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METAL CASTING PROCESSES

1. Sand Casting
2. Other Expendable Mold Casting Processes
3. Permanent Mold Casting Processes
4. Foundry Practice
5. Casting Quality
6. Metals for Casting
7. Product Design Considerations

Two Categories of Casting Processes

1. Expendable mold processes - mold is
sacrificed to remove part
 Advantage: more complex shapes possible
 Disadvantage: production rates often
limited by time to make mold rather than
casting itself
2. Permanent mold processes - mold is made of
metal and can be used to make many castings
 Advantage: higher production rates
 Disadvantage: geometries limited by need
to open mold

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Expendable Mold Processes

 Sand Casting
 Shell Molding
 Vacuum Molding
 Expanded Polystyrene Process
 Investment Casting
 Plaster Mold and Ceramic Mold
Casting

Sand Casting

 Most widely used casting process,

accounting for a significant majority of total
tonnage cast
 Nearly all alloys can be sand cast,
including metals with high melting
temperatures, such as steel, nickel, and
titanium
 Castings range in size from small to very
large
 Production quantities from one to millions

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Sand Casting Products

Sand Casting Products Cont’d

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Sand Casting Products Cont’d

A large sand casting weighing over 680 kg (1500 lb) for an air
compressor frame (photo courtesy of Elkhart Foundry).

Sand Casting Products Cont’d

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Sand Casting Products Cont’d

Steps in Sand Casting

1. Pour the molten metal into sand mold
2. Allow time for metal to solidify
3. Break up the mold to remove casting
4. Clean and inspect casting
 Separate gating and riser system
5. Heat treatment of casting is sometimes
required to improve metallurgical properties

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Making the Sand Mould

 The cavity in the sand mold is formed by
packing sand around a pattern, then separating
the mold into two halves and removing the
pattern
 The mold must also contain gating and riser
system
 If casting is to have internal surfaces, a core
must be included in mold
 A new sand mold must be made for each part
produced

Making the Sand Mold Cont’d

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Making the Sand Mould Cont’d

Examples of Moulds

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e

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Examples of Moulds Cont’d

Examples of Moulds Cont’d

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Examples of Moulds Cont’d

Sand Casting Production Sequence

Steps in the production sequence in sand casting.
The steps include not only the casting operation but also
pattern-making and mold-making.

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The Pattern
A full-sized model of the part, slightly enlarged to
account for shrinkage and machining
allowances in the casting
 Pattern materials:
 Wood - common material because it is easy
to work, but it warps
 Metal - more expensive to make, but lasts
much longer
 Plastic - compromise between wood and
metal

Types of Patterns
Types of patterns used in sand casting:
(a) solid pattern
(b) split pattern
(c) match-plate pattern
(d) cope and drag pattern

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Core
Full-scale model of interior surfaces of part
 It is inserted into the mold cavity prior to
pouring
 The molten metal flows and solidifies between
the mold cavity and the core to form the
casting's external and internal surfaces
 May require supports to hold it in position in the
mold cavity during pouring, called chaplets

Core in Mold

Figure 11.4 (a) Core held in place in the mold cavity by

chaplets, (b) possible chaplet design, (c) casting with
internal cavity.

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Components and Application of Core in a Mould

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Desirable Mold Properties

 Strength - to maintain shape and resist erosion
 Permeability - to allow hot air and gases to
pass through voids in sand
 Thermal stability - to resist cracking on contact
with molten metal
 Collapsibility - ability to give way and allow
casting to shrink without cracking the casting
 Reusability - can sand from broken mold be
reused to make other molds?

Foundry Sands

Silica (SiO2) or silica mixed with other minerals

 Good refractory properties - capacity to
endure high temperatures
 Small grain size yields better surface finish
on the cast part
 Large grain size is more permeable, allowing
gases to escape during pouring
 Irregular grain shapes strengthen molds due
to interlocking, compared to round grains
 Disadvantage: interlocking tends to
reduce permeability

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©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e

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Binders Used with Foundry Sands

 Sand is held together by a mixture of water and
bonding clay
 Typical mix: 90% sand, 3% water, and 7%
clay
 Other bonding agents also used in sand molds:
 Organic resins (e g , phenolic resins)
 Inorganic binders (e g , sodium silicate and
phosphate)
 Additives are sometimes combined with the
mixture to increase strength and/or
permeability

Types of Sand Mold

 Green-sand molds - mixture of sand, clay, and
water;
 “Green" means mold contains moisture at
time of pouring
 Dry-sand mold - organic binders rather than
clay
 And mold is baked to improve strength
 Skin-dried mold - drying mold cavity surface of
a green-sand mold to a depth of 10 to 25 mm,
using torches or heating lamps

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Buoyancy in Sand Casting Operation

 During pouring, buoyancy of the molten metal
tends to displace the core, which can cause
casting to be defective
 Force tending to lift core = weight of displaced
liquid less the weight of core itself
Fb = W m - W c
where Fb = buoyancy force; Wm = weight of
molten metal displaced; and Wc = weight of
core

Other Expendable Mold Processes

 Shell Molding
 Vacuum Molding
 Expanded Polystyrene Process
 Investment Casting
 Plaster Mold and Ceramic Mold Casting

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Shell Molding
Casting process in which the mold is a thin shell of
sand held together by thermosetting resin binder

Steps in shell molding: (1) a match plate or cope and drag

metal pattern is heated and placed over a box containing
sand mixed with thermosetting resin.

Shell Molding
Steps in shell molding: (2) box is inverted so that sand
and resin fall onto the hot pattern, causing a layer of the
mixture to partially cure on the surface to form a hard
shell; (3) box is repositioned so that loose uncured
particles drop away;

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Shell Molding
Steps in shell molding: (4) sand shell is heated in oven
for several minutes to complete curing; (5) shell mold is
stripped from the pattern;

Shell Molding

Steps in shell molding: (6) two halves of the shell mold are
assembled, supported by sand or metal shot in a box, and pouring
is accomplished; (7) the finished casting with sprue removed.

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Advantages and Disadvantages

 Advantages of shell molding:
 Smoother cavity surface permits easier flow of
molten metal and better surface finish
 Good dimensional accuracy - machining often
not required
 Mold collapsibility minimizes cracks in casting
 Can be mechanized for mass production
 Disadvantages:
 More expensive metal pattern
 Difficult to justify for small quantities

Vacuum Molding
Uses sand mold held together by vacuum
pressure rather than by a chemical binder
 The term "vacuum" refers to mold making
rather than casting operation itself
 Developed in Japan around 1970

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Advantages and Disadvantages

 Advantages of vacuum molding:
 Easy recovery of the sand, since no binders
 Sand does not require mechanical
reconditioning done when binders are used
 Since no water is mixed with sand, moisture
related defects are absent
 Disadvantages:
 Slow process
 Not readily adaptable to mechanization

Expanded Polystyrene Process

Uses a mold of sand packed around a
polystyrene foam pattern which vaporizes
when molten metal is poured into mold
 Other names: lost foam process, lost pattern
process, evaporative foam process, and full
mold process
 Polystyrene foam pattern includes sprue,
risers, gating system, and internal cores (if
needed)
 Mold does not have to be opened into cope
and drag sections

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Expanded Polystyrene Process

Expanded polystyrene casting process: (1) pattern of

polystyrene is coated with refractory compound;

Expanded Polystyrene Process

Expanded polystyrene casting process: (2) foam pattern

is placed in mold box, and sand is compacted around the
pattern;

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Expanded Polystyrene Process

Expanded polystyrene casting process: (3) molten metal

is poured into the portion of the pattern that forms the
pouring cup and sprue. As the metal enters the mold,
the polystyrene foam is vaporized ahead of the
advancing liquid, thus the resulting mold cavity is filled.

Advantages and Disadvantages

 Advantages of expanded polystyrene process:
 Pattern need not be removed from the mold
 Simplifies and speeds mold making,
because two mold halves are not required
as in a conventional green-sand mold
 Disadvantages:
 A new pattern is needed for every casting
 Economic justification of the process is
highly dependent on cost of producing
patterns

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Expanded Polystyrene Process

 Applications:
 Mass production of castings for automobile
engines
 Automated and integrated manufacturing
systems are used to
1. Mold the polystyrene foam patterns and
then
2. Feed them to the downstream casting
operation

Investment Casting (Lost Wax Process)

A pattern made of wax is coated with a refractory
material to make mold, after which wax is
melted away prior to pouring molten metal
 "Investment" comes from a less familiar
definition of "invest" - "to cover completely,"
which refers to coating of refractory material
around wax pattern
 It is a precision casting process - capable of
producing castings of high accuracy and
intricate detail

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Investment Casting

Steps in investment casting: (1) wax patterns are produced,

(2) several patterns are attached to a sprue to form a pattern
tree

Investment Casting

Steps in investment casting: (3) the pattern tree is coated with a

thin layer of refractory material, (4) the full mold is formed by
covering the coated tree with sufficient refractory material to make
it rigid

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Investment Casting

Steps in investment casting: (5) the mold is held in an inverted

position and heated to melt the wax and permit it to drip out of the
cavity, (6) the mold is preheated to a high temperature, the molten
metal is poured, and it solidifies

Investment Casting

Steps in investment casting: (7) the mold is broken away

from the finished casting and the parts are separated
from the sprue

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Investment Casting

A one-piece compressor stator with 108 separate airfoils

made by investment casting (photo courtesy of Howmet
Corp.).

Advantages and Disadvantages

 Advantages of investment casting:
 Parts of great complexity and intricacy can
be cast
 Close dimensional control and good surface
finish
 Wax can usually be recovered for reuse
 Additional machining is not normally
required - this is a net shape process
 Disadvantages
 Many processing steps are required
 Relatively expensive process

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Plaster Mold Casting

Similar to sand casting except mold is made of
plaster of Paris (gypsum - CaSO4-2H2O)
 In mold-making, plaster and water mixture is
poured over plastic or metal pattern and
allowed to set
 Wood patterns not generally used due to
extended contact with water
 Plaster mixture readily flows around pattern,
capturing its fine details and good surface
finish

Advantages and Disadvantages

 Advantages of plaster mold casting:
 Good accuracy and surface finish
 Capability to make thin cross-sections
 Disadvantages:
 Mold must be baked to remove moisture,
which can cause problems in casting
 Mold strength is lost if over-baked
 Plaster molds cannot stand high
temperatures, so limited to lower melting
point alloys

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Ceramic Mold Casting

Similar to plaster mold casting except that mold is
made of refractory ceramic material that can
withstand higher temperatures than plaster
 Can be used to cast steels, cast irons, and
other high-temperature alloys
 Applications similar to those of plaster mold
casting except for the metals cast
 Advantages (good accuracy and finish) also
similar

Permanent Mold Casting Processes

 Economic disadvantage of expendable mold
casting: a new mold is required for every
casting
 In permanent mold casting, the mold is reused
many times
 The processes include:
 Basic permanent mold casting
 Die casting
 Centrifugal casting

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The Basic Permanent Mold Process

Uses a metal mold constructed of two sections
designed for easy, precise opening and closing
 Molds used for casting lower melting point
alloys are commonly made of steel or cast iron
 Molds used for casting steel must be made of
refractory material, due to the very high pouring
temperatures

Permanent Mold Casting

Steps in permanent mold casting: (1) mold is preheated

and coated

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Permanent Mold Casting

Steps in permanent mold casting: (2) cores (if used) are inserted
and mold is closed, (3) molten metal is poured into the mold,
where it solidifies.

Advantages and Limitations

 Advantages of permanent mold casting:
 Good dimensional control and surface finish
 More rapid solidification caused by the cold
metal mold results in a finer grain structure,
so castings are stronger
 Limitations:
 Generally limited to metals of lower melting
point
 Simpler part geometries compared to sand
casting because of need to open the mold
 High cost of mold

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Applications of Permanent Mold Casting

 Due to high mold cost, process is best suited to
high volume production and can be automated
accordingly
 Typical parts: automotive pistons, pump
bodies, and certain castings for aircraft and
missiles
 Metals commonly cast: aluminum, magnesium,
copper-base alloys, and cast iron

Die Casting
A permanent mold casting process in which
molten metal is injected into mold cavity under
high pressure
 Pressure is maintained during solidification,
then mold is opened and part is removed
 Molds in this casting operation are called dies;
hence the name die casting
 Use of high pressure to force metal into die
cavity is what distinguishes this from other
permanent mold processes

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Die Casting Machines

 Designed to hold and accurately close two
mold halves and keep them closed while liquid
metal is forced into cavity
 Two main types:
1. Hot-chamber machine
2. Cold-chamber machine

Hot-Chamber Die Casting

Metal is melted in a container, and a piston injects
liquid metal under high pressure into the die
 High production rates - 500 parts per hour not
uncommon
 Applications limited to low melting-point metals
that do not chemically attack plunger and other
mechanical components
 Casting metals: zinc, tin, lead, and magnesium

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Hot-Chamber Die Casting

Cycle in hot-chamber casting: (1) with die closed and plunger

withdrawn, molten metal flows into the chamber

Hot-Chamber Die Casting

Cycle in hot-chamber casting: (2) plunger forces metal in

chamber to flow into die, maintaining pressure during
cooling and solidification.

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Cold-Chamber Die Casting Machine

Molten metal is poured into unheated chamber
from external melting container, and a piston
injects metal under high pressure into die cavity
 High production but not usually as fast as
hot-chamber machines because of pouring step
 Casting metals: aluminum, brass, and
magnesium alloys
 Advantages of hot-chamber process favor its use
on low melting-point alloys (zinc, tin, lead)

Cold-Chamber Die Casting

Cycle in cold-chamber casting: (1) with die closed and

ram withdrawn, molten metal is poured into the chamber

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Cold-Chamber Die Casting

Cycle in cold-chamber casting: (2) ram forces metal to

flow into die, maintaining pressure during cooling and
solidification.

Molds for Die Casting

 Usually made of tool steel, mold steel, or
maraging steel
 Tungsten and molybdenum (good refractory
qualities) used to die cast steel and cast iron
 Ejector pins required to remove part from die
when it opens
 Lubricants must be sprayed into cavities to
prevent sticking

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Advantages and Limitations

 Advantages of die casting:
 Economical for large production quantities
 Good accuracy and surface finish
 Thin sections are possible
 Rapid cooling provides small grain size and
good strength to casting
 Disadvantages:
 Generally limited to metals with low metal
points
 Part geometry must allow removal from die

Centrifugal Casting
A family of casting processes in which the mold is
rotated at high speed so centrifugal force
distributes molten metal to outer regions of die
cavity
 The group includes:
 True centrifugal casting
 Semicentrifugal casting
 Centrifuge casting

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True Centrifugal Casting

Molten metal is poured into rotating mold to
produce a tubular part
 In some operations, mold rotation commences
after pouring rather than before
 Parts: pipes, tubes, bushings, and rings
 Outside shape of casting can be round,
octagonal, hexagonal, etc , but inside shape is
(theoretically) perfectly round, due to radially
symmetric forces

True Centrifugal Casting

Setup for true centrifugal casting.

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Semicentrifugal Casting
Centrifugal force is used to produce solid castings
rather than tubular parts
 Molds are designed with risers at center to
supply feed metal
 Density of metal in final casting is greater in
outer sections than at center of rotation
 Often used on parts in which center of casting
is machined away, thus eliminating the portion
where quality is lowest
 Examples: wheels and pulleys

Centrifuge Casting
Mold is designed with part cavities located away
from axis of rotation, so that molten metal
poured into mold is distributed to these cavities
by centrifugal force
 Used for smaller parts
 Radial symmetry of part is not required as in
other centrifugal casting methods

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Furnaces for Casting Processes

 Furnaces most commonly used in foundries:
 Cupolas
 Direct fuel-fired furnaces
 Crucible furnaces
 Electric-arc furnaces
 Induction furnaces

Cupolas
Vertical cylindrical furnace equipped with tapping
spout near base
 Used only for cast irons
 Although other furnaces are also used, the
largest tonnage of cast iron is melted in
cupolas
 The "charge," consisting of iron, coke, flux, and
possible alloying elements, is loaded through a
charging door located less than halfway up
height of cupola

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Direct Fuel-Fired Furnaces

Small open-hearth in which charge is heated by
natural gas fuel burners located on side of
furnace
 Furnace roof assists heating action by
reflecting flame down against charge
 At bottom of hearth is a tap hole to release
molten metal
 Generally used for nonferrous metals such as
copper-base alloys and aluminum

Crucible Furnaces
Metal is melted without direct contact with burning
fuel mixture
 Sometimes called indirect fuel-fired furnaces
 Container (crucible) is made of refractory
material or high-temperature steel alloy
 Used for nonferrous metals such as bronze,
brass, and alloys of zinc and aluminum
 Three types used in foundries: (a) lift-out type,
(b) stationary, (c) tilting

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Crucible Furnaces
Three types of crucible furnaces: (a) lift-out crucible, (b)
stationary pot, from which molten metal must be ladled,
and (c) tilting-pot furnace.

Electric-Arc Furnaces
Charge is melted by heat generated from an
electric arc
 High power consumption, but electric-arc
furnaces can be designed for high melting
capacity
 Used primarily for melting steel

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Electric arc furnace for steelmaking

Induction Furnaces
Uses alternating current passing through a coil to
develop magnetic field in metal
 Induced current causes rapid heating and
melting
 Electromagnetic force field also causes mixing
action in liquid metal
 Since metal does not contact heating elements,
environment can be closely controlled to produce
molten metals of high quality and purity
 Melting steel, cast iron, and aluminum alloys are
common applications in foundry work

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Induction Furnace

Induction furnace

Ladles
 Moving molten metal from melting furnace to
mold is sometimes done using crucibles
 More often, transfer is accomplished by ladles

Two common types of ladles: (a) crane ladle, and (b)

two-man ladle.

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Additional Steps After Solidification

 Trimming
 Removing the core
 Surface cleaning
 Inspection
 Repair, if required
 Heat treatment

Trimming
Removal of sprues, runners, risers, parting-line
flash, fins, chaplets, and any other excess
metal from the cast part
 For brittle casting alloys and when cross
sections are relatively small, appendages can
be broken off
 Otherwise, hammering, shearing, hack-sawing,
band-sawing, abrasive wheel cutting, or
various torch cutting methods are used

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Removing the Core

If cores have been used, they must be removed
 Most cores are bonded, and they often fall out
of casting as the binder deteriorates
 In some cases, they are removed by shaking
casting, either manually or mechanically
 In rare cases, cores are removed by chemically
dissolving bonding agent
 Solid cores must be hammered or pressed out

Surface Cleaning
Removal of sand from casting surface and
otherwise enhancing appearance of surface
 Cleaning methods: tumbling, air-blasting with
coarse sand grit or metal shot, wire brushing,
buffing, and chemical pickling
 Surface cleaning is most important for sand
casting
 In many permanent mold processes, this
step can be avoided
 Defects are possible in casting, and inspection
is needed to detect their presence

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Heat Treatment
 Castings are often heat treated to enhance
properties
 Reasons for heat treating a casting:
 For subsequent processing operations such
as machining
 To bring out the desired properties for the
application of the part in service

Casting Quality
 There are numerous opportunities for things to
go wrong in a casting operation, resulting in
quality defects in the product
 The defects can be classified as follows:
 General defects common to all casting
processes
 Defects related to sand casting process

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General Defects: Misrun

A casting that has solidified before completely
filling mold cavity

Some common defects in castings: (a) Misrun

General Defects: Cold Shut

Two portions of metal flow together but there is
a lack of fusion due to premature freezing

Some common defects in castings: (b) cold shut

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General Defects: Cold Shot

Metal splatters during pouring and solid globules
form and become entrapped in casting

Some common defects in castings: (c) cold shot

General Defects: Shrinkage Cavity

Depression in surface or internal void caused by

solidification shrinkage that restricts amount of
molten metal available in last region to freeze

Some common defects in castings: (d) shrinkage cavity

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Sand Casting Defects: Sand Blow

Balloon-shaped gas cavity caused by release of
mold gases during pouring

Common defects in sand castings: (a) sand blow

Sand Casting Defects: Pin Holes

Formation of many small gas cavities at or slightly
below surface of casting

Common defects in sand castings: (b) pin holes

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Sand Casting Defects: Penetration

When fluidity of liquid metal is high, it may penetrate
into sand mold or core, causing casting surface to
consist of a mixture of sand grains and metal

Common defects in sand castings: (e) penetration

Sand Casting Defects: Mold Shift

A step in cast product at parting line caused by

sidewise relative displacement of cope and drag

Common defects in sand castings: (f) mold shift

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General Casting Defects - Images

General Casting Defects – Images Cont’d

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Foundry Inspection Methods

 Visual inspection to detect obvious defects
such as misruns, cold shuts, and severe
surface flaws
 Dimensional measurements to insure that
tolerances have been met
 Metallurgical, chemical, physical, and other
tests concerned with quality of cast metal

Metals for Casting

 Most commercial castings are made of alloys
rather than pure metals
 Alloys are generally easier to cast, and
properties of product are better
 Casting alloys can be classified as:
 Ferrous
 Nonferrous

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Ferrous Casting Alloys: Cast Iron

 Most important of all casting alloys
 Tonnage of cast iron castings is several times that of
all other metals combined
 Several types:
 gray cast iron,
 nodular iron,
 white cast iron,
 malleable iron, and
 alloy cast irons
 Typical pouring temperatures  1400C (2500F),
depending on composition

Ferrous Casting Alloys: Steel

 The mechanical properties of steel make it an
attractive engineering material
 The capability to create complex geometries
makes casting an attractive shaping process
 Difficulties when casting steel:
 Pouring temperature of steel is higher than
for most other casting metals  1650C
(3000F)
 At such temperatures, steel readily oxidizes,
so molten metal must be isolated from air
 Molten steel has relatively poor fluidity

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Nonferrous Casting Alloys: Aluminum

 Generally considered to be very castable
 Pouring temperatures low due to low melting
temperature of aluminum
 Tm = 660C (1220F)
 Properties:
 Light weight
 Range of strength properties by heat
treatment
 Easy to machine

Nonferrous Casting Alloys: Copper Alloys

 Includes bronze, brass, and aluminum bronze
 Properties:
 Corrosion resistance
 Attractive appearance
 Good bearing qualities
 Limitation: high cost of copper
 Applications: pipe fittings, marine propeller
blades, pump components, ornamental jewelry

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Nonferrous Casting Alloys: Zinc Alloys

 Highly castable, commonly used in die casting
 Low melting point – melting point of zinc Tm =
419C (786F)
 Good fluidity for ease of casting
 Properties:
 Low creep strength, so castings cannot be
subjected to prolonged high stresses

Product Design Considerations

Product design cnsiderations include:

 Geometric simplicity
 Corners on the casting
 Draft guidelines
 Dimensional tolerances and surface finish
 Machining allowance

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Product Design Considerations

 Geometric simplicity:
 Although casting can be used to produce
complex part geometries, simplifying the
part design usually improves castability
 Avoiding unnecessary complexities:
 Simplifies mold making

 Reduces the need for cores

 Improves the strength of the casting

Product Design Considerations

 Corners on the casting:
 Sharp corners and angles should be
avoided, since they are sources of stress
concentrations and may cause hot tearing
and cracks
 Generous fillets should be designed on
inside corners and sharp edges should be
blended

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Product Design Considerations

 Draft Guidelines:
 In expendable mold casting, draft facilitates
removal of pattern from mold
 Draft = 1 for sand casting

 In permanent mold casting, purpose is to aid

in removal of the part from the mold
 Draft = 2 to 3 for permanent mold
processes
 Similar tapers should be allowed if solid
cores are used

Draft
 Minor changes in part design can reduce need
for coring

Figure 11.25 Design change to eliminate the need for using

a core: (a) original design, and (b) redesign.

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Product Design Considerations

 Dimensional Tolerances and Surface Finish:
 Significant differences in dimensional
accuracies and finishes can be achieved in
castings, depending on process:
 Poor dimensional accuracies and finish for
sand casting
 Good dimensional accuracies and finish for
die casting and investment casting

Product Design Considerations

 Machining Allowances:
 Almost all sand castings must be machined
to achieve the required dimensions and part
features
 Additional material, called the machining
allowance, is left on the casting in those
surfaces where machining is necessary
 Typical machining allowances for sand
castings are around 1.5 and 3 mm (1/16 and
1/4 in)

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