j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l .

2 0 1 9;8(6):6354–6374

Available online at www.sciencedirect.com

www.jmrt.com.br

Review Article

Recent progress of reinforcement materials: a

comprehensive overview of composite materials

Dipen Kumar Rajak a , Durgesh D. Pagar b , Ravinder Kumar c , Catalin I. Pruncu d,e,∗
a Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sandip Institute of Technology & Research Centre, Nashik, 422212, India
b Department of Mechanical Engineering, K. K. Wagh Institute of Engineering Education & Research, Nashik, 422003, India
c School of Mechanical Engineering, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, 144411, India
d Mechanical Engineering, Imperial College London, Exhibition Rd., London SW7 2AZ, UK
e Mechanical Engineering, School of Engineering, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Emerged in the middle of 20th century, composite materials are now one of the hotspot
Received 30 August 2019 research topics in the modern technology. Their promising characteristics make them
Accepted 25 September 2019 suitable for enormous applications in industrial field such as aerospace, automotive,
Available online 10 October 2019 construction, sports, bio-medical and many others. These materials reveal remarkable
structural and mechanical properties such as high strength to weight ratio, resistance to
Keywords: chemicals, fire, corrosion and wear; being economical to manufacture. Herein, an overview
Composites materials of composite materials, their characterization, classification and main advantages linked to
Manufacturing techniques physical and mechanical properties based on the recent studies are presented. There, were
Mechanical properties presented the conventional manufacturing techniques of composite and their applications.
Application It was highlighted the tremendous need to discovery new generation of composites that
should incorporate the synthetic or natural materials by implementing new efficient man-
ufacturing processes. In the combination of matrix and reinforcement materials, the use
of natural materials as constituent are compulsory in order to obtain a complete material
degradable as environmentally friendly.
© 2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the
CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

Dr. Catalin Pruncu is a Charter and Member of the Institute of products for Spanish Navy. Developed a new design for metal
Mechanical Engineers (UK), since Nov, 2015. He has great expe- seat ball valve assemblies for Nuclear and Marine industries
rience in Microstructural characterization, Solid Mechanics, & resolved some problems imposed by the surface engi-
Fracture Mechanics, Tribology, Design Mechanics, Compos- neering submitted to the tribological contacts(i.e. ball, seat,
ite Materials & Finite Element Modelling determined both and ball/seat/ body of valves); predicted the wear produced
numerically and experimentally. Currently, his research is in the ball valve mechanisms, conducted testing and fail-
dedicated to further develop and validate hot form quench ure analysis of existing valve products, investigated surface
(HFQ® ) Technology for use in the global automotive industry. characteristics and tribological response for imposed contact
As design engineer he was involved to design high integrity combinations.

∗
Corresponding author at: Mechanical Engineering, Imperial College London, Exhibition Rd., London SW7 2AZ, UK.
E-mail: c.pruncu@imperial.ac.uk (C.I. Pruncu).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2019.09.068
2238-7854/© 2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 1 9;8(6):6354–6374 6355

or lose their individual identities, instead they combine and

Nomenclature synergistically contribute their traits to improve the proper-
ties of final product [11,12]. We can identify the characteristics
PMCs Polymer matrix composites of distinct components within the finished structure of com-
CMCs Ceramic matrix composites posite when examined through a microscope [13]. Composite
MMCs Metal matrix composites material is an amalgamation of a base material and a filler
CNTs Carbon nanotubes material. Base material is also called as matrix or a binder
PEEK Polyether ether ketone material as it surrounds and binds reinforcement of other
TFL Transfer film layer material. Filler material or reinforcement is in the form of
TGA Thermal gravimetric analysis fragments, particles, and fibers, whiskers of natural or syn-
DSC Differential scanning calorimetry thetic material [14–16]. Matrix is generally seen as relatively
RGO Reduced graphene oxide soft phase with specific physical and mechanical properties
PVPBM Poly 4-vinylpyridine-co-butyl methacrylate like ductility, formability and thermal conductivity [17]. In the
EPD Electrophoretic deposition matrix reinforcement of materials with high strength, high
PLA Poly lactic acid stiffness, and low thermal expansions are embedded. Rein-
GO Graphene oxide forcement phase in composites are therefore usually stronger
FRP Riber reinforced polymer and stiffer than the matrix as it carries the applied load to the
RTM Resin transfer molding material.
PIP Polymer infiltration & pyrolysis As the components of a composite material influences its
SMC Sheet molding compound properties, there is need of studying their classification and
BMC Bulk molding compound distinct properties thoroughly [18–20]. Since composite mate-
TMC Thick molding compound rials being employed for wide variety of applications in major
RRIM Reinforced reaction injection molding fields, plenty of researchers have commenced developing var-
AM Additive manufacturing ious types of advance manufacturing techniques to increase
FFF Fused filament fabrication productivity and efficiency [2,21,22]. This study proposes a bet-
UV Ultra violet ter understanding towards how composites are categorized,
LOM Laminated object manufacturing their dominating properties, manufacturing techniques and
CBAM Composite based additive manufacturing potential applications to replace monolithic material.
CFRP Carbon fiber reinforced plastics
CMC Ceramic matrix composites
CA Cellulose acetate 2. Classifications
BFRP Basalt fiber reinforced polymers
BLP Basalt lines pipes Composite materials are classified according to the type of
constituents used as shown in Fig. 1.

2.1. Based on matrix phase

1. Introduction
2.1.1. Polymer matrix composites (PMCs)
The reason for rapid growth in usage and popularity for PMCs are composed of thermosetting plastics or thermoplas-
composite material in the field of engineering and material tics matrix with dispersed reinforcement of carbon, glass,
sciences is that they provide highly attractive combination Kevlar, metal fibers [26–29]. Thermosets are more popular in
of stiffness, toughness with light weight and corrosion resis- use than thermoplastics due to their higher strength and resis-
tance properties [1–4]. A composite material, the name itself tance to high temperatures [30]. Thermosets are prepared by
elaborates the definition that it’s a composition of mate- mixing resin with hardener. Laminar structure is most widely
rials. It is formation of two or more constituent materials used made by stacking and bonding thin layers of fiber and
having significantly different physical or chemical properties polymer until the desired thickness is obtained. PMCs are low
when combined together produces a material which pos- cost composites due to easy handling techniques and simple
sesses unique characteristics different from the constituent fabrication methods [31,32].
elements [5,6]. This enhancement makes composite mate-
rial stands superior when compared to properties possessed 2.1.2. Ceramic matrix composites (CMCs)
by individual material. The concept of composite material is CMCs are type of ceramics generally composed carbon, sili-
well illustrated by naturally occurring composite materials con carbide (SiC), aluminum oxide (Al2 O3 ), silicon nitride (SiN)
such as wood which is made up of fibrous chains of cellulose fibers embedded in ceramic matrix structure [33]. They are
molecules in a matrix of organic polymer lignin [7,8]. Another designed to overcome the drawback of monolithic ceramics,
example of natural composite is bones, composed of inorganic brittleness. Due to failure strain of the matrix is lower than
crystals called hydroxyapatite in a matrix of an organic mate- the failure strain of the fibers; CMCs are referred as inverse
rial called collagen [9,10]. Further classification and type of composites. While in most of the polymer or metal matrix
composite materials based on their constituents are discussed composites the phenomenon is exactly reverse. Hence, under
in subsequent chapters. Unlike mixtures and solid solutions, loading conditions it is the matrix which fails first, in order to
the component of composite material do not blend or dissolve prevent an early failure of the brittle fibers [34,35]. The fabri-
6356 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 1 9;8(6):6354–6374

Fig. 1 – Classification of composite materials [23–25].

cation of CMCs is done under specific processing techniques and forming [50,51]. Concrete being a very good example, the
named as Gas-or liquid-phase routes. In this process with the aggregate of coarse rock or gravel is embedded in a matrix of
inner phase and the matrix are formed around the fibers from cement. Here aggregate provides stiffness and strength while
gaseous or liquid precursors [36,37]. cement acts as binder to hold the structure together [52].
When high volume fraction of Iron based glassy particles as
2.1.3. Metal matrix composites (MMCs) reinforcement used for MMCs it led to significant hardening
The matrix material of MMCs are compulsorily metallic of the Al matrix which results in a remarkable combination of
(mostly aluminum (Al), magnesium (Mg), copper (Cu) & high strength and plasticity [53].
titanium (Ti)) and reinforcement could be either dispersed
ceramics like oxides & carbides or it could be metallic (i.e. 2.2.3. Sheet
tungsten, molybdenum, lead). Reinforcement contributes a Sheet based composites generally termed as sheet mold-
few percentages to around 50% of the total volume of the ing composite (SMC) is a glass reinforced thermoset molding
composite material [38]. Al based MMCs are most widely material with glass reinforcement which is usually com-
used in automobile and aerospace industries as reinforcement pression molded [2,54,55]. It combines long glass fiber and
compounds such as SiC and Al2 O3 are mixed easily and effec- unsaturated resins to produce a high strength molding com-
tively in molten Al to achieve desired properties like superior posite. SMCs are applicable for large structural components as
strength, improved stiffness, reduced density, controlled ther- it shows high strength-to-weight ratio. It also offers additional
mal expansion and improved wear resistance [39–41]. Due benefits in part design such as fastening attachments and sub-
to high stiffness and abrasive structures there is high tool assemblies. When compared to cylindrical shell panel, the
wear rate during machining process of MMCs therefore, usu- buckling temperature is higher for spherical panel [56].
ally unconventional machining techniques are used for MMC
whereas no contact between tool and the material [42]. 2.3. Based on scale

2.2. Based on reinforcements 2.3.1. Nano-composites

Desired material properties can be achieved by combining two
2.2.1. Fiber or more distinct materials at nano scale which result in the for-
In fiber reinforced composite materials, dispersed phase of mation of a novel material called nano-composite. Generally,
synthetic fibers such as glass, carbon, basalt and Kevlar nano-composites are classified as unintercalated, interca-
in a composite structure revealed enhanced material prop- lated, and exfoliated composites and these are prepared by
erties such as high strength, stiffness and resistance to using template synthesis, intercalation of polymer, in situ
chemical, temperature and wear [43–47]. Currently, use of polymerization, and melt compounding [57,58]. Biomedical
natural fiber reinforcement has gain tremendous popularity nano-composites are nano composites designed for biomed-
among researchers. Chemically treated natural fibers showing ical applications such as dental treatments [59], bone tissue
improved impact toughness and fatigue strength, moreover engineering [60], drug delivery in cancer treatments [61] and
they are abundantly available at cheap rates, biodegradable wound dressings [62,63].
hence eco-friendly and they have low density compared to Exceptional optical properties of composite materials are
synthetic fibers [48,49]. utilized efficiently by embedding transparent matrix mate-
rial [64]. CNTs graphene and its oxides, MoS2 /graphene
2.2.2. Particle nano-composites showed enhanced optoelectronic properties
When compared to fiber based composites, particle based advantageous for photonic applications [65–69] while black
composites is a less effective by means of strengthening. Parti- phosphorus nano-structure is used for treating cancer in
cle reinforced composites find applications where high levels biomedical applications [70].
of wear resistance are required such as road surfaces. The
hardness of cement is increased significantly by adding gravel 2.3.2. Bio-composites
as a reinforcing filler material. The advantage of particle rein- Demand of biodegradable, environmental friendly materials
forced composites is their low cost and ease of production compels researchers to seek new opportunities developing
 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 1 9;8(6):6354–6374 6357

bio-composites. Bio-composite made of sugar palm fibers stability of treated sisal fibril/kenaf fiber reinforced hybrid
reinforced in the sago starch matrix reveals enhancement composite. Thermal stability of hybrid composites was higher
in thermal stability, reduced water absorption tendency, about (3–4%) than the K40P60 and S40P60 composites [94]. The
increased tensile and tearing strength, and durability of a differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) results showed that
material [71–75]. Bio-nano-composites fabricated at nanoscale Cb-CPCM being very convenient melting and freezing temper-
have showed potentiality in variety of applications such atures for keeping thermal comfort of building envelopes and
as tissue engineering scaffolds, bio-packaging etc. [76–82]. relatively high amount of latent heat storage/release capac-
Antibacterial property of ginger fiber has been effectively uti- ity. Also, TGA results demonstrated that composite had high
lized to sustain food packaging quality [83]. thermal degradation stability [95].

3.1.2. Wear resistance

3. Distinct properties When compared to pure casted copper addition of SiC-
graphite reinforcement in copper (Cu) increases the wear
3.1. Impact resistance resistance of the copper. It was observed that the wear rate
is 50% less than pure casted copper when 10 wt% vol. of
An enhanced impact resistance has observed in mechani- graphite-SiC reinforcement is added to Cu. It also provides
cal meta-materials with magnetic inclusions when compared a lubrication film on the surface. A fine SiC particle pre-
to their non-magnetic counterparts. When magnitude of vents the material from abrasion and plastic deformation [96].
magnetic moment that associated with magnetic inclusions Boron carbide (B4 C) reinforced aluminium silicon composites
increased within the system, there is an improvement in when investigated experimentally, it had showed that there is
impact resistance of the entire structure. The magnetic inclu- increase in wear resistance by 40% with increased in porosity
sions within the system have the capability to minimize the of composite material when 0.5%vol. graphene supplementa-
negative effects of the collision from an external body. There- tion contributed [97].
fore, It is concluded that the use of composite materials
minimizes the damage caused by the automobile collision, 3.1.3. Corrosion resistance
also improves the efficiency of existing protective devices and Multilayer Reduced Graphene Oxide (RGO) and Poly 4-
thus these are expected to be useful in the case of a variety of Vinylpyridine-co-butyl methacrylate (PVPBM) composite coat-
applications ranging from military-related protective devices ing prepared by ecofriendly Electrophoretic Deposition (EPD)
to automobile exterior body parts [84–87]. Recently developed technique serve as a protective coating for copper. RGO-PVPBM
fique fiber reinforced epoxy matrix composite is replacing con- composite coating shows uniform, pore free and enhanced
ventional aramid fabric plates which were used as armor for corrosion inhibition efficiency of up to 95.4% [98]. Initially in
personal protections. When a ballistic test with high velocity organic coatings, silicon nitride was used as anti-corrosive pig-
7.62 × 51 mm ammunition is carried out fique fiber shows out- ment. But to protect Q235 carbon steel an effective strategy
standing results. Also, being a natural fiber, it is environment by combining inorganic fillers and organosilanes proposed to
friendly [88,89]. Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and graphene mate- enhance the dispersibility of silicon nitride in epoxy resin. The
rials possess very high strength and stiffness value makes results showed that modified silicon nitride coating exhibits
them demanding for energy absorber applications. Such a good anticorrosion performance [99].
tough and being lightweight composites, these are used for the
fabrication of the upcoming body armors. High-performance 3.1.4. Damping
natural fibers, such as curaua fibers are new promising com- When compared to 14 FRP footbridges with the non-FRP
posite fiber available in ballistic systems [90]. foot bridges, the dynamic property shows that they are
found to have 2.5 times higher damping ratio than that
3.1.1. Temperature resistance of steel, concrete, and steel-concrete composite footbridges.
The experimental results showed that thermal insulation However, they seem to have a lower damping ratio than
properties are improved by using wool fibers as reinforcement timber footbridges [100]. In p-GNPs/epoxy and f-GNPs/epoxy
in the cementitious matrix to obtain mortars and plasters for composites, the damped natural frequencies decrease with
construction industry. A wool fiber shows noticeable improve- addition of GNPs nano-fillers due to decrease in toughness
ments in the thermal insulation of the resulting composites, of nano-composite. When experimental vibration results are
regardless of their length. Thermal resistivity of the sam- investigated it was confirmed the effect of graphene nano-
ples filled with wool increases by increasing the fiber content platelets was beneficial on the damping ratio of high content
[91,92]. Even at elevated temperatures, Polyether ether ketone epoxy nano-composites [101].
(PEEK) composites showed more effectiveness to develop
resilient Transfer Film Layer (TFL), while on steel counterpart it 3.1.5. Electrical
is not uniform and it is temperature dependent as well. Nature Hybrid composite with sisal and kenaf fiber showed improve-
of TFL decides the coefficient of friction which is an important ment in mechanical strength with increase in tensile strength,
parameter while considering mechanical properties of a mate- flexural strength and impact strength. Sisal and kenaf fiber
rial. In case of composites mechanical properties like wear hybrid polyester composites showed its suitability for vari-
resistance, rigidity, hardness, deformation, breakage of poly- ous electrical insulation applications. The dielectric constant
meric chains retained even at high temperatures [93]. Thermal (E0), dissipation factor (tan d), and dielectric loss factor (E00)
gravimetric analysis (TGA) was done to study the thermal of hybrid composites were observed 3.59, 0.0095, and 0.0106
6358 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 1 9;8(6):6354–6374

at 20 kHz [94]. Lithium Iron Phosphate (LiFePO4) batteries are content up to 70%. When tested, flexural strength possesses
currently replacing conventional lead acid batteries which by composites possess flexural strength of 273 MPa, in the case
shows application in the batteries of electric vehicles. Due to of molding temperature of 160 ◦ C [116].
high cost of raw materials and tedious preparation process,
the re-synthesis of LiFePO4 from spent batteries becoming
3.1.8. Lightweight
more economical and convenient process. LiFePO4/ Reduced
Particle shape and size in particle based composite decides
Graphene Oxide composite obtained from the process shows
the density of material. In copper matrix reinforced with
better electrochemical performance, including smooth CV
copper-graphite hybrid metal matrix composite the addition
curves, low electrochemical impedance, high capacity, flat
of graphite in the matrix decreases the density of compos-
voltage plateau, and high columbic efficiency, stable cycle per-
ite material which is beneficial in light weight applications
formances at 0.2C and 1C and excellent rate capacity [102].
[96,117,118].
When compared to each individual component, the use of
ternary composites for super capacitor materials like man-
ganese dioxide (MnO2 ) carbon based material could be highly 3.1.9. Acoustic
beneficial in electrochemical performance providing cycling Luffa fibers have superior sound absorption properties. By
stability. Recent studies in carbon materials such as car- using perforated linen, sound absorption coefficient of 10 mm
bon nanotubes, graphene, porous carbon, and carbon spheres thick luffa fiber reinforced bio-composite is increase to 0.3
helps to improve conductivity, capacitance of active MnO2 as for frequency of 0.5–6 kHz [119]. The elastic and high damp-
composite electrode material. Carbon support stores electri- ing properties of luffa fiber composites allows them to be
cal charge in it reflecting its applications such as inkjet and used in many sound and vibration isolation applications like
screen printing, where manufacturing cost is reduced [103]. airplanes, automobiles, yachts and architecture fields. Also,
being an environmentally friendly biodegradable material it
3.1.6. Chemical will rapidly gain popularity in the field of composite manufac-
Monitoring, receiving and transducing the information in the turing [120–122].
various form of energy is the function of a sensor. Use of com-
posite nano-materials as a sensing device has boosted since 3.1.10. Radiopacity
past decade and the advancements in their performance is PEEK-OPTIMA polymer introduced by barium sulfate fillers in
achieved [104,105]. the form of fine powder when added increases the radioden-
CNTs are used as chemical sensors to sense chemical sity (or radiopacity) of the polymer, making it more visible
vapors nano-materials such as graphene and CNTs shows under X-ray inspection [123,124]. Complex 3-D shapes like
outstanding electrochemical and optical characteristics that screws, pins or contoured bone plates are manufactured with
make them ideal candidates for chemical sensors used in pultrusion process using continuous fiber-reinforced PEEK-
biotechnological, pharmaceutical, and environmental appli- OPTIMA as it possess high strength and stiffness competing
cations [106–108]. An electronic tongue made of composite with metallic implantable materials. Also it is pultruded into
material used as a biosensor [109,110]. rods, tubes or hot pressed by various means into flat plates
For a noval chemical sensor, surveillance and moni- [125].
toring electrochemical devices with high precision, cost-
effectiveness and the ability of interacting with variety
3.1.11. Puncture resistance
of biological and chemical components are the influenc-
Glass fiber polyester shows no perforation at higher tem-
ing factors. Bio-polymers such as, cellulose, starch, lignin,
perature and loading condition while, specimens without
chitin, chitosan, alginate, polyhydroxyalkanoates, poly lac-
reinforcement gets damaged with perforation even at lower
tic acid (PLA), pullulan, collagen and gelatin are used for the
temperature [126]. Sandwich structured composite made of
fabrication of bio-composites which offers biocompatibility,
recycled polyester and kevlar fibers with inner layer of glass
biodegradability and are easily available in abundance. Chem-
fibers revealed improvement in mechanical properties with
ical sensors made of bio-composite serves material properties
increased puncture resistance making it a potential candidate
including high Young’s modulus, dimensional stability, and
for insoles [127].
low coefficient of thermal expansion [111–113].

3.1.7. Flexural strength 3.1.12. Flame retardant

Jute fiber reinforced composites are found to be a better alter- Use of fire retardant filler materials in the matrix of polymer
native to synthetic fiber composites due to their properties composites being practiced since past many years, moreover
being light in weight, easily available in abundance, low cost, some elements possess self-extinguishing property and using
biodegradable and high flexural strength [114]. Manufactur- these materials as constituent of a composite makes it a
ing techniques with variation in size, orientation and weight fire resistant material [128–130]. Recently developed graphene
segment of reinforced material highly influences the mechan- foam (GOTP) is manufactured by mixing graphene oxide (GO)
ical behavior of composite. Also the moisture content and solution with Hexachlorocyclotriphosphazene. GOTP foams
immersion time influences the flexural strength and other are environment friendly and possesses flame retardant fea-
mechanical properties of composite material [115]. A compos- ture and are light in weight. They also have compressible
ite made of poly lactic acid resin reinforced with bamboo fibers structure and microwave absorption capacity which offers
shows increase in the flexural strength with increase in fiber many potential applications in aerospace industry [131].
 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 1 9;8(6):6354–6374 6359

Table 1 – Different types of reinforcements and matrix material used for composite materials with their applications and
manufacturing techniques.
Composite material Manufacturing
Ref No. Enhanced properties Applications
techniques
Reinforcement Matrix material

[89] Fique fiber Epoxy resin Impact resistance Body armor Cold pressing
[92] Sheep wool fibers Cement Temperature Mortars or plasters in Mixing
resistance construction industry
[93] Titanium dioxide PEEK Wear resistance Tribological application Mechanical extrusion
(TiO2 ) particles and injection molding
[94] Sisal/kenaf fibers Polyester Tensile, flexural, Press board used in Compression molding
impact strength transformer assembly,
high strength electrical
insulation
[96] SiC/graphite Cu Wear resistance Heat exchanger Liquid state stir casting
powder
[116] Jute fibers PLA Abrasive wear Tribological application Solvent casting
resistance
[130] Basalt fibers Vinyl ester resin Fire resistance Hot gas filtration Vacuum bag resin
systems infusion

Table 1 presents a summary of different types of reinforce- into the mold simultaneously a roller is used to fuse resin
ments and matrix material used for composite materials with and reinforcement together as illustrated in Fig. 4 [141,142].
their applications and manufacturing techniques. Then deposited material is left under atmospheric conditions
to cure to the room temperature. A chopped laminate provides
good conformability and the process is quite faster than hand
4. Manufacturing techniques lay-up process when it is subjected to mold complex shapes.
In spray up process operator manipulates the thickness and
Composites are manufactured through variety of different consistency of coat therefore, this process is automated as it
techniques, sometimes there could be a combination of two uses portable equipment and also it allows on site fabrication
or more processes [132]. Manufacturing techniques are chosen [143].
based on the type matrix or fiber material used; some of the
composite manufacturing techniques are categorized through 4.1.3. Filament winding
Fig. 2 [133,134]. It is an automated open molding process which uses a rotating
mandrel as mold. Reinforcement fibers drawn from continu-
4.1. Open molding ous roving are passes through hot resin bath shown in Fig. 5,
resin infused continuous fibers are wrapped around the rotat-
In this process materials are exposed to air to cure and to get ing mandrel that has the internal desired shape of product
harden [145]. After applying sufficient layers, laminate is set for cur-
ing and mandrel is removed. It provides high tensile strength,
4.1.1. Hand lay-up strength to weight ratio and uniformity to the products. It
It is the most common and widely used composite manu- is an automated computer controlled process, usually allows
facturing process as it requires least amount of equipment’s. manufacturing hollow cylindrical shapes [146,147].
In this process, a gel coat is applied to an open mold and
then successive layers of resin (matrix/binder material) and 4.2. Closed molding
fiber reinforcement which are in the form of woven, knitted,
stitched or bonded fabrics are manually applied to make a Resin and fibers are cured inside the mold, mostly automated
fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) composite structure [137,138]. process therefore used for large volume production.
Brushes and rotating rollers are used to force resin into the
fabrics for the purpose of removing air bubbles as displayed in 4.2.1. Vacuum bag molding
Fig. 3. There is no requirement of heat for the curing process as First a flexible thin film of nylon, PVA or polyethylene is placed
laminates are left until it gets cured naturally to the room tem- over wet lay-up, the reinforcement is saturated, then edges are
perature [136]. For the experimentation to study mechanical sealed and vacuum bag is mounted on a mold as displayed
properties of alkali treated plain woven banana fabric rein- in Fig. 6. It uses atmospheric pressure to reduce air pressure
forced biodegradable composites, 60:40 wt fractions of banana from vacuum bag. Then external atmospheric pressure exerts
fabric and polyvinyl alcohol were used to fabricate composite force on vacuum bag to consolidate the laminate by removing
laminates by hand lay-up technique [139]. entrapped air, excess resin which results in higher percent-
age of fiber reinforcement [149,150]. The fabrication of 3-ply
4.1.2. Spray up carbon fiber and multi walled carbon nano-tubes laminate
In spray-up process, chopped fibers of reinforcement material composites were performed by hand lay-up assisted vacuum
are held in a hand gun and resins are sprayed simultaneously bagging technique, where laminate was fabricated by hand
6360 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 1 9;8(6):6354–6374

Fig. 2 – Composite manufacturing techniques [135,136].

Fig. 4 – Spray up process [144].

Fig. 3 – Hand layup process [140]. pre heated from 250◦ to 400 ◦ F mounted on large hydraulic or
mechanical molding presses. The compression molding pro-
cess is shown in Fig. 8. First, resin charge is kept in a mold
layup process and consolidated for 45 min using vacuum bag- where one of the mold is fixing and other movable mold part
ging technique [151]. is hot pressed the material to form the structure [145,146].
On the basis of type of material to be molded, there are sev-
4.2.2. Vacuum infusion eral types of compression molding, sheet molding compound
It is also termed as resin film infusion process; it is slightly (SMC), bulk molding compound (BMC), thick molding com-
different from the vacuum bag molding as vacuum is applied pound (TMC), and wet lay-up compression molding [160]. To
before resin is introduced. The vacuum bag is positioned overcome the difficulty of adding high content of bamboo
and sealed at mold perimeter and a perforated tube is place fibers into the epoxy resin, hand lay-up technique followed
between the vacuum bag and resin container. Then it uses a by compression molding is used [161].
vacuum pressure to resin to suck in and consolidate the lam-
inates as a perforated film is placed over dry reinforcement. 4.2.5. Pultrusion
Laminated gets compacted when resin is pulled into the mold, Pultrusion is scalable manufacturing process (Fig. 9) desired to
leaving no room for excess resin [153–155]. produce constant cross section of FRP elements [145,163,164].
It is a continuous process having very high structural
4.2.3. Resin transfer molding properties and is adaptable for both simple and complex
It injects resin under pressure using injection equipment into cross-sectional shapes. Using tractor mechanism, continuous
the mold cavity where dry reinforcement materials are already strands of glass, carbon or basalt fiber infused in a resin bath
placed. The resin transfer molding (RTM) is illustrated in are pulled through a steel die. The steel die heated rapidly so
Fig. 7. It provides flexibility to the combination of fiber orien- that the saturated reinforcement gets consolidated in it and
tation. RTM is done at room temperature with fast cycle time sets the shape of the stock [165,166].
[156–158]. It renders flexibility over combination of material
and its orientation, including 3-D reinforcement. 4.2.6. Reinforced reaction injection molding (RRIM)
In this process two or more resins are mixed together in the
4.2.4. Compression molding mixing chamber to form a thermosetting polymer under high
Compression molding is mainly useful for complex fiberglass- pressure. Reinforcement agents like glass fibers or mica are
reinforced polymer parts as it is a high-volume, high-pressure added to the mixture. Then the resin mixture is metered into
method which works on a rapid cycle time. It uses metal molds a mold with the help of high pressure pumps or injection cylin-
 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 1 9;8(6):6354–6374 6361

Fig. 5 – Filament winding process [148].

Fig. 6 – Vacuum bag molding process [152].

Fig. 8 – Compression molding process [162].

Fig. 7 – Resin transfer molding process [159]. 4.2.7. Centrifugal casting

This process, resin and reinforcement are deposited inside the
surface of cylindrical rotating mold. Centrifugal force holds
the mixture against the inner wall of cylindrical mold until
ders. The resultant liquid is low viscous liquid though mixing it gets cured. Process can be understood from Fig. 11 where
is occurs at high pressure. The mixed resin with low viscos- molten resin is poured in the basin which sets into the mold
ity is easily injected into the mold cavity (Fig. 10) at relatively cavity. To overcome the limitation of low particulate volume
low pressure about 50 psi. Without acquiring any additional percentage material while producing nano size TiB2 particles
heat Polymerization takes place very quickly within the mold within an aluminium matrix, centrifugal casting process is
cavity [168,169]. employed [171–173].
6362 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 1 9;8(6):6354–6374

Fig. 9 – Pultrusion process [167].

4.3.1. Gel coated cultures stone molding

A gel coat is specialized polyester resin material and coat pro-
vides an outer coating to composites to protect the material
by external means; it is sprayed on a mold surface and then
left for curing. Then it is blended with variety of fillers which
are going to be used as reinforcement for fabrication of certain
composite [178].

4.3.2. Solid surface molding

To make material surface look aesthetically alluring solid sur-
face molding is chosen as it uses blend of polyester resin
or acrylic resin with vacuum mix technique to make matrix
material void free. Simulation of natural granite stone is one
of the examples.

4.3.3. Engineered stone molding

In this type of molding process small amount of resin is com-
bined with stone particles and then poured in to the mold
cavity. Vacuum assisted press technique is used to extract air
from the matrix and then formation is compressed to achieve
Fig. 10 – Reinforced reaction injection molding process low porosity casting. Presence of real stones in the matrix of
[170]. material provides high durability, high heat resistance, low
thermal expansion, strain and scratch resistance.

4.4. Advanced manufacturing techniques

4.2.8. Continuous lamination
Products having opaque, translucent flat, panel like structures The above described conventional composite manufacturing
are manufactured using continuous lamination process. The processes require molds which limit the formability and make
machine combines reinforcement and resin on plastic film. the process costly and a bit tedious when it comes to complex
With the help of compacting rollers pressure is applied and structures. While additive manufacturing (AM) uses a fabri-
trapped air is removed. After completion of curing in an oven, cation technique where composite structures are made lay
panels are rolled on a huge roller forming a laminate sheet by layer with the use of computer aided designing process
which then trimmed to width and cut to length as demon- [179–181].
strated in Fig. 12. When there is a requirement of special
surface effects they are created by using embossed carrier 4.4.1. AM techniques are classified into 4-processes
films [175,176]. • Material extrusion: Material is deposited in the solid fila-
ment or in paste form through a nozzle. The technique used
4.3. Cast polymer molding to melt and extrude the filament is called fused filament
fabrication (FFF) [182].
Cast polymers do not have fiber reinforcement in it; they are • Vat photo polymerization: It uses ultra violet (UV) light to
designed to meet specific requirements according to applica- cure photopolymer. Though it prints in high resolution, the
tion [177]. choice of materials is very limited.
 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 1 9;8(6):6354–6374 6363

Fig. 11 – Centrifugal casting process [174].

Fig. 12 – Continuous lamination process [176].

Fig. 14 – Electric vehicle (showing battery and motor

placement) [193].

poorly. FFF and LOM stands short with conventional manufac-

turing techniques when it comes to tensile strength [183,184].
Fig. 13 – Automotive carbon ceramic brake [188]. Improvement in combustion thermal efficiency with the
enhancement of volatile hydrocarbon cracking is observed.
This facilitates reduction in nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions
and improved thermal efficiency of coal combustion for fired
• Sheet lamination: Thin layer of sheets are bonded together burners [185].
to form a structure. Further classified as, (a) laminated
object manufacturing (LOM) and (b) composite based addi-
tive manufacturing (CBAM) 5. Applications
• Powder bed fusion: Uses thermal energy to fuse regions of
powder bed. 5.1. Automotive

AM provides flexibility over selection of fiber volume and 5.1.1. Braking system
orientation which makes it leading technology in composite Fig. 13 shows automotive carbon ceramic brake and brak-
manufacturing. When compared to conventionally fabricated ing system in automobile where temperature reaches up to
composites, short fiber reinforced polymer perform very thousands degree Celsius, braking material need to withstand
6364 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 1 9;8(6):6354–6374

Fig. 15 – Carbon fiber trunk lid of BMW E46 M3 CSL [197].

and functionally perform well, carbon fiber reinforced sili- applied to either layer of composite which conducts electric
con carbide (C-Si) brake materials are being competitive brake power to electrical devices [198].
materials for high speed train, heavy vehicles, emergency
brakes cranes [186,187]. 5.2. Aerospace

5.2.1. Aircraft brakes

5.1.2. Electric vehicles High temperature sections such as exhaust nozzle ceramic
An asymmetric super capacitor device of nickel cobalt oxide matrix composites are used. Also with properties like high
reduced graphite oxide (NiCO2 O4 –rGO) composite material coefficient of friction, longer life and resistance to environ-
exhibits better stability towards multistage charge discharge mental conditions such as oxidation, carbon fiber reinforced
cycling. This replicates that NiCO2 O4 –rGO is promising can- silicon carbide is used for aircraft brakes where temperature
didate for high energy storage application such as energy reaches up to 1200 ◦ C [187,199].
storing device (batteries) of electric vehicles [189]. Fig. 14 bat-
tery placement of an electric vehicle is displayed. Efforts has 5.2.2. Aircraft structure
been made since past several years understanding the char- Aircraft structural material should withstand under acute
acteristics of black phosphorus concerning application in the temperature variation preserving its desired mechanical prop-
field of nano-electronics, nano-photonics, and optoelectron- erties with uttermost damage tolerance. Polymer matrix
ics as electrochemical energy storage devices, such as lithium, composites carries higher strength and stiffness replacing
sodium ion batteries and super capacitors. Black phospho- conventional aluminium based alloys in the field of aerospace
rus revealed remarkable electronic, photonic, and mechanical sciences [200–204].
properties such as large specific surface area, anisotropy, tun-
ability and direct band gaps [190–192]. 5.2.3. Gas turbine
Increase in combustor inlet temperature while minimizing
the coolant gas requirement for combustor liner cooling is
5.1.3. Trunk lid and body stiffener
achieved by using integrally woven ceramic matrix composites
Lightweight structures are essential to achieve the efficiency
(CMC). This multi-hole cooled CMC offers substantial com-
standards in energy and transportation industry. Carbon fiber
bustion gain which finds application in development of gas
reinforced plastics (CFRP) stand replacement for electrical
turbine [205,206]. Gas turbine manufacturing is presented in
instruments considering its electrical properties. Creating
Fig. 16.
more free space in the under hood area CFRP acts as a super
capacitor for energy storage functions of automotive body
5.2.4. Telescope antenna
parts such as, trunk lid, body stiffener [194–196]. Carbon fiber
Hubble space telescope used high gain antenna made of 6061
trunk lid of BMW E46 M3 CSL model is shown in Fig. 15.
aluminium matrix diffused in bonded sheets of P100 graphite
fibers. A 3.6 m long antenna offers the desired stiffness and
5.1.4. Wireless signal transmission low coefficient of thermal expansion to maintain the position
In a car, there are number of wires used to gather information during space maneuvers [208].
from sensors or to operate several devices. While obtaining
a reserve network cable cords are replaced completely when 5.2.5. Aircraft’s seat and carpet fabric
carbon reinforced fibers are used to transmit electrical signals. Multilayer polymeric/TiO2 composites possesses double self-
A fiber composite structure comprised of layers of conductive cleaning property which provides photo-oxidation and anti-
fiber composites insulated in between used as a communi- sticking. Based on these properties, the material is used for
cation device when devices like transceivers are connected. fabric of seats and carpets in aircrafts [209].
Requirement of separate wires are eliminated when voltage
 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 1 9;8(6):6354–6374 6365

Fig. 16 – Gas turbine manufacturing [207]. Fig. 17 – Bearing shell [213].

5.4.3. Haemodialysis
5.3. Mechanical
Protein retention is observed to be highest for cellulose
acetate- carbon nanotubes- graphene oxide (CA/CNT/GO)
5.3.1. Heat exchanger
composite membranes. These materials found their applica-
In the tropic or sub-tropical region where temperature and
tion in tissue regeneration, water-oil purification, heavy metal
humidity is high, liquid-to-gas heat exchangers find applica-
ions removal, gas separation, haemodialysis or oxygenating
tion for cooling. It utilizes porosity of ceramic composite to
apparatus [218] (Fig. 17).
transfer heat and mass in the return air stream. Water in the
porous ceramic tubes lowers the temperature. It is also used
5.5. Marine
in winters to humidify the supply air [210,211].

5.5.1. Podded propeller

5.3.2. Sliding bearing
Marine screw propellers are subjected to high loading and
Fig. 18 shows bearing shells and for the application in a motor
vibration; also being a roto-dynamic machines which are
sliding bearing is invented which uses low to moderate con-
subjected to pulsating forces, bending, axial thrust, cen-
tent of tin and extremely low content of nickel. Remarkable
trifugal forces. Alloys of aluminium and stainless cast steel,
results show improvement in the adaptability and particle
aluminium bronze, manganese bronze were used to be con-
compatibility. These properties play vital role when it used
ventional propeller materials carrying drawbacks of corrosion,
at high sliding speeds as a main bearing shell or a connecting
cavitation, formation of galvanic cell, resulting high mainte-
rod bearing shell [212].
nance cost. Therefore, carbon fiber reinforced plastic having
high strength to weight ratio, improved fatigue properties,
5.4. Bio-medical non-corrosion in marine environment, high thermal resis-
tance and low maintenance cost is used as a propeller material
5.4.1. Skin grafting [219–221]. Fig. 18 displayed azipod propeller used for sub-
Chitosan composite as bio-resorbable material due to its marines.
porous structure employed for wound healing applications as
it promotes adherence, proliferation and migration of cells. 5.5.2. Anti-biofouling
Its porosity provides gas permeation, enhanced water absorb- Biofouling is accumulation, colonization and attack of organ-
ing capacity, cell interaction with drugs. The chitosan-based isms on micro and macro levels which causes severe problems
matrix biomaterial composite is applicable for large dress- such as corrosion, distortion, alteration of surfaces submerged
ing areas particularly in severe skin damages or when urgent in a water, increased weight and drag leading to reduction in
recovery during skin grafting is required [214,215]. speed and costs up to 40% additional fuel consumption. Use of
nano-composite coating with electrolytic deposition method
5.4.2. Orthopedic seems to be proficient solution. Namomaterials possesses
Titanium with its biocompatibility, mechanical properties, effective antimicrobial properties which creates a biofilm
and ability to integrate into native bone were widely being acting as a barrier between structural material surface and
used as implants, pins, screws, wires and plates in orthope- marine environment [223,224]. Fig. 19 an example of biofoul-
dic, plastic/reconstructive and general surgery. However, the ing, zebra mussels attacked a marine instrument resulting
potential of grapheme and CNT materials is replacing to tita- failure of its function.
nium as their ability to absorb biomolecules and proteins
induce spontaneous osteoblastic differentiation and gained 5.5.3. Hull
the popularity to improve the osseointegration of titanium. For the development of hulls and marine craft structures,
These materials also support tissue growth which allows them a polymeric core with sandwich composite panels of glass
to be used in tissue engineering in vivo [216,217]. or carbon skins are implied. Light structures, fast produc-
6366 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 1 9;8(6):6354–6374

Fig. 18 – Azipod propeller [222]. Fig. 20 – Hull of a ship [229].

materials. Also basalt based geo composites find application at

nuclear waste disposal sites as radiation proof protective caps
which provides protection against release of nuclear under-
ground wastes for several centuries [231–233].

5.6.2. Piping
When compared to steel basalt fiber reinforced polymers
(BFRP) based pipes withstand higher pressures up to 1000 atm.
Therefore used for transportation of corrosive chemicals and
in shaft linings. Basalt lining within the boilers prevents the
abrasion of material at higher temperature when compared
to low sulfur coal. Similarly, basalt lines pipes (BLP) are used
for the transportation of mining chemicals like chlorides of
sodium and potassium which are known for their high abra-
sive and corrosive property in the slurry form [185,234].

5.6.3. Fuel cells

Fig. 19 – Effect of Biofouling [225]. Graphene-CNT-Copper nano-composites offers high hard-
ness, wear resistance, good electrical and thermal conduc-
tivity which is ideal for heat sink materials and some
tion rate, high strength and durability these properties of microelectronic devices. Moreover, metal nano-composites
composite materials finds numerous applications in marine find potential applications in electrode materials of fuel cells
environment. Epoxy based composites with CNT are the most and hydrogen storage materials [235,236].
favored type of composite using in marine industry [226–228].
Fig. 20 is representing a hull part of ship. 5.7. Miscellaneous

5.5.4. Marine structures 5.7.1. Mortar

When treated to sea water aging mechanical properties of all Mortar made of chopped Basalt fiber reinforcement with
types of metals, alloys or composites deteriorated. Compared cement as a matrix material reveals enhanced properties like
to plain glass and carbon fiber reinforced polymer composites, high strength, higher strain to failure, resistance to repeated
water absorption tendency of hybrid composites (GCG2 C)s was impact, better stability, reduced drying shrinkage, improved
lowest. Compared to plain GFRPC, the retention in mechanical toughness and thermo-chemical resistance. With these prop-
properties of the hybrid composites was more. Hybrid com- erties mortar with basalt fiber reinforcement is generating
posites (GCG2 C)s shows lowest water absorption with highest dominating applications in construction industry [237].
flexural strength of 462 MPa. This property helps to fabricate
frames and outer body of ships and other marine structures. 5.7.2. Bicycle frame
[230,231]. To overcome the shortcoming of high cost and low impact
toughness carbon fiber is now replacing with hybridize car-
5.6. Chemical bon fiber with natural fibers such as flax. When compared to
Al, carbon fiber, Ti, and steel; flax has superior damping char-
5.6.1. Radiation proof material acteristic. A prototype bicycle frame fabricated which weighs
Basalt fibers do not absorb nuclear radiation; therefore they around 2.1 kg made of 70% flax fiber and 30% carbon fiber
are used in transportation and storage of radioactive nuclear (approx.) [238].
 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 1 9;8(6):6354–6374 6367

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