CN – unit (1)

1] Explain the TCP/IP and OSI network reference models with suitable diagram.

1. Data communication is a process or act in which we can send or receive data. For data communication
two models are available.

2. a) osi model b) tcp/ip

3. osi stands for Open Systems Interconnection. It has 7 layers Physical layer, Data Link layer, Network
layer, Transport layer, Session layer, Presentation layer, and Application layer.

4. Each layer performs its task independently

5. It was developed in 1984 by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO).

6. daigram

7. Advantages :

a. Both connection-oriented services and connectionless services are supported.

B .It is quite flexible.

c. All the layers work independently.

Disadvantages :

a.Setting up a model is a challenging task.

b.Sometimes, it becomes difficult to fit a new protocol into this model.

C . Tcp/ip It is only used as a reference model.

8. tands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol. It has 4 layers named as Physical layer,
Network layer, Transport layer, and Application layer.

9. It also can be used as a communications protocol in a private computer network.

10. It was designed by Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn in the 1970s. (daigrm)

11. Advantages :

a.Many Routing protocols are supported.

b.It is highly scalable and uses a client-server architecture.

C .It is lightweight.

Disadvantages:

a.Little difficult to set up.

b.Delivery of packets is not guaranteed by the transport layer

4] Identify the differences between OSI and TCP/IP network reference model. (Any 5)

Param OSI Model TCP/IP Model

eters

Full OSI stands for Open Systems TCP/IP stands for Transmission
Form Interconnection. Control Protocol/Internet Protocol.

Layer
It has 7 layers. It has 4 layers.
s

Usage It is low in usage. It is mostly used.

Appro
It is vertically approached. It is horizontally approached.
ach

Delive Delivery of the package is guaranteed Delivery of the package is not

ry in OSI Model. guaranteed in TCP/IP Model.

Repla
Replacement of tools and changes can Replacing the tools is not easy as it is
cemen
easily be done in this model. in OSI Model.
t

Reliab
It is less reliable than TCP/IP Model. It is more reliable than OSI Model.
ility

5] Identify the differences between LAN, MAN and WAN. (Any 10)

Basis LAN MAN WAN

Full- MAN stands for

LAN stands for local WAN stands for wide area
Form metropolitan area
area network. network.
network.

Geograph Operates in small Operates in large Operates in larger areas

 ic Span areas such as the
such as country or
same building or areas such as a city.
continent.
campus.

Ownershi MAN’s ownership While WAN also might not

LAN’s ownership is
p can be private or be owned by one
private.
public. organization.

Transmis While the

The transmission
sion transmission speed Whereas the transmission
speed of a LAN is
Speed of a MAN is speed of a WAN is low.
high.
average.

Propagati The propagation There is a moderate Whereas, there is a long

on delay delay is short in a propagation delay in propagation delay in a
LAN. a MAN. WAN.

Congestio Whereas there is more

There is less While there is more
n congestion than MAN in
congestion in LAN. congestion in MAN.
WAN.

Design & While MAN’s Whereas WAN’s design and

Maintena LAN’s design and design and maintenance are also
nce maintenance are easy. maintenance are difficult than LAN as well
difficult than LAN. MAN.

Fault There is more fault While there is less In WAN, there is also less
tolerance tolerance in LAN. fault tolerance. fault tolerance.
6] Write a short note on Transmission Impairment in communication.

1. In communication system, analog signals travel through transmission media, which tends to
deteriorate the quality of analog signal, which means that the signal at the beginning of the
medium is not the same as the signal at the end of the medium.

2. The imperfection causes signal impairment. Below are the causes of the impairment.

3.

4. Attenuation – It means loss of energy. The strength of signal decreases with increasing
distance which causes loss of energy in overcoming resistance of medium. This is also known as
attenuated signal.

5.

6. Distortion – It means changes in the form or shape of the signal. This is generally seen in
composite signals made up with different frequencies. Each frequency component has its own
propagation speed travelling through a medium. And thats why it delay in arriving at the final
destination Every component arrive at different time which leads to distortion.

7.
8. Noise – The random or unwanted signal that mixes up with the original signal is called noise.
There are several types of noise such as induced noise, crosstalk noise, thermal noise and
impulse noise which may corrupt the signal.

9.

24] Write short notes on the following:

a. Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

1. Pulse Code Modulation is the technique used for reworking analogue signals into digital
signals.

2.. PCM has a good or sensible signal-to-noise ratio. For transmission, Pulse Code Modulation
wants high transmitter bandwidth.

3. PCM technique is split into three elements, initial is the transmission at the provision end,
second regeneration at the transmission path and conjointly the receiving end.

4.

6. Delta modulation is an analog to digital and digital to analog signal conversion technique.

7. Delta modulation is employed to realize high signal to noise ratio.

8. With delta modulation, instead of transmit a coded illustration of a sample solely one bit is
transmitted, that merely indicates whether or not the sample is larger or smaller than the previous
sample.

9.
29 Explain the following terms with respect to network topology:

a. Ring Topology : may be a network configuration where device connections create a circular
data path.

2. In this each device is connected to with its exactly two neighboring devices, like points on a
circle which forms like a ring structure.

3. A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with a large number of nodes to send data
and to prevent data loss repeaters are used in this network.

4. It is used in LANs and WANs depending on the card of network in the computer.

5.

6. Advantages of Ring topology :

Equal access to the resources.

It is cheap to install and expand.

Minimum collision.

Easy to manage.

7. Disadvantages of Ring topology :

It is Expensive.

Difficult to troubleshoot the ring.

Total dependence in on one cable.

They were not Scalable.

b) Bus topology: carries transmitted data through the cable because data reaches each node, the
node checks the destination address (MAC/IP address) to determine if it matches their address.

2. The well-known access method for bus topologies is called CSMA

3.
4. Advantages of Bus Topology :

It works very efficiently well when there is a small network.

The length of cable required is less than a star topology.

It is easy to understand topology.

Disadvantages of Bus Topology :

Bus topology is not good for large networks.

Troubleshooting individual device issues is very hard.

Additional devices slow the network down.

Packet loss is high.

c) star topology : Star Topology A star may be a topology for a Local Area Network (LAN)
during which all nodes are individually connected to a central connection point, sort of a hub or a
switch.

2.

3. Advantages of Star Topology :

It is very reliable – if one cable or device fails then all the others will still work

It is high-performing as no data collisions can occur

Easier to put in

Robust in nature

Disadvantages of Star Topology :

Requires more cable than a linear bus .

Extra hardware is required (hubs or switches) which adds to cost

Performance is predicated on the one concentrator i.e. hub.

 UNIT – 2
2] Explain the services provided by Data Link Layer.

1. In the OSI model, the data link layer is a 4th layer from the top and 2nd layer from the bottom.

2.The main responsibility of the Data Link Layer is to transfer the datagram across an individual
link.

3.The Data Link Layer protocols are Ethernet, token ring, FDDI and PPP.

4.

5. Framing & Link access: It specifies the structure of the frame as well as a channel access
protocol by which frame is to be transmitted over the link.

6. A reliable delivery service is accomplished with transmissions and acknowledgements.

7. Flow control: A receiving node can receive the frames at a faster rate than it can process the
frame. Without flow control, the receiver's buffer can overflow, and frames can get lost.

8. Error detection: Errors can be introduced by signal attenuation and noise

9. Error correction: Error correction is similar to the Error detection, except that receiving node

10. Half-Duplex & Full-Duplex: In a Full-Duplex mode, both the nodes can transmit the data at
the same time. In a Half-Duplex mode, only one node can transmit the data at the same time .

3] Explain the term, Error. State and explain types of error in data transmission.

1. A network error is the error condition that caused a network request to fail.

2. Types of Errors in Computer Network :

a) single bit error

b) burst error

1) Single-Bit Error :The only one bit of a given data unit is changed from 1 to 0 or from 0 to 1

2) Single-Bit Error does not appear more likely in Serial Data Transmission
3) Single-Bit Error mainly occurs in Parallel Data Transmission

4) Burst Error:The two or more bits are changed from 0 to 1 or from 1 to 0 is known as Burst
Error.

5) The Burst Error is determined from the first corrupted bit to the last corrupted bit.

6) Burst Errors are most likely to occurr in Serial Data Transmission.

7 Write short notes on the following:

a. Error Detection

b. Error Correction

A) Various techniques for error detection include::

.Simple Parity Check :

Simple-bit parity is a simple error detection method that involves adding an extra bit to a data
transmission. It works as:

--1 is added to the block if it contains an odd number of 1’s, and

--0 is added if it contains an even number of 1’s

T.wo-dimensional Parity Check :

Two-dimensional Parity check bits are calculated for each row, which is equivalent to a simple
parity check bit. Parity check bits are also calculated for all columns, then both are sent along
with the data.
.Checksum : Checksum error detection is a method used to identify errors in transmitted data.
The process involves dividing the data into equally sized segments and using a 1’s complement
to calculate the sum of these segments.

.Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) : CRC is based on binary division.

In CRC, a sequence of redundant bits, called cyclic redundancy check bits

B) error correction : Error Correction codes are used to detect and correct the errors when data is
transmitted from the sender to the receiver.

1 .Error Correction can be handled in two ways:

Backward error correction: Once the error is discovered, the receiver requests the sender to
retransmit the entire data unit.
Forward error correction: In this case, the receiver uses the error-correcting code which
automatically corrects the errors.

12 Explain the Simplest Protocol with suitable diagram in detail.

1. the Simplest Protocol that lies under the category Noiseless Channels in the Data link layer.

2. Simplest Protocol is a protocol that neither has flow control nor has error control

3. The simplest protocol is basically a unidirectional protocol in which data frames only travel in
one direction; from the sender to the receiver.

4. In this, the receiver can immediately handle the frame it receives whose processing time is
small enough to be considered as negligible.

5.Basically, the data link layer of the receiver immediately removes the header from the frame
and then hand over the data packet to the network layer that also accepts the data packet
immediately.

13 Explain the Stop and Wait Protocol with suitable diagram in detail.

1. Sender side
Rule 1: Sender sends one data packet at a time.

Rule 2: Sender sends the next packet only when it receives the acknowledgment of the previous
packet.

Therefore, the idea of stop and wait protocol in the sender's side is very simple, i.e., send one
packet at a time, and do not send another packet before receiving the acknowledgment.

2.Receiver side

Rule 1: Receive and then consume the data packet.

Rule 2: When the data packet is consumed, receiver sends the acknowledgment to the sender.

Therefore, the idea of stop and wait protocol in the receiver's side is also very simple, i.e.,
consume the packet, and once the packet is consumed, the acknowledgment is sent. This is
known as a flow control mechanism.

3.

4. The following are the problems associated with a stop and wait protocol:

1. Pr oblems occur due to lost data

2. Problems occur due to lost acknowledgment

Problem due to the delayed data or acknowledgment

20 ] What is HDLC? Explain its frame format.

1. High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC) generally uses term “frame” to indicate and represent
an entity of data or a protocol of data unit often transmitted or transferred from one station to
another station.

2. Each of frames in HDLC includes mainly six fields.

3. It begins with a flag field, an address field, a control field, an information field, an frame
check sequence (FCS) field, and an ending flag field.

4.

5. Flag Field – The flag field is generally responsible for initiation and termination of error
checking.

6. Address Field – The address field generally includes HDLC address of secondary station.

7. control Field – HDLC generally uses this field to determine how to control process of
communication.

8. Information Field – This field usually contains data or information of users sender is
transmitting to receiver

9. Frame Check Sequence (FCS) –

FCS is generally used for identification of errors i.e., HDLC error detection

29 Explain the following with suitable diagrams:

a. Token Passing

b. CDMA

c. CSMA/CD

a. Token Passing : In token passing scheme, the stations are connected logically to each other in
form of ring and access to stations is governed by tokens.

2.A token is a special bit pattern or a small message, which circulate from one station to the next
in some predefined order.

3.Advantages of Token passing: It provides good throughput when conditions of high load.

4.Disadvantages of Token passing: Its cost is expensive.

b) CDMA : CDMA stands for Code Division Multiple Access.

2. It allows more users to connect at a given time and thus provides improved data and voice
communication capacity.

3. CDMA encodes the user transmissions into distinct and unique codes in order to secure its
signals.

4.CDMA systems make the use of power control to eliminate the interference and noise and to
thus improve the network quality.

5. Advantages :

Increased user capacity is an advantage of the CDMA as it supports a lot more users in
comparison to TDMA or FDMA.

The cost of the calls in CDMA is lower in comparison to the cost in GSM.

Using CDMA problems like multipath and fading do not occur.

CDMA has a very low power requirement.

Disadvantages :
CDMA lacks the facility of international roaming which is provided by GSM.

C] CSMA\CD : The Carrier Sense Multiple Access/ Collision Detection protocol

2. it is used to detect a collision in the media access control (MAC) layer.

3. Once the collision was detected, the CSMA CD immediately stopped the transmission by
sending the signal so that the sender does not waste all the time to send the data packet.

4.Advantages of CSMA CD:

CSMA CD is better than CSMA for collision detection.

CSMA CD is used to avoid any form of waste transmission.

5. Disadvantage of CSMA CD :
When multiple devices are added to a CSMA CD, collision detection performance is reduced.

36] Write a short note on SONET explaining its frame format and layers.

1. SONET stands for Synchronous Optical Network.

2. SONET is used to convert an electrical signal into an optical signal so that it can travel longer
distances.

3. SONET Layers:

4. Path Layer:

It is responsible for the movement of signals from its optical source to its optical destination.

Line Layer:

It is responsible for the movement of signal across a physical line.

Section Layer:

It is responsible for the movement of signal across a physical section.

Photonic Layer: it correspond to physical layer of osi

UNIT – 3
2] Explain in detail the concept of DVR (Distance Vector Routing) with example and diagram.

1. A distance-vector routing (DVR) protocol requires that a router inform its neighbors of
topology changes periodically.

2. Sharing of routing information is done only between directly connected network nodes in the
channel.

3. Each node in the connection is designed to share the updated routing data with each of the
nodes in the network.

4. take a eg

3 ] Explain in detail the concept of LSR (Link State Routing) with example and diagram.

1. Link state routing is a technique in which each router shares the knowledge of its
neighborhood with every other router in the internetwork.

2. Link State Routing has two phases:

Initial state: Each node knows the cost of its neighbors.

Final state: Each node knows the entire graph.

3. take a eg

8 State the advantages of Next Generation IPv6. (Any 5)

1.Pv6 provides a solution to address the global issue of depleting address spaces due to increased
demand for IP addresses due to technological advancements.

2.It offers reliability and faster speeds. IPv6 supports multicast addresses, meaning bandwidth-
intensive packet flows like media streams can reach many destinations simultaneously.

3.It enforces more robust network security than IPv4. IPv6 has IPSecurity, which ensures data
privacy and data integrity. It also reinforces routing efficiency.

4.It supports stateless and stateful address configuration regardless of the presence or absence of
a Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) server.

5.It has a larger address space and can handle packets more efficiently.

6. IPv6 offers stronger support for QoS features,

7. IPv6 offers better support for mobile devices.

8. IPv6 comes with built-in security features including IPsec

23 Explain the concept of Three-Way Handshaking in TCP with suitable diagram.

1.The TCP 3-Way Handshake is a process used to establish a reliable and orderly connection
between two devices in a TCP/IP network before they begin exchanging data.

2.This process involves three steps, ensuring that both communicating devices are ready and
capable of engaging in secure communication.

3. The three steps of the TCP 3-Way Handshake are:

4.SYN (Synchronize): The initiating device sends a TCP segment with the SYN (synchronize)
flag set to the destination device.

5.SYN-ACK (Synchronize-Acknowledge): T This segment includes its own initial sequence

number.

6.ACK (Acknowledge)The ACK segment includes an acknowledgment of the destination’s

initial sequence number.

29 Discuss File Transfer Protocol (FTP).

1. File transfer protocol (FTP) is an Internet tool provided by TCP/IP.

2. It helps to transfer files from one computer to another by providing access to directories or
folders

3. The end-user in the connection is known as localhost and the server which provides data is
known as the remote host.

4. FTP is a standard communication protocol.

5. FTP works on a client-server model.

6. The following are the applications of FTP:

1.Employees use FTP connections to share any data with their co-workers

31 Discuss TELNET with diagram in detail.

1. TELNET stands for Teletype Network.

2. It is a type of protocol that enables one computer to connect to the local computer.

3. It is used as a standard TCP/IP protocol

4. During telnet operation, whatever is being performed on the remote computer will be
displayed by the local computer

5. Telnet operates on a client/server principle.

35 Discuss DNS in the Internet and give example of any 5 generic Domain Labels.
1. Domain Name System (DNS) is a hostname for IP address translation service

2. It is an application layer protocol for message exchange between clients and servers.

3. DNS is used to convert the domain name of the websites to their numerical IP address.

4. generic domain name in an example, use example.com, example.org, or

example.net,example.gov , example .biz

40 Explain the following with suitable diagram:

a. FIFO Queuing

b. Priority QueuingV

a) fifo : First-In, First-Out Queuing (FIFO)

1. In FIFO, all packets are serviced in the order in which they arrive at the router.

2. New packets attempting to enter the router are discarded when the memory becomes saturated
(tail drop).
B] Priority Queuing : Here every packet is given with a priority.

Each priority class typically has it's ownQueue.

When choosing a packet to transmit, the priority Queuing discipline will transmit a packet from
the highest priority class that has a nonempty Queue

eatures, 23 Explain the concept of Three-Way Handshaking in TCP with suitable diagram.