawing showing this particular
requirement of reinforcing steel bars.

2. Area method

The simplest approach in computing the steel bar reinforcement for CHB with the aid of Table 3-5. The
values presented in the table include the allowances required for standard bend, hook and lapping
splices.

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 Table 3-5

Note: Estimation of reinforcement bars of 2-storey house with roof deck, column and footing, and
footing tie beam. Just click the link below.

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V3Mv7GC7K_o Part 1
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BE9Qq6Mx3QY&t=307s Part 2

Learning Content: CHAPTER 4

LUMBER
Lumber, also known as timber, is wood that has been processed into beams and planks, a stage in the
process of wood production. Lumber is mainly used for structural purposes but has many other uses as
well. Lumber may be supplied either rough-sawn, or surfaced on one or more of its faces.

WOOD – is that fibrous substance that composes the trunk and the branches of a tree that lies between
the pith and the bark. The versatility of using wood in every construction has lifted it to its present
importance and high demand in almost all types of construction.

DEFINITION OF TERMS

LUMBER - Is the term applied to wood after it has been sawed or sliced into boards, planks, timber etc.

ROUGH LUMBER – is the term applied to unplanned or undressed lumber, in short, those lumber with
rough surfaces.

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S2s and S4s – are dressed lumber wherein the number connotes the smooth sides. S2s means lumber
having two smooth sides and S4s with four sides.

SLAB – a kind of rough lumber cut tangent to the annual rings running through the full length of the log
containing at least one flat surface.

SURFACE OR DRESSED LUMBER – is planed lumber having at least one smooth side.

TIMBER - is a piece of lumber five inches or larger than smallest dimension

PLANK – is a wide piece of lumber from 4 to 5 inches thick

BOARD – piece of lumber less than 4 cm thick with at least 10 cm wide

FLITCH – a thick piece of lumber

FINE GRAINED- when the annual rings are small, the gran or marking which separates the adjacent rings
is said is said to be fine grained. When large, it is called COARSE GRAINED

STRAIGHT GRAINED- term used when the direction of the fibers are nearly parallel with the side and
edges of the board

CROOKED OR CROSS GRAINED- lumber taken from a crooked tree.

CLASSIFICATION OF WOOD
Wood that is used in building construction is those which grows larger by addition of a layer on the
outer surface each year known to botanists as EXOGENS.

1. MODE OF GROWTH
a. Indigenous – trees that grow from the inside. This has a soft center core and are
not preferred for lumbering.

b. Exogenous- outward growing trees preferred for lumbering.

2. With RESPECT TO DENSITY

a. Soft

b. Hard

3. With RESPECT TO LEAVES

a. Needle shape

b. Broad shape

4. With RESPECT TO SHADES OR COLOR

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 a. White

b. Yellow

c. Red

d. Brown

e. Black, etc

5. With RESPECT TO THE GRAIN

a. Straight

b. Cross

c. Fine

d. Coarse

6. With RESPECT TO NATURE

OF SURFACE WHEN SAWED

a. Plain

b. Grained

c. Figured or marked

METHODS AND MANNER OF LOG SAWING

1. Plain or bastard sawing

2. Quarter or rift sawing

a. Radial

b. Tangential

c. Quarter radial and tangential

WOOD DEFECTS

1. ABNORMAL GROWTH

a. Heart shakes – radical cracks in wood originating from the heart of the logs.
Herat shake is commonly found in trees.

b. Wind shakes or cup shakes – cracks or breaks across the annual rings of the
wood during its growth caused by excessive bending of the tree due to strong wind.

c. Star shakes – composed of several heart shakes radiating from the center of the
log in a star like manner.

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 d. Knots – occurs at the starting point of a limb or branch of the tree

2. DUE TO DETERIORATION

a. Dry rot – caused by fungi in a seasoned lumber due to the presence of moisture

b. Wet rot – takes place sometime in the growth of the tree caused by water
saturation

SEASONING OF LUMBER

Trees contain moisture in their cell layers. This moisture has to be expelled thoroughly to preserve the
wood from shrinkage or decay. Experiments proved that wood immersed in water immediately after
cutting is less subject to splitting and decay. It reduces warping but become brittle and less elastic.
Soaking of wood in liquid is the oldest method of seasoning lumber introduced and practiced by the
ancient Roman builders.

METHODS OF SEASONING LUMBER

1. NATURAL SUNLIGHT OR AIR – considered as one of the best method used in seasoning
of wood although the period involved is relatively longer.

2. ARTIFICIAL SEASONING – lumbers are stacked in a drying kiln and then exposed to
steam and hot air. Lumber undergoes a quick drying process.

THE ARTIFICIAL METHODS OF SEASONING WOOD ARE:

1. Forced Air Drying

2. Kiln Drying
3. Radio Frequency Dielectric Drying
Good seasoning is the primary consideration for successful preservation of wood. Wood does not decay
naturally through age, nor will decay if it is kept constantly dry or continuously submerged in water.

COMMON CAUSES OF DECAY IN WOOD

1. Alternate moisture and dryness

2. Fungi or molds

3. Insects and worms

4. Heat and confined air

PROCESS OF PRESERVING WOOD

1. External process – the wood is coated with preservative applied as paint to penetrate
the fibers of the wood

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 2. Internal process – chemical compound is impregnated at a prescribed pressure to
permeate the wood thoroughly.

UNIT OF MEASURE OF LUMBER

BOARD FEET/FOOT

The unit of measure used in computing the volume of lumber. Despite the adoption of the Metric
System (SI), board foot for lumber is still in use for convenience and practical use.

One board foot simply mean, one square foot by one inch thick, lumber or an equivalent of 144 cubic
inches. The width and thickness of commercial lumber are exposed in inches while the length is in feet
of even numbers.

Board foot is found by dividing the product of the thickness, the width and the length by 12.

EXAMPLE:

Find the total board feet of 5 pieces 2” x 6” x 4’ lumber.

SOLUTION:

Board foot = 5 x 2 x 6 14 ft ÷ 12 = 70 bd ft.

Finding the board foot of a commercial size lumber is as simple as the above example. But how about
finding the net board foot of a round log or a standing tree knowing its diameter and height?

SOLUTION:

Bd ft volume = (D-4)^2 x L ÷ 16

Where: D = smaller diameter of the log

L = length of the log

4 = constant as reduction factor

SOLUTION:

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1. Substitute given data in the formula:

( 28 – 4)^2 x 20 ft ÷ 16 = 720 bd ft

MANNER OF PAYMENT IN SAWING OR SLICING LUMBER

Methods of computing payment for slicing or sawing lumber:

1. Board foot

- Simply computing the total board foot of sawed lumber then multiplied by the agreed
price per board foot

2. Meter length

- Multiplying the width in inches by the length in meter times the agreed unit price per
meter run.

SOLUTION ( BD FT METHOD)

1. Find the total board foot of lumber

6“ x 6” x 10 ft ÷ 12 = 30 bd ft

2. Multiply by the unit price say P 2.00

30 x 2.00 = P 60.00

Note: Please watch the video by clicking the link for more details.

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=x74OlhYeyno&list=PLQYJjUdoR5rzOIM0x5fUNS_0ozhfniVLs&index=1&t=155s
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=hFPuqo3Evts&list=PLQYJjUdoR5rzOIM0x5fUNS_0ozhfniVLs&index=2

SOLUTION ( INCH-METER METHOD)

1. Multiply by the width by the length

6” x 3.00 = 18

2. Multiply by number of cut

18 2 = 36 inch
3. Multiply by the unit cost

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 36 x 1.65 = P 59.40

WOOD POST

Considerations in estimating wood post for building.

1. Size of the post

2. Quality or number of posts
3. Length or height of the posts
The size of the post is already indicated in the plan. The quantity is directly counted in the plan and the
length is determined through the following considerations:

1. For one storey building, verify if the elevation height indicates from floor to ceiling. If
the ceiling is below the girts add the depth of the girts including the bottom chord of the rafters
to the height of post.

2. For two storey building, verify if the height indicates from floor to floor. Is fo, then
consider the additional depth of the girder, the floor joist and the flooring. And for the second
floor, add the depth of the girts, bottom chord or rafters to the height of the post.

3. Take note that the commercial length of lumber is always of even number. If the
computed length is odd number adjust the order to the next even number length.

EXAMPLE:

Determine the total length and board foot of the posts required if there are 8 pieces 6” x 6 “ wood
posts.

SOLUTION:

1. Find the total height of the post from floor to ceiling.

2.70+ 2.70 5.40 m

2. Determine the depth of the girder, floor joist, flooring, and the girts.

Girder = 0.20

Floor joist = 0.15

Flooring = 0.025

Girts = 0.20

0.575 m

3. Add results of 1 and 2 to get the total length

L = 5.40 + 0.575

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 = 5.975 meters

4. Convert to feet : 5.975 ÷ 0.30 = 20 ft

5. Order : 8 = 6” x 6” x 20’

FORMS, SCAFFOLDING, AND STAGING

The structural members of a building are built-up into their desired shapes and dimensions through the
use of form. Form is a temporary boarding, sheathing or pan used to produce the desired shape and size
of concrete.

A concrete mixture is generally semi-fluid that reproduces the shape of anything into which it is poured.
Thus, concrete forms shall be watertight, rigid, and strong enough to sustain the weight of fresh
concrete.

Forms must be simple and economically designed in such a manner that they are easily removed and
reassembled without damage to themselves or to the concrete.

SELECTIONS OF FORMS ARE BASED ON:

1. Cost of the materials

2. Construction and assembling cost

3. Number of times it could be used

4. Strength and resistance to pressure and tear and wear

CLASSIFICATION OF FORMS:

A. As to MATERIALS

1. Wood
2. Metal
3. Plastic
4. composite
B. As to SHAPE

1. Straight
2. Circular
C. Solid or Hollow Cast

1. Single
2. Double

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 D. As to Methods of Construction

1. Ordinary
2. Unit
E. As to USES

1. Foundation
2. Wall
3. Steps
4. Beam and girders
5. Sidewalks, etc
F. Construction of forms consists of:

1. Retaining board
2. Supporters or studs
3. Braces
4. Spacer
5. Tie wire
6. Bolts and nails
G. Types of Post and Wall form

1. Continuous
2. Full unit
3. Layer unit
a. Continuous
b. Sectional
GREASING FORMS

Forms are constantly greased before their use. To make the wood waterproof preventing the absorption
of water in the concrete which causes swelling and warping. The greasing of forms also prevent the
adherence of concrete into the pores of the wood.

Crude oil is the most economical and satisfactory material for this purpose. The crude oil is mixed with
no.40 motor oil to a proportion of 1:3 mixtures or with varying viscosity depending upon the
temperature condition.

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A thicker minimum mixture is recommended in warm weather conditions. However, greasing of forms
should not be allowed after the steel bars have been set to their position. Metal forms also need oil
application to prevent rust formation.

PLYWOOD AS CONSTRUCTION FORMS

Plywood is a versatile construction material used as wall partitions, cabinets, and furniture. Plywood is
also utilized in boat building as well as forms for reinforced concrete constructions.

ADVANTAGES:

1. Economical in terms of labor cost

2. Lightweight and handy

3. Smooth surface which may not require plastering

4. Less consumption of nails

5. Ease of assembling and disassembling

6. Available

Plywood is manufactured in various thickness ranging from 4; 6; 12; 20 and 25 mm with standard
commercial sizes of 0.90 x 1.80 and 1.20 x 2.40 m.

FORMS FOR SQUARE AND RECTANGULAR COLUMN

Consideration:

1. Thickness of the board to be used

2. Size of the frame

3. Types of framework to be adopted

a. Continuous rib type

b. Stud type

FORMULA FINDING THE MATERIALS FOR SQUARE AND

RECTANGULAR

COLUMN FORMS

P = 2 ( a + b ) + 0.20

Where: P = lateral perimeter of the column a = shorter side of

column

b = longer side of the column

0.20 = constant value for the lapping of form joints

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 1. Multiply P by the height of one column times the number of columns to get the total
area of the forms.

2. Divide the total area found by 2.88 to get the number of plywood forms.

3. Multiply the number of plywood found by 29.67 to get the board foot of frames
required.

EXAMPLE:

Six concrete posts at 4.00 meters high with uniform cross-sectional dimensions of 0.30 x 0.30 m specify
the use of 6 mm ( ¼”) marine plywood on a 2”x 2” wood frame.

List down the materials required using continuous rib type forms.

Figure 5-2

SOLUTION:

A. Solving for the plywood form

1. Find the lateral perimeter of one column using the formula:

P = 2 ( a + b ) + 0.20 P = 2 ( a + b ) + 0.20

P = 2 ( 0.30 + 0.30 ) + 0.20

P = 1.40 m

2. Multiply P by the column height and the number of columns to find the total
area of the forms.

Area = 1.40 x 4.00 x 6 columns

A= 33.6 square meters

3. Divide this area by 2.88, the area of one plywood form to get the number of
plywood required.

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 No. of plywood = 33.60 ÷ 2.88 = 11.7 say 12 pieces

B. Solve for the 2”x 2” wood frame by direct counting

1. From figure 5-2 by direct counting o the frame:

12 pcs 2” x 2” x 16’ = 56 bd ft

1 pc 2” x 2“ x 10’= 3.3 bd ft

Total = 356 bdft

C. Solving 2”x 2” frame with the Aid of table 5-2

1. Refer to table 5-2 for 2 x 2 frame under post 6 mm ( ¼”) thick, multiply the number of
plywood found by 29.67.

12 plywood x 29.67 = 356 bd ft

3. Order : 12 pcs 1.20 x 2.40 ( 4’x 8’) plywood

356 board feet 2” x 2”lumber

Learning Content: CHAPTER V

ROOFING MATERIALS
GALVANIZED IRON SHEET

Most common roofing material, popularly known as G.I. sheet either plain or corrugated. The plain sheet
is used for roofing, gutter, flashing, downspout, ridge, hip, and valley roll. Plain sheet standard
commercial size is 90 x 240 cm long.

The corrugated galvanized iron sheets I widely used for roofing and sidings have standard width of 80
cm with varying lengths from 150 to 360 cm at consecutive intervals of 30 cm. long span corrugated
sheets are also available on special order.

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Thickness of G.I. sheet is measured in terms of gauge number 14 to 30. The sheet becomes thinner as
gauge number becomes larger. Gauge 26 is the most extensively used for roofing and various tin works
and gauge 24 is specified for gutters and valley rolls.

GAUGE means thickness expressed in terms of hundredth of an inch and the only way by which one
could be certain that he is buying the right thickness of the sheet is by weight measure.

CONSIDER FIRST THE FOLLOWING:

1. Verify the plan if the side lapping is 1-1/2 or 2-1/2 corrugation.

2. If it is 1-1/2 corrugations, the effective width covering per sheet is 0.70 meters or

0.60 meters for 2-1/2 corrugations.

3. Standard end-lapping joint is from 25 to 30 cm long. This determines the length of the
sheet to be used.

4. Spacing of the purlins should be proportionally adjusted to the length of the G.I. sheets
to avoid unnecessary cutting or excessive overlapping. Length of the roof sheet governs
the spacing distance of purlins refer to table 6-2.

5. A good roofing design minimizes end lapping joint. Longer length of roofing sheet is
preferred for economical reasons.

ESTIMATING G.I. ROOF AND ITS ACCESSORIES

1. Determine the length of the purlins along the gutter line. The distance is perpendicular
with the roof direction.

2. Divide this length by the effective width covering of one G.I. sheet using either 0.70 for
1-1/2 corrugations or 0.60 for 2-1/2 corrugations. The result is the number of sheets for
one row.

3. Determine the length of the rafter or top chord. Choose the right combination of roofing
sheets that will satisfy this length considering the 25 to 30 cm standard end lapping.

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 4. Multiply the result found in step 2 by each length of sheet combination as found in step
3.

5. Determine the number of G.I. nails or rivets and washers in kilograms using table 6-2
and 6-3.

6. Take note that the number of plain anchor strap and lead washer is the same as the
quantity of rivets.

EXAMPLE:

Find the number of corrugated G.I. sheets and its accessories required if the side lapping specify 1-1/2
corrugations with 30 cm end lapping on a 2” x 3” purlins.

SOLUTION:

A. CORRUGATED G.I. SHEET

a. Divide the length of the gutter by the effective width covering of one sheet.
Refer to table 6-2 under 1-1/2 corrugations the value is 0.70 cm, divide:

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 14.00/ 0.70 = 20 sheets

b. The length of the rafter is 6.00 m, a combination of 3.60 and 2.70 m long
G.I. sheet or 12ft and 9 ft

Order: 20 – 32” x 12’corrugated G.I. Sheet

20 – 32” x 9’ corrugated G.I. Sheet

B. RIVETS

a. Refer to table 6-2 for 12 ft and 9ft long roof sheet, multiply:

For 12 ft long : 20 x 26 = 520 pieces

For 9 ft long : 20 x 22 = 440 pieces Total = 960 pieces

b. Convert to kilograms. Refer to table 6-3, divide: 960 ÷ 180 = 5.3 say 5.5
kilograms

C. G.I. WASHER

a. Double the number of rivets

960 x 2 = 1920 pieces

b. Convert to kilograms. Refer to table 6-3 for G.I. washers, divide:

1920/ 128 = 15.24 kilograms

D. PLAIN G.I. STRAP ON 2” X3” PURLINS

a. Total number of rivets = 960 pieces

b. Refer to table 6-4 using 2” x 3” purlins, divide:

960-384 = 2.5 pieces plain G.I. sheets

E. LEAD WASHER

a. Number of rivets is the same as the lead washer = 960

b. Refer to table 6-3 for lead washer, divide;

960/ 75 = 12.8 say 13 kilograms

F. SUMMARY OF MATERIALS

a. 20 pcs 32” x 12 ft corrugated G.I. sheet

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 b. 20 pcs 32” x 9ft corrugated G.I. sheet
c. 5.5 kg G.I. rivets
d. 15.5 G.I. kg washers
e. 13.0 kg lead washers
f. 2.5 pcs plain G.I. sheets

ASBESTOS ROOFING

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Unlike galvanize iron sheet where accessories from gutter down to the smallest anchor straps are made
on site out from the standard size of plain G.I. sheet, estimating asbestos roofing material is much
simpler because all the roof accessories and parts to be used such as gutter, ridge, hip and valley rolls
are factory made ready for installation.

KINDS OF ASBESTOS ROOFING

1. Standard corrugated sheet

2. 4-V corrugated sheet

3. Placa romana

4. Kanaletas

5. Tencor corrugated sheet

6. Ardex lightweight corrugated sheet

a. Standard ardex

b. Super ardex

Note: search online for the actual picture of the different kind of Asbestos

ESTIMATING PROCEDURE:

1. The number of corrugated asbestos roofing required is determined by dividing the

gutter length by the effective width covering of one sheet.

2. In finding the number of accessories such as flashing, gutter, ridge, hip and valley roll,
divide each total length by the effective length of one sheet.

3. Other parts such as ridge end cap, apron flashing, gutter corner, down spout and
fittings are found by direct counting. They are already made according to factory
standard sizes.

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ASPHALT ROOF SHINGLE

Manufactured by Vertain Teed. Comes in two varieties called certain teed 20 and extra tough 25. Certain
Teed 20 carries the UL Wind Resistance and is certified by ASTM to provide high tear resistance. Solar
activated, self-sealing strips form a tight seal against driving rain, snow and wind.

The XT ( extra tough) 25 is considered extra resistant to wind stress to help prevent tearing and blow off.
It carries the UL 997 label so it will resist winds up to 60 mph. special sealant strips use the suns heat or
additional weatherproofing and extra asphalt makes it a heavier, more durable shingle compared to
basic three-tab strip shingles.

Upvc ROOFING SHEET

Also called IMACRoof suited to corrosive conditions particularly industrial establishments. It has an
internal thermal conductivity equal to the expanded polyurethane and polystyrene eliminating the use
of insulating materials. IMACRoof sheets are made up to a particular blend of thermoplastic resins and
does not shatter easily unlike ordinary plastic, asbestos and fiberglass roofing. It is shock proof and
hinders the dispersion of flames when in contact with fire. They ony carbonized without dripping or
breaking up.

SPANFLEX

A siding and ceiling system efficient substitute for costly wood panels. It presents an interesting and
impressive interior and exterior profile for homes and offices. It is available in all style range of designs
and colors to suit your aesthetic requirements.

QUIZ # 3: LUMBER

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 Learning Content: CHAPTER VI

TILE WORKS
CERAMIC TILES

One of the oldest unique building material continuously in use because of its durability, functional and
aesthetic properties. It is practically indestructible and offers unlimited choices not only in design
pattern but also in color that does not fade.

Decorative ceramic tile was extensively used as early as the period of Medieval Islamic Architecture from
Persia to Spain. Its popularity and used was extended up to the period of contemporary Architecture.

CERAMIC TILES ARE CLASSIFIED INTO:

1. Glazed tiles

- Principally used for walls and light duty floors and toppings

2. Unglazed tiles

- Homogenous composition, hard and dense quality primarily used for floor and walls.

TYPES OF TILES

1. PROCELAIN TILES

- Made out of from the pressed dust processed into fine smooth dense and shapely
formed face.

2. NATURAL CLAY TILE

- Made from either the pressed or plastic method from dust clay that produces a dense
body with distinctive slightly textured appearance.

3. CERAMIC MOSAIC TILES

- mounted on a 30 x 30 cm paper as binder of the tiles to facilitate its laying or setting.

4. QUARRY TILES

- Made through the plastic extraction process from natural clay or shale

5. FAIENCE MOSAIC TILE

- Tiles less than 15 square centimetres in facial form

SPECIAL PURPOSE TILES

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 a. Non-slip tiles
b. Ship or gallery
c. Frost proof tiles
d. Conductive tiles EXAMPLE:

Determine the quantity of the following materials:

a. 10 x 20 cm glazed wall tiles

b. 20 x 20 cm unglazed floor tiles

c. Cement for mortar

d. White cement for joint filler

SOLUTION

A. Solving for 10 x 20 glazed tiles

1.Solve for the wall area

Area = 1.50 x (5.00 + 3.00) = 12 sq m

2. Solve for the area of one tile

0.10 x 0.20 = 0.02 sq m

3. Divide wall area by the area of one tile

12 ÷ 0.20 = 600 pcs 10 x 20 (4” x 8” glazed tiles)

B. Solving for 20 x20 unglazed floor tiles

1. Solve for the floor area

Area = 5.00 x 3.00 = 15 sq m

2. Solve for the area of one tile

0.15 x 0.04 = 375 pcs

C. Solving for cement mortar

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 Solve for the total wall and floor area Total are: 12 + 15 = 27 sq m

1.Refer to table 7-1, long cement mortar,

multiply: Cement mortar: 27 x 0.086 = 2.3 say 3 bags

White cement filler: 27 x 0.50 = 13.5 say 14 kg

For breakage allowance, 5 to 10 % is satisfactory

Note: Click the link below for video presentation on how to estimate tile works.

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9A5I5nv9Wpk
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7rJyncoC3bs

MARBLE TILES
A hard metamorphic limestone white or colored texture and sometimes streaked or mottled in
crystalline or granular state capable of taking high polish. It is used in sculpture, furniture, topping slab,
floors and the like.

VINYL AND RUBBER TILE

Standard specifications for vinyl and rubber tiles provides that:

“it shall be non-fading, odourless and non-slip even when wet and shall be strong enough to withstand
the ordinary tear and wear, cleaning and moving of furniture without damage and shall be self-dealing.”

Manufacturers specifications shall be as follows:

1. Adhesive cement shall be applied to the floor for every after the tiles are laid on the
surface.

2. Tiles are pressed with linoleum roller to avoid blisters.

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 3. After completion, all works shall be cleaned of cement, dirt and other substances.

4. Apply two-coat of wax and polish to smooth shiny finish.

GRANOLITHIC FLOOR

A marble type mosaic floor finish that uses Portland cement as bas materilas. It has a characteristic of
durability, beauty and variety installed by either: Monolithic Cast in Place or Pre-cast.

MONOLITHIC OR PRE-CAST – means massively, solid, single and uniform floor finish cast in place.
Mixture is 1 : 3 in cast on top of a floor slab surface to an average thickness of 1.25 cm.

PRE-CAST- refers to granolithic tiles in various dimensions hydraulically pressed and molded in a factory.

The distinctive difference between the cast in place and the pre-cast installation is the manner and place
of casting or molding.

CEMENT TILES- a mixture of cement, sand and water hydraulically pressed, locally manufactured in the
following commercial sizes

WOOD TILES- a well arranged thin small wood pieces in various dimensions with thickness ranging from
6 mm to 8 mm. wood chips are carefully laid one at a time on a plane smooth surface concrete floor slab
applied with a good kind of white glue.

PEBBLES AND WASHOUT FINISH

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Small roundish stone used for walls and floor finishes called washout and pebbles respectively. Pebble
stone is mixed with pure cement to a proportion of either 1:2 or 1:3 mortar mixture then applied on the
wall or floor slab, then wash with water to a desired texture before the concrete finally set. 24 hours
later, the pebble surface is then scrubbed with steel brush and a solution of water and muriatic acid to
obtain the desired natural stone finish.

Learning Content: CHAPTER VII

HARDWARE
BOLTS

A pin rod with head at one end and threaded at the other end to receive a nut.

TYPES OF BOLT

1. Machine bolt

- A pin rod with head at one end and a short thread at the other end

2. Countersunk bolt

- Has a bevelled head fitting to a countersunk hole.

3. Key head bolt

- Has a head shape end fitted to a groove to prevent turning when the nut is screwed into
the other end

4. Stud bolt

- Headless pin bolt threaded at both end.

SIZE AND LENGTH OF BOLTS

The size and diameter of bolt you need depends upon the thickness of the object to be connected and
the load stresses it has to carry or resist. The effective length is the total length of the bolt minus the
head and the thread.

EFFECTIVE USE OF BOLT

1. For lumber up to 5 cm thick, use 6 mm (1/4”) diameter

2. For 7.5 cm thick (3”), use 10 mm (3/8”) diameter

3. For 10 cm (4”) thick use 12 mm ½”diameter

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 4. Drilled hole shall be 1.5 mm (1/16”) larger than the bolt diameter unless snug fit is
necessary

5. Always use washers under head and nut of your machine bolt

6. For carriage bolt, use washer under nut only

7. Use toggle bolt for attaching fixture to plaster wall

8. Use expansion bolt or fastening to masonry

9. For outdoor exposure, use brass or cadmium plated finish bolt.

ESTIMATING LENGTH OF BOLT

a. Wooden post anchored by post strap. The length of the bolt is equal to the width of the
post plus the two thickness of the post strap plus 20 mm allowance for the thread and nut.

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 b. Post and single beam is equal to the width of the post plus the thickness of the beam.

c. Post with two beams of the same thickness

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 d. Post and two beams of different thickness

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SCREW

In carpentry works, screw it sometimes used instead of nails due to the following advantages:

1. Greater holding power

2. Neat in appearance

3. Less chance of injuring the materials

4. Ease of removal in case of repair

HOW TO CHOOSE YOUR SCREW

1. Select one that is long enough wherein one half of two thirds of its length will enter the
base in which threads are embedded

2. The length of the screw should be 1/8”of 3 mm less than the combined thickness of the
boards being joined

3. Use fine thread screw for hard wood and coarse tread for soft wood.

HOW TO USE THE SCREW

1. Always drill lead hole for the screw

2. Hole on top of board should be slightly larger than the shank, in second board slightly
smaller than the threaded portion

3. In soft wood, bore to depth half the length of the thread

4. In hard wood, bore nearly as deep as the length of the screw
5. For lag screw, drill hole two thirds its length then drive in with hammer, and finally
tighten with wrench.

HOW TO BUY SCREW

1. Screws are classified by gauge and length in inches. Each gauge has a variety of different
lengths which may be obtained u to 12 cm ( 5 inches)

2. When ordering screw, specify number and length from 2 to 5 cm

3. Square headed lag screw comes in diameter of 6 mm to 25 mm ( ¼ to 1 inch) with its

length from 4 cm to 30 cm ( 1 1/1 to 12 inches)

WOOD SCREW

 A screw nail with handed coarse thread to give a grip.

1. Materials used

i. Iron

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 ii. Steel

iii. Brass

iv. Bronze

v. Copper

vi. Aluminum

2.As to shape of Head

vii. Flat

viii. Round

ix. Fillister

x. Oval

xi. Winged

xii. Bung

xiii. Punched

xiv. Headless

xv. Slotted( wood scew)

xvi. Square ( lag screw)

xvii. Hexagonal

xviii. Clove

xix. Grooved
3.As to Shape of the point

i. Standard

ii. Full length

iii. Coarse

4.As to Duty

i. Wood (light duty)

ii. Lag ( heavy duty)

5.As to Finish

i. Bright

ii. Nickel plated

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 iii. Brass

iv. Coppered

v. Lacquered

vi. Blued

vii. Silver plated

viii. Bronzed

ix. Japanned

x. Galvanized

THREE SHAPES OF SCREW POINT

1. GIMLET POINT- used on wood and coach screw

2. DIAMOND POINT – used when more driving is done before turning as in drive

NAILS

First handmade nails were used in the United State and lasted up to the

end of Colonial Period. Likewise, France light nails were made by hand and hammer out of steel wire as
early as the days of Napoleon -1. In 1851, wire nails was first introduced by William Herser of New York.
Twenty five years later in 1876, Father Goebel introduced the manufacture of wire nails. And at the last
part of the 18th century, twenty three patents for nail making machine were approved in the United
States which was introduced later in England.

KINDS OF NAILS

a. CROSS SECTIONAL SHAPE

i. Cut ( rectangular)

ii. Wire ( circular)

b. SIZE

i. Tacks

ii. Sprigs

iii. Brads

iv. Nails

v. Spike

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 c. MATERIALS

i. Steel

ii. Brass

iii. Copper

d. FINISH

i. Plain

ii. Coated

iii. Galvanized

iv. Blued

e. SERVICE

i. Common

ii. Flooring

iii. Finishing

iv. Roofing

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v. Boat

2d to 60 d For general construction Common nail

2d to 40 d For light construction household use Box

2d to 40 d For interior trim Casing

2d to 20 d For cabinetwork furniture Finishing nail

2d to 20 d Flooring construction Cut

3/16”to 3” For light work moldings Wire brad

6”to 12” For heavy construction spike

SPRIGS

Small headless nails sometimes called barbed dowel pins with regular size ranges from 12 mm to 50
and lag screw
3. C ONIC AL P OINT – same as the diamond point

gauge no. 8 wire to 4mm diameter.

BRADS

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Brads are small slender nails with small deep heads. The common variety is made in sizes from 2.5 cm
(2d) to 15 cm (6d) in length. Flooring brads ranges from 5 cm long

NAILS

Popular name for all kinds of nail except those extreme sizes such as Tacks and Spikes. Most generally
used nails are called from 2.5 cm to 15 cm.

SPIKES

An ordinary spike is a stout piece of metal from 7.5 to 30 cm in length, much thicker in proportion than a
common nail.

Spike is much in used in fastening railroad rails, construction of docks, piers and other work using large
timber.

KINDS OF SPIKE

1. Flat head, diamond point

2. Oval head, chisel point
3. BOAT SPIKE

Small kind of nail driven mostly in hard timber with a clear cut sharp chisel point.

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 Learning Content: CHAPTER VIII

STAIRCASE
Building staircase requires structural carpentry and craftsmanship of cabinet making. It is like
constructing an inclined bridge between two points on different floors with uniform well proportional
treads and risers that are safe and comfortable to climb and descend.

DEFINITION OF TERMS:

BALUSTER – small post supporting the handrail or a coping

BALUSTRADE – series or row of balusters joined by a handrail or coping as the parapet of a balcony

BEARER- a support for winders wedged into the walls secured by the

stringer

CARRIAGE- portion supporting the steps of a wooden stair

CLOSE STRING- staircase without open well as in dog stairs

COCKTAIL STAIR- term given to a winding staircase

CIRCULAR STAIR- staircase with steps winding in a circle cylinder

ELLIPTICAL STAIR- elliptical stairs where each tread assembly is converging in an elliptical ring in a plan

FLIGHT OF STAIR- series of steps leading from one landing to the other

FRONT STRING- string on the side of stairs where handrail is placed

FLYERS - steps in a flight that are parallel with each other

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GEOMETRICAL STAIR- flight that are parallel with each other HALF SPACE- interval between two flight of
steps in staircase

HANDRAIL- rail running parallel with the inclination of the stairs that holds the balusters

HOLLOW NEWEL- an opening in the middle of the staircase as distinguished from solid newel wherein
the ends of steps are attached

HOUSING- the notches in the string board of a stair for the reception

KNEE- convex bend at the back of the handrail

LANDING- horizontal floor as resting place in a flight

NEWEL- central column where the steps of a circular staircase wind

NOSING- front edge of the steps that project beyond the riser

PITCH- angle of inclination of the horizontal of the stairs

RAMP- slope surface that rises and twists simultaneously

RISE- height of a flight of stairs from landing to landing or the height between successive treads or stairs

RISER- vertical face of a stair step

RUN- horizontal distance from the first to the last riser of a stair flight

SPANDREL- angle formed by a stairway

STAIRCASE- the whole set of stairs, the structure containing a flight of a stair

STAIR BUILDERS TRUSS- crossed beams which support the landing of a stair

STAIR HEAD- the initial stair at the top of a flight of a stair or staircase

STAIR HEADROOM- clear vertical height measure from the nosing of a stair tread to any overhead
obstruction

STARI WELL- vertical shaft which contain a staircase

STEP- a stair which consist of one riser

STEPS- assembly consisting of a tread and a riser

STRING- part of a flight of stair which forms its ceiling or soffit

SOFFIT- underneath of an arch or molding

STRING BOARD- board next to the wall hole which receives the end of the steps

TREAD RUN- horizontal distance between two consecutive risers, or the horizontal distance between
the nosing or the outer edges of successive treads on an open riser stair all measured perpendicular to
the front edges of the nosing or tread

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TREAD- horizontal part of a step including the nosing

TREAD LENGTH- dimension of a tread measured perpendicular to the normal line of travel on a stair

TREAD WIDTH- dimension of a tread plus the projection of the nosing

WALL STRING- board placed against the wall to receive the end of the step

WELL- place occupied by the flight of stairs

WELL HOLE- opening in the floor at the top of a flight or stair

WELL STAIRCASE- winding staircase enclosed by walls resembling a well

WINDERS- steps not parallel with each other

WREATH- whole of a helically curved handrail

STAIR LAYOUT

PRINCIPLES IN LAYING OUT STAIRCASE:

a. Determine first the clear height of the riser in meter. Standard comfortable rise per step
is 17 to 18 cm. maximum height of a step riser is 20 cm and is only allowed on special
considerations where the physical condition dictates.

b. Determine the number of steps from the first to the next floor by dividing the total
height of the rise by the chosen step riser of either 17 or 18 cm.

c. Divide the run distance by the effective width of the tread which normally measured as
follows:

Width of tread Effective width

25 cm 20 cm

30 cm 25 cm

35 cm 30 cm

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 d. Effective width of the tread is its width minus the nosing.
e. If the result of step 3 is less than that of step2, adjust the length of the run or the width
of the tread to obtain an equal distances and proportional steps.

f. Height of the risers should be equal and uniform from the first to the last step of the
stair. No fractional value in dividing the rise by the riser per step.

g. Fractional value could not be avoided in dividing the rise by the riser, adjust the
fractional value in equal proportion to the number of risers but in no case shall the riser per
step be greater than 19 cm nor less than 17 cm. otherwise the stairs will not be considered
as comfortable to ascend and descend.

NOTE: CLICK THE LINK TO WATCH ON HOW TO DIVIDE THE RISER AND TREAD PROPERLY

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k_Nny1sBDIU
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Cb77_Z8YUWg

STRINGER

Inclined plane supporting the treads and the risers of a stair. The length of the

stringer is determined by the use of the Pythagorean Formula or by actual measurement using a meter
rule or tape.

STEEL SQUARE is a very useful and effective tool in staircase framing. Know its functions and s
satisfactory results will be obtained. Stringer is classified according to the methods of attaching the
risers and the tread.

TYPES OF STRINGER:

1. Cut type stringer – popularly used in most modern and contemporary house designs
2. Cleated type stringer – used for a very rough work
3. Built-up type stringer – adopted on a wide stair that requires a center stringer

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 4. Rabbet type stringer – adopted on fine works usually made at the mill risers and treads
are held in the rabbets by wedges that are set in width glue.

Note: CLICK THE LINK BELOW TO WATCH ON HOW TO CALCULATE LENGTH OF STAIR STRINGER

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mB8bnF5SjJs


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 Learning Content: CHAPTER IX

PAINTING
Commonly referred to as a “Surface Coating”. It is defined as a coating applied to a surface of substrate
to decorate, to protect or to perform some other specialized functions.

Generally, poor quality paint is little bit costlier than that of a poorer one. However, in terms of surface
coverage, ease of work and durability, good quality paint is cheaper than that of poorer one.

Never have second thought of having the best paint from a reputable brand, otherwise, to think of
saving a few cents for your paint might turn out later to be more expensive. However, it doesn’t
guarantee long lasting paint.

A. INGREDIENT OF PAINT

1. Vehicle

- The substance in the paint that gives a continuity film and provides adhesion to the
surface or substrate. Vehicle because it carries the ingredients to the substrate and remain
on the surface after the paint has dried.

 It contains film former which is a combination of the following:

 Resins
 Plasticisers o Drying oil

Components of Paint Vehicle:

o Solid Thermoplastic Film Former – solid resin is melted for application and then
solidifies after application.

o Lacquer Type Film Formers – the vehicle dried by solvent evaporation o Room
Temperature catalysed Film Formers – a chemical agent blended into the coating
before application cause cross-linking into a solid polymer at room temperature

o Heat-cured Film Formers – heat causes cross-linking of the film former or

activates a catalyst that is not active until heat has been applied

o Oxidizing Film Formers – oxygen from the air enters the film and crosslink it to
form a solid gel

o Emulsion-type Film Formers – the solvent evaporation and the droplets of

plastic film former floating in it flows together to form a film.

2. Solvent

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 - Low viscosity volatile liquid used in coating to improve application properties.

3. Pigment

- Paint pigments are solid grains or particles of uniform and controlled sizes which are
generally insoluble in the vehicle of the coating.

 Paint pigment contributes to the following properties:

o For the decoration of function- it continues opacity, color and gloss control
o For protective function- it contribute specific properties such as hardness,
abrasion, and improved adhesion. o It make sanding easier, retard flame and serves
as insulation against electricity.

o Pigments fill spaces in paint films

4. Additives

- Formulated in the paint to modify the properties of either the vehicle or the
pigmentation or both.

- They give wet or dried paint film properties, which are not present in the vehicle and
pigmentation system.

- It improves a certain properties of vehicle such as speed drying, pigment resistance to

fading or the entire paint for ease of application.

B. ESSENTIAL AND SPECIFIC PROPERTIES OF GOOD QUALITY PAINT

1. ADHESION- coating must stick to the surface or substrate to bring other properties into work

2. EASE OF APPLICATION - must be easily applied in accordance to the manufacturers prescription

3. FILM INTEGRITY – cured or dried film of paint must have all the film properties as claimed by the
manufacturer.

4. CONSISTENT QUALITY- must be consistent in quality such as color, viscosity, application and
durability from can to can, batch by batch, shipment by shipment.

5. SPECIFIC PROPERTIES – should consider the following:

a. Kitchen enamel- enamel paint must resist grease, heat and repeated cleaning

b. Stucco or latex paint – must resist water, alkali and sunlight and must allow passage of
water vapor.

c. Swimming pool paint – must have specific chlorine, water and sunlight resistance

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 d. Exterior commercial aircraft finishes - must resist ultra violet degradation, erosion by air
loss of adhesion at high speed, rapid temperature changes, chemical attack by the hydraulic
fluid of the aircraft and film rupture from the flexing of the film by the denting of surface.

C. ELEMENTS OF GOOD PAINTING

1. Correct surface preparation

2. Choice of the proper paint system
3. Good application and right technique and tools
4. Correct drying cycle
5. Protection against water
D. SPECIFICATION OF PAINT

1. GENERAL
a. Surface examination
b. Preparation
c. Plaster or masonry
d. Metals
e. Concrete and brick surface

2. CLEANING METHOD
A. Sandblasting
a. Conventional drying
b. Vacuum sandblasting
c. Wet sandblasting
B. Wire-brushing and scraping
a. Power tools
b. Water blasting

3. CHEMICAL METHODS
a. Acid etching
b. Paint remover
c. Steam cleaning
d. Alkali cleaning

E. ESTIMATING YOUR PAINT

EXAMPLE:

A concrete firewall measures 30 m long and 12 m high. Determine the number of gallons ( 4 liters)
required using Acrylic Gloss Latex paint if the wall is:

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 1) Wooden trowel finish ( coarse to rough)
2) Paper finish ( fine to coarse)
3) Fine to smooth ( putty finish)

SOLUTION:

1) WOODEN TROWEL FINISH ( COARSE TO ROUGH)

a. Solve for the wall area

Area + 30 x 12 = 360 sq m

360 divide by 30 sq m area coverage per gallon of neutralizer and water solution

360/30 = 12 gallons

b. If one quart of neutralizer is mixed with 2 ½ gallons of water; divide:

12/2.5 =4.8 say 5 quarts neutralizer

c. Solve for the concrete primer refer to sec 10-6 under masonry water base paint
using acrylic concrete sealer as primer, the area coverage per gallon is 30 to 40
sq.m

d. Divide

360/30 = 12 GALLONS acrylic latex paint primer

e. Solve for acrylic gloss

360/ 30 = 12 gallons

2) Paper finish ( fine to coarse)

a. Solve for the net area of the wall

Net area: 30 x 12 = 360 sq m

b. Solve for the concrete neutralizer as 35 sq m per gallon

360/35 = 10.3

c. If one quart of neutralizer is mixed with 2 ½ gallons of water; divide:

10.3/2.5 = 4.1 quarts neutralizer

d. Solve for concrete primer sealer (use 35 sq per gal)

360/35 = 10.28 gallons

e. Solve for acrylic gloss latex paint 10.28 order 11 gallons

3) Fine to smooth ( putty finish)

Divide the wall area by 40 sq m coverage per gallon

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 360/40= 9.0 gallons surface primer

For final coat, the same , 9 gallons

For neutralizer; 9.0/2.5 = 3.6 say 4 litters

NOTE: CLICK THE LINK BELOW ON HOW TO CALCULATE WALL PUTTY, PRIMER AND PAINT TO BE USE
FOR A ROOM.

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=URXN0P3JzLA
 https://www.wikihow.com/Calculate-Amount-of-Paint-to-Paint-a-Room

END OF MODULE

ERWIN B. LUMILAN
INSTRUCTOR

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