UNIT 5 CASTING AND FORMING PROCESS

CASTING
• Casting is a manufacturing process by which a
liquid material is usually poured into a mold,
which contains a hollow cavity of the desired
shape, and then allowed to solidify.
• The solidified part is also known as a casting,
which is ejected or broken out of the mold to
complete the process
 CASTING PROCESS
• Casting materials are usually metals.
• Almost all metals can be cast.
• Casting is most often used for making complex
shapes that would be otherwise difficult to
make by other methods.
 SAND CASTING
• Most widely used casting process, accounting
for a significant majority of total tonnage cast
• Nearly all alloys can be sand casted, including
metals with high melting temperatures, such
as steel, nickel, and titanium
• Castings range in size from small to very large
• Production quantities from one to millions
SAND CASTING
 Steps in Sand Casting
1. Pour the molten metal into sand mold
2. Allow time for metal to solidify
3. Break up the mold to remove casting
4. Clean and inspect casting
– Separate gating and riser system
5. Heat treatment of casting is sometimes
required to improve metallurgical properties
SAND MOULDING
• Sand casting weighing over 680 kg (1500 lb) for
an air compressor frame (photo courtesy of
Elkhart Foundry).
 The Pattern
Full‑sized model of part, slightly enlarged to
account for shrinkage and machining
allowances in the casting
• Pattern materials:
– Wood - common material because it is easy to work, but
it warps
– Metal - more expensive to fabricate, but lasts longer
– Plastic - compromise between wood and metal
 Types of Patterns
• Types of patterns used in sand casting: (a)
solid pattern, (b) split pattern, (c) match‑plate
pattern, (d) cope and drag pattern
 Core
Full‑scale model of interior surfaces of part
• Inserted into mold cavity prior to pouring
• The molten metal flows and solidifies between
the mold cavity and the core to form the
casting's external and internal surfaces
• May require supports to hold it in position in
the mold cavity during pouring, called chaplets
 Core in Mold
• (a) Core held in place in the mold cavity by
chaplets, (b) possible chaplet design, (c)
casting
 Desirable Mold Properties
• Strength ‑ to maintain shape and resist erosion
• Permeability ‑ to allow hot air and gases to pass
through voids in sand
• Thermal stability ‑ to resist cracking on contact
with molten metal
• Collapsibility ‑ ability to give way and allow
casting to shrink without cracking the casting
• Reusability ‑ can sand from broken mold be
reused to make other molds?
 Foundry Sand
Silica (SiO2) or silica mixed with other minerals
• Good refractory properties ‑ for high temperatures
• Small grain size for better surface finish on cast part
• Large grain size is more permeable, allowing gases to
escape during pouring
• Irregular grain shapes strengthen molds due to
interlocking, compared to round grains
– Disadvantage: interlocking reduces permeability
 Binders Used with
Foundry Sand
• Sand is held together by a mixture of water and
bonding clay
– Typical mix: 90% sand, 3% water, and 7% clay
• Other bonding agents also used in sand molds:
– Organic resins (e g , phenolic resins)
– Inorganic binders (e g , sodium silicate and
phosphate)
• Additives are sometimes combined with the
mixture to increase strength and/or
permeability
 Types of Sand Mold
• Green‑sand molds - mixture of sand, clay, and
water
– “Green" means mold contains moisture at time of
pouring
• Dry‑sand mold - organic binders rather than clay
– Mold is baked to improve strength
• Skin‑dried mold - drying mold cavity surface of
a green‑sand mold to a depth of 10 to 25 mm,
using torches or heating lamps
Other Expendable Mold Processes
• Shell Molding
• Vacuum Molding
• Expanded Polystyrene Process
• Investment Casting
• Plaster Mold and Ceramic Mold Casting
 Shell Molding
Casting process in which
the mold is a thin shell of
sand held together by
thermosetting resin
binder
• Steps: (1) A metal pattern
is heated and placed over
a box containing sand
mixed with thermosetting
resin
 Steps in Shell Molding

• (2) Box is inverted so

that sand and resin
fall onto the hot
pattern, causing a
layer of the mixture
to partially cure on
the surface to form
a hard shell
 Steps in Shell Molding

• (3) Box is
repositioned
so loose
uncured
particles drop
away
 Steps in Shell Molding

• (4) Sand shell is

heated in oven
for several
minutes to
complete curing
 Steps in Shell Molding

• (5) shell
mold is
stripped
from
pattern
 Steps in Shell Molding

• (6) Two halves of the

shell mold are
assembled, supported
by sand or metal shot
in a box, and pouring
is accomplished
 Steps in Shell Molding

• (7) Finished
casting with sprue
removed
 Shell Molding: Advantages and
Disadvantages

• Advantages:
– Smoother cavity surface permits easier flow of molten
metal and better surface finish
– Good dimensional accuracy
– Mold collapsibility minimizes cracks in casting
– Can be mechanized for mass production
• Disadvantages:
– More expensive metal pattern
– Difficult to justify for small quantities
 Vacuum Molding
Uses sand mold held together by vacuum
pressure rather than by a chemical binder
• The term "vacuum" refers to mold making
rather than casting operation itself
• Developed in Japan around 1970
 Vacuum Casting
• Vacuum Casting is a technology in the field of
Rapid Prototyping for the fast production of
plastic components that are functional and close
or identical to production parts.
• Vacuum Casting begins with Silicone Mold
which is made based on a master model, which
has been built with one of the Rapid
Prototyping machines or in a conventional way.
• Then the Silicone Mold (SRM) is filled with a
two part Polyurethane resin under Vacuum.
 SRM Mould preparation
• An RP part is used to create a master pattern.
• The RP part is then putty finished to achieve the
desirable finish on the PU parts.
• The master pattern is fitted with a sprue and gate
and then surrounded by a parting surface, which
establishes the parting line for the mold.
• The assembly is fixtured in a wooden box, the size
of which is determined by the size of the master.
• Volume of the required mould is calculated,
according to mass of silicon rubber + hardener in
theratio 10:1 is stirred well.
• The liquid RTV (Room-Temperature-Vulcanizing)
silicone is degassed in a Vacuum casting machine,
which eliminates air bubbles trapped init.
• The degassed liquid RTV is then poured over the
pattern and parting surface combination.
• • Mould is kept in oven at 40°C for 10 hours for
better mould life
• Master is taken out, gates & risers are removed, and
clean the
• mould with pressurized air.
 Vacuum Molding: Advantages and
Disadvantages
• Advantages:
– Easy recovery of the sand, since no binders
– Sand does not require mechanical reconditioning done
when binders are used
– Since no water is mixed with sand, moisture‑related
defects are avoided
• Disadvantages:
– Slow process
– Not readily adaptable to mechanization
 Expanded Polystyrene Process
Uses a mold of sand packed around a polystyrene
foam pattern which vaporizes when molten metal
is poured into mold
• Other names: lost‑foam process, lost pattern
process, evaporative‑foam process, and full‑mold
process
• Polystyrene foam pattern includes sprue, risers,
gating system, and internal cores (if needed)
• Mold does not have to be opened into cope and
drag sections
 Steps in
Expanded Polystyrene Process

• (1)
Polystyrene
foam pattern
is coated with
refractory
compound
 Steps in
Expanded Polystyrene Process

• (2) Foam
pattern is
placed in mold
box, and sand is
compacted
around the
pattern
 Steps in
Expanded Polystyrene Process

• (3) Molten metal is

poured into the portion
of the pattern that forms
the pouring cup and
sprue
• As the metal enters the
mold, the polystyrene
foam is vaporized ahead
of the advancing liquid,
thus filling the mold
cavity
 Expanded Polystyrene Process: Advantages
and Disadvantages
• Advantages of expanded polystyrene process:
– Pattern need not be removed from the mold
– Simplifies and speeds mold‑making, because two mold
halves are not required as in a conventional green‑sand
mold
• Disadvantages:
– A new pattern is needed for every casting
– Economic justification of the process is highly dependent
on cost of producing patterns
 Expanded Polystyrene Process
• Applications:
– Mass production of castings for automobile
engines
– Automated and integrated manufacturing
systems are used to
1. Mold the polystyrene foam patterns and then
2. Feed them to the downstream casting operation
 Investment Casting
(Lost Wax Process)
A pattern made of wax is coated with a refractory
material to make the mold, after which wax is
melted away prior to pouring molten metal
• "Investment" comes from a less familiar definition
of "invest" - "to cover completely," which refers to
coating of refractory material around wax pattern
• It is a precision casting process
– Capable of producing castings of high accuracy and
intricate detail
 Steps in Investment Casting

• (1) Wax patterns

are produced
• (2) Several
patterns are
attached to a
sprue to form a
pattern tree
 Steps in Investment Casting

• (3) Pattern tree is

coated with a thin
layer of refractory
material
• (4) Full mold is formed
by covering the
coated tree with
sufficient refractory
material to make it
rigid
 Steps in Investment Casting

• (5) Mold is held in an

inverted position and
heated to melt the wax
and permit it to drip
out of the cavity
• (6) Mold is preheated
to a high temperature,
the molten metal is
poured, and it solidifies
 Steps in Investment Casting

• (7) Mold is broken

away from the
finished casting
and the parts are
separated from
the sprue
 Investment Casting:
Advantages and Disadvantages
• Advantages:
– Parts of great complexity and intricacy can be cast
– Close dimensional control and good surface finish
– Wax can usually be recovered for reuse
– This is a net shape process
• Additional machining is not normally required
• Disadvantages:
– Many processing steps are required
– Relatively expensive process
The Basic Permanent Mold Process
Uses a metal mold constructed of two sections
designed for easy, precise opening and closing
• Molds used for are commonly made of steel
or cast iron
• Molds used for casting steel must be made of
refractory material, due to the very high
pouring temperatures
 Steps in
Permanent Mold Casting
• (1) Mold is preheated and coated for
lubrication and heat dissipation
 Steps in
Permanent Mold Casting

• (2) Cores (if

any are used)
are inserted
and mold is
closed
 Steps in
Permanent Mold Casting

• (3) Molten metal

is poured into
the mold, where
it solidifies
Permanent Mold Casting: Advantages and
Limitations

• Advantages of permanent mold casting:

– Good dimensional control and surface finish
– Rapid solidification caused by metal mold results in a finer
grain structure, so castings are stronger
• Limitations:
– Generally limited to metals of lower melting point
– Simpler part geometries compared to sand casting because
of need to open the mold
– High cost of mold
 Applications and Metals for
Permanent Mold Casting
• Due to high mold cost, process is best suited to
high volume production and can be automated
accordingly
• Typical parts: automotive pistons, pump bodies,
and certain castings for aircraft and missiles
• Metals commonly cast: aluminum, magnesium,
copper‑base alloys, and cast iron
– Unsuited to steels because of very high pouring
temperatures
 Die Casting
A permanent mold casting process in which molten
metal is injected into mold cavity under high pressure
• Pressure is maintained during solidification, then
mold is opened and part is removed
• Molds in this casting operation are called dies; hence
the name die casting
• Use of high pressure to force metal into die cavity is
what distinguishes this from other permanent mold
processes
 Die Casting Machines
• Designed to hold and accurately close two
mold halves and keep them closed while
liquid metal is forced into cavity
• Two main types:
1. Hot‑chamber machine
2. Cold‑chamber machine
 Hot-Chamber Die Casting
Metal is melted in a container, and a piston injects
liquid metal under high pressure into the die
• High production rates
– 500 parts per hour not uncommon
• Applications limited to low melting‑point metals
that do not chemically attack plunger and other
mechanical components
• Casting metals: zinc, tin, lead, and magnesium
 Hot-Chamber Die Casting

• Hot‑chamber die
casting cycle: (1)
with die closed
and plunger
withdrawn,
molten metal
flows into the
chamber
 Hot-Chamber Die Casting

• (2) plunger forces

metal in chamber
to flow into die,
maintaining
pressure during
cooling and
solidification.
 Hot-Chamber Die Casting

• (3) Plunger is
withdrawn, die
is opened, and
casting is
ejected
Cold‑Chamber Die Casting Machine

Molten metal is poured into unheated chamber from

external melting container, and a piston injects metal
under high pressure into die cavity
• High production but not usually as fast as hot‑chamber
machines because of pouring step
• Casting metals: aluminum, brass, and magnesium alloys
• Advantages of hot‑chamber process favor its use on low
melting‑point alloys (zinc, tin, lead)
 Cold‑Chamber Die Casting
Cycle
• (1) With die closed and ram withdrawn,
molten metal is poured into the chamber
 Cold‑Chamber Die Casting
• (2) Ram forces metal toCycle
flow into die,
maintaining pressure during cooling and
solidification
 Cold‑Chamber Die Casting
• Cycle
(3) Ram is withdrawn, die is opened, and part
is ejected
 Molds for Die Casting
• Usually made of tool steel, mold steel, or
maraging steel
• Tungsten and molybdenum (good refractory
qualities) used to die cast steel and cast iron
• Ejector pins required to remove part from die
when it opens
• Lubricants must be sprayed onto cavity
surfaces to prevent sticking
 Die Casting:
Advantages and Limitations

• Advantages:
– Economical for large production quantities
– Good accuracy and surface finish
– Thin sections possible
– Rapid cooling means small grain size and good
strength in casting
• Disadvantages:
– Generally limited to metals with low metal points
– Part geometry must allow removal from die
 Centrifugal Casting
A family of casting processes in which the mold
is rotated at high speed so centrifugal force
distributes molten metal to outer regions of
die cavity
• The group includes:
– True centrifugal casting
– Semicentrifugal casting
– Centrifuge casting
 True Centrifugal Casting
Molten metal is poured into rotating mold to
produce a tubular part
• In some operations, mold rotation commences
after pouring rather than before
• Parts: pipes, tubes, bushings, and rings
• Outside shape of casting can be round,
octagonal, hexagonal, etc , but inside shape is
(theoretically) perfectly round, due to radially
symmetric forces
 True Centrifugal Casting
• Setup for true centrifugal casting
 Semicentrifugal Casting
Centrifugal force is used to produce solid castings
rather than tubular parts
• Molds use risers at center to supply feed metal
• Density of metal in final casting is greater in outer
sections than at center of rotation
• Often used on parts in which center of casting is
machined away, thus eliminating the portion
where quality is lowest
– Examples: wheels and pulleys
 Semicentrifugal Casting
.
 Centrifuge Casting
Mold is designed with part cavities located away
from axis of rotation, so molten metal poured
into mold is distributed to these cavities by
centrifugal force
• Used for smaller parts
• Radial symmetry of part is not required as in
other centrifugal casting methods
 Centrifuge Casting
• .
FUNDAMENTALS OF METAL FORMING

Large group of manufacturing processes in

which plastic deformation is used to change the
shape of metal work pieces
• The tool, usually called a die, applies stresses
that exceed the yield strength of the metal
The metal takes a shape determined by the
geometry of the die.
• Stresses to plastically deform the metal are
usually compressive
– Examples: rolling, forging, extrusion
• However, some forming processes
– Stretch the metal (tensile stresses)
– Others bend the metal (tensile and compressive)
– Still others apply shear stresses
 Basic Types of
Metal Forming Processes
1. Bulk deformation
– Rolling processes
– Forging processes
– Extrusion processes
– Wire and bar
drawing
2. Sheet metalworking
– Bending operations
– Deep or cup drawing
– Shearing processes
 75

Bulk Deformation Processes

• Characterized by significant
deformations and massive shape
changes
• "Bulk" refers to workparts with
relatively low surface area‑to‑volume
ratios
• Starting work shapes include
cylindrical billets and rectangular bars
 Forming Processes

Rolling process
Rolling is a process of reduction of the cross-
sectional area or shaping a metal piece
through the deformation caused by a pair of
rotating in opposite directions metal rolls.
 77

Rolling

Basic bulk deformation processes: rolling

 78

Forging

Basic bulk deformation processes: forging

 Cold forging
• Metal forming performed at room temp or
slightly above.
• Many cold forming processes are important
mass production operations
• Minimum or no machining usually required
– These operations are near net shape or net shape
processes
 Advantages of Cold Forming
• Better accuracy, closer tolerances
• Better surface finish
• Strain hardening increases strength and
hardness
• Grain flow during deformation can cause
desirable directional properties in product
• No heating of work required
 Disadvantages of Cold Forming
• Higher forces and power required for
deformation
• Ductility and strain hardening limit the
amount of forming that can be done
– In some cases, metal must be annealed before further
deformation can be accomplished
– In other cases, metal is simply not ductile enough to be
cold worked
 hot forging
• Hot forming is a range of processes developed
specifically for the forming of high
temperature alloys.
•  Hot draw forming. The hot forming process is
similar to traditional cold forming but involves
heating the tool and component.
 Extrusion
• Compression forming process in which the work
metal is forced to flow through a die opening to
produce a desired cross‑sectional shape
(or)
It is a manufacturing process, in which a block of
metal enclosed in a container is forced to flow
through the opening of a die.
• The metal is subjected to plastic deformation & it
undergoes reduction & elongation.
 84

Extrusion

Basic bulk deformation processes: (c) extrusion

 Hot extrusion
• It is done at fairly high temperatures,
approximately 50 to 75% of the melting point
of the metal.
• Die life and components are effected due to
the high temperatures and pressures, which
makes lubrication necessary.
•Pressures Ranges: 35-700 Mpa.
 Extrusions

Fig : Extrusions and

examples of
products made by
sectioning off
extrusions.
 Uses
• Manufacture of solid & hollow sections from
non ferrous metals & alloys.
• Sliding doors, tubing having various cross
sections, door & window frame
 Types of extrusion
Direct Extrusion (or) Forward Extrusion
– Billet is placed in a chamber and forced
through a die opening by a hydraulically-
driven ram or pressing stem.

Indirect Extrusion (or) Backward

Extrusion – Die moves towards the billet.
 Cold Extrusion

• Cold extrusion is the process done at room

temperature or slightly elevated
temperatures.
 Wire Drawing

Cross‑section of a bar, rod, or wire is reduced by

pulling it through a die opening
• Similar to extrusion except work is pulled
through die in drawing (it is pushed through in
extrusion)
• Although drawing applies tensile stress,
compression also plays a significant role since
metal is squeezed as it passes through die
opening
 91

Wire and Bar Drawing

Basic bulk deformation processes: (d) drawing

1.Cutting operations
2.Forming operations

• In cutting operations the sheet metal is stressed beyond its ultimate

strength whereas in forming operations the stresses are below the
ultimate strength of the metal.

• Metal cutting operations

• In sheet metal operations the metal is sheared hence also called as

shearing operations

• In this operation the metal sheet is stretched beyond its ultimate

strength They include following operations
• Blanking
• Punching
• Notching
• Perforating
• Slitting
• Lancing
• Shaving
• Shearing
• Nibbling
 BLANKING
• Blanking is a cutting operation of a flat metal
sheet and the article punched out is known as
blank
• Blank is the required product of the operation
and the metal left behind is considered as a
waste
 PUNCHING
• It is the cutting operation with the help of which
holes of various shapes are produced in the
sheet metal
• It is similar to blanking only the main difference
is that, the hole is the required product and the
material punched out from the hole is
considered as a waste.
 NOTCHING
• Similar to blanking however the full surface of
punch does not cut the metal
• In this operation the metal pieces are cut from
the edges of a sheet
 Perforating

• It is similar to piercing only difference is that holes produced are

not in a round shape
• In this process, multiple holes which are very small and close
together are cut in the sheet metal
.
Slitting
It is the operation of making an unfinished cut
through a limited length only
Lancing
• In this operation, there is a cut of sheet metal through a
small length and bending this small cut portion
downwards.
Shaving
• This operation is used for cutting unwanted excess material
from the periphery of previously formed workpiece
• Very small amount of material is removed in this process.
Shearing
•It is a process of cutting a straight line across the strip, sheet or bar. It has
three stages
•Plastic deformation
•Fracture
•Shear
•When the metal is placed between upper and lower blades of the shear and
the pressure is applied, plastic deformation of the metal takes place
•As the pressure is continued, the fracture crack starts at the cutting edge of
the blade.
•As the blade descends further, the small fracture meet and the metal is
sheared.
Nibbling
• This operation is generally substituted by
blanking
• It is designed for cutting out flat parts from sheet
metal
• The flat parts ranges from simple and complex
contours
• It is used only for small quantity of components
 Types of Sheet metal Bending
• Bending in sheet-metalwork: the straining of
the metal around a straight axis.
• The metal is plastically deformed so that the
bend takes a permanent set upon removal of
the stresses that caused it.
• V‑bending - performed with a V‑shaped die
• Edge bending - performed with a wiping die

102
 V-Bending
• V-Bending: the sheet metal is bent between a V-shaped punch and die.

– Angles ranging from very obtuse to very acute can be made with V-dies.
– Generally used for low-production operations.
– V-dies are relatively simple and inexpensive.
 Edge Bending
• Edge-Bending: involves cantilever loading of the sheet metal.

– A pressure pad is used to apply a force Fh to hold the base of the part against
the die, while the punch forces the part to yield and bend over the edge of the
die.
– Because of the pressure pad, wiping dies are more complicated and costly
than V-dies and are generally used for high-production work.

104
 Flanging
• a bending operation in which the edge of a
sheet-metal part is bent at a 90º angle (usually)
to form a rim or flange.

– Often used to strengthen or stiffen sheet metal.

– The flange can be formed over a straight bend axis.
– It may also involve some stretching or shrinking of
the metal.
• Hemming: involves cantilever loading of the sheet metal.
– Bending edge of the sheet over on itself, in more than
one bending step.
– Often done to eliminate the sharp edge on the piece,
to increase stiffness, and to improve appearance.
• Seaming: a related operation in which two sheet-metal
edges are assembled.
• Curling (beading): forms the edges of the part into a roll
or curl.
– Done for purposes of safety, strength, and aesthetics.
– Applications include hinges, pots and pans.
a) Hemming,
(b) seaming,
(c) curling.
• Spring Back: when the bending pressure is removed at the end
of the deformation operation, elastic energy remains in the
bent part, causing it to recover partially toward its original
shape.

– This elastic recovery is called springback.

 Ironing
Makes wall thickness of cylindrical cup more uniform
Examples: beverage cans and artillery shells

Ironing to achieve a more uniform wall thickness in a drawn cup:

(1) start of process; (2) during process
Note thinning and elongation of walls

110
• Coining: frequently used in sheet-metal work
to form indentations and raised sections in the
part
 Embossing
Used to create indentations in sheet, such as
raised (or indented) lettering or strengthening ribs

Embossing: (a) cross‑section of punch and die configuration during

pressing; (b) finished part with embossed ribs

112