Data Communication

 The word data refers to information presented in whatever

form is agreed upon by the parties creating and using the
data.

 E.g. text, audio, video, image etc.

 The term telecommunication means communication at a

distance.

 E.g. telephony, telegraphy, television etc.

 Data communication: The exchange of data between two

parties Via some form of transmission medium.
 Data Communication Model

 The key elements of this model are

 Source - generates data to be transmitted

 Transmitter - converts data into transmittable

signals

 Transmission System - carries data from source

to destination

 Receiver - converts received signal into data

 Destination - takes incoming data

Data Communication Model
Data Communication Model
 Tasks of a communication system

 Transmission System Utilization  Addressing

 Interfacing  Routing

 Signal Generation  Recovery

 Synchronization  Message formatting

 Exchange Management  Security

 Error detection and correction  Network Management

 Flow Control
 Transmission\Communication Mode

 Simplex

 Half-duplex

 Full-duplex
 Networks

 A network is a set of devices (often referred to as

nodes) connected by communication links.

 A node can be a computer, printer, or any other device

capable of sending and/or receiving data.

 A link can be a cable, air, optical fiber, or any medium

which can transport a signal carrying information.
 Network Criteria

 Performance

 Depends on Network Elements

 Number of users

 Transmission Medium (capacity)

 Hardware capabilities

 Software efficiency

 Measured in terms of Delay and Throughput

 Network Criteria

 Reliability

 Failure rate of network components

 Measured in terms of availability/robustness

 Security

 Data protection against corruption/loss of data due

to:

 Errors

 Malicious users
 Physical Structure of Network

 Type of connections

 Point to Point - single transmitter and receiver

 Multipoint - multiple recipients of single transmission

 Spatially shared connections

 Timeshared connections

 Physical Topology

 A geometric representation of all the links and nodes

 Physical Structure of Network

 Type of connections
 Physical Topology (Network Topology)

Topology

Mesh Bus Ring Star Tree Hybrid

 Mesh Topology

 Every device has a dedicated

point-to-point link to every
other device.

 It does not contain the

switch, hub or any central
computer which acts as a
central point of
communication.
 Mesh Topology

 Advantages  Disadvantages

 Reliable and Robust  Cost is high

 Easier Reconfiguration  very difficult to maintain

 Secure and manage.

 Fault detection is easy  Wires requires more space

 Bus Topology
 One long cable acts as a backbone to link all other devices.

 Nodes connect with backbone by drop lines and taps.

 It has multipoint connections.

 A terminator is required at each end to absorb the signal

so it does not reflect back across the bus.
 Bus Topology

 Advantages  Disadvantages

 Easy to implement  Limited cable length and

and extend. number of stations.

 Cheaper than other  If there is a problem with the

topologies. cable, the entire network goes
down.

 Degraded Performance

 It is slower than the other

topologies.
 Ring Topology
 Network forms a circle.

 Each device has dedicated point-to-point link with two

other devices.

 Signal is transmitted unidirectional

 Each device acts as a repeater

 Ring Topology

 Advantages  Disadvantages

 Easy to install and  Communication delay is

reconfigure. directly proportional to the

 Less chance of packet number of nodes.

collisions.  If one workstation shuts down,

it affects whole network.
 Star Topology

 Each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a

central controller (hub).
 Star Topology

 Advantages  Disadvantages

 Easy to install and  Cost is high.

reconfigure.  Performance depends on the
 Low network traffic. hub‟s capacity.

 Single point of failure.

 Hybrid Topology

 Combination of two or more topologies.

 Types of Computer Network

 Local Area Network (LAN)

 LAN is a small size computer networks that covers a

school, building, office, home etc.

 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

 MAN is larger than LAN and connects multiple LANs

with each other through a city or town.

 Wide area network (WAN)

 WAN connects multiple LAN or MAN

 A WAN can cover country, continent or even a whole

world.
 Review Questions

 For n devices in a network, what is the number of cable

links required for a mesh, ring, bus, and star topology?

 What are the two types of line configuration?

 Categorize the four basic topologies in terms of line

configuration.

 What are some of the factors that determine whether a

communication system is a LAN or WAN?
Network Models
 Network Models
 Network architectures: Represented as a set of layers &
protocols
 Purpose of layered approach:
 To divide a complex task into smaller and simpler tasks
 To ensure independence of layers, so that each layer can be changed
or modified without affecting other layers
 Each layer can be analyzed and tested independently

 Principles of protocol layering:

 Each layer should be able to perform two opposite tasks. For example,
encryption & decryption at presentation layer (in OSI model)
 The two objects under each layer at both the ends should be identical.
For example, at the top most layer objects should be message (eg.
plain text, or image, or audio, or video etc)
Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Model
 OSI model is proposed by the ISO (International Standards
Organization)
 It has seven layers
Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Model
 The interaction between layers in the OSI model
Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Model
 An exchange using the OSI model
 OSI Model
 Physical layer:
 Controls the transmission of actual data across the link
 At sender end, converts bits into signals (encoding)
 At receiver end, converts signals into bit stream
 Transmission rate
 Synchronization of bits
 Transmission mode
 Line configuration
 OSI Model
 Data link layer:
 It is responsible for physical addressing via MAC addresses
 MAC addresses are 48 bit addresses printed on NIC (network interface
card). For example, 07:01:02:2C:4B:B7 (12 hexadecimal digits)
 Flow Control: It controls how data are placed & received from the
media (hop-to-hop)
 Performs media access control using CSMA/CD
 Performs error detection & correction: For that, this layer adds
control data as a trailer at the end of the data packet (hop-to-hop)
 OSI Model
 Data link layer
 OSI Model
 Network layer: It is responsible for:
 Logical addressing via IPv4 (32 bit address like 172.16.32.133) or
IPv6 (128 bit address)
 Routing: Routing is a process which is performed by network layer
devices in order to deliver the datagrams by choosing an optimal path
between sender and receiver
 OSI Model
 Network layer
 OSI Model
 Transport layer: It is responsible for:
 Giving services to the session layer

 Process to process delivery

 Providing end-to-end connection between hosts

 OSI Model
 Transport layer: (Contd.)
 Service point addressing (e.g. port number)
 Error control (through retransmission) (end-to-end)
 Segmentation and reassembly
 Flow Control (end-to-end)
 Connection Control
 Provides connectionless or connection-oriented services

 TCP: Connection-oriented. For example, e-mail, www, ftp etc.

 UDP: Connectionless; faster than TCP. For example, video streaming,
games etc.
 OSI Model
 Session layer:
 Manages connections between two applications
 Dialog control

 Add checkpoints

 Authentication is used to establish session/connection

 Provides authorization
 OSI Model
 Presentation layer:
 Determines the format used to exchange data

 This layer is responsible for:

 Translation: For example, data → binary format

 Data compression: Reduces amount of space used to store original files. It

is helpful in real time video streaming

 Encryption/decryption
 OSI Model
 Application layer:
 Used by network applications. For example, Google chrome, Skype etc.

 It is responsible for providing services to the users.

 Protocols: HTTP (for web services), FTP (for transferring files), SMTP (for e-
mail service) etc.
 OSI Model
 Summary of layers
TCP/IP Protocol Suite
 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
 TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet
Protocol) is a protocol suite used in the Internet
today
 Original TCP/IP had four layers
 host-to-network
 internet
 transport
 application

 It is the network model used in current Internet

architecture.
OSI versus TCP/IP
 OSI versus TCP/IP

 Session and presentation

layers are missing from
TCP/IP
 Some of the functionalities of
the session layer are
available in some of the
transport-layer protocols
 If some functionalities of the
session and presentation
layers are needed in an
application, they can be
included in the application
software

TCP/IP and OSI model

 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
 Addressing in the TCP/IP protocol suite:

Addressing in the TCP/IP protocol suite

 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
 Operation of TCP and IP
 Review Questions
 Assume a system uses five protocol layers. If the application program
creates a message of 100 bytes and each layer (including the fifth and
the first) adds a header of 10 bytes to the data unit, what is the
efficiency (the ratio of application layer bytes to the number of bytes
transmitted) of the system?

 In an internet, we change the LAN technology to a new one. Which

layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite need to be changed?

 Suppose the algorithms used to implement the operations at layer k is

changed. How does this impact operations at layers k − 1 and k + 1?

 Suppose there is a change in the service (set of operations) provided

by layer k. How does this impact services at layers k-1 and k+1?
Introduction to Physical Layer
Data and Signals: Analog and Digital

● Data can be analog or digital

● Analog data are continuous and take continuous values
● Digital data have discrete states and take discrete values
● To be transmitted, data must be transformed to electromagnetic signals
● Signals can be analog or digital
● Analog signals can have an infinite number of values in a range
● Digital signals can have only a limited number of values
● In data communications, we commonly use
periodic analog signals and non-periodic digital signals
Periodic Analog Signals

 A periodic signal completes a pattern within a measurable time frame,

called period, and repeats that pattern over subsequent identical
periods
 Periodic analog signals can be classified as simple or composite
 A simple periodic analog signal, a sine wave, cannot be decomposed
into simpler signals
 A composite periodic analog signal is composed of multiple sine waves
(will be discussed later)

A sine wave
Periodic Analog Signals

Period:
 The amount of time, in seconds, a signal needs to complete 1 cycle

Frequency:
 The number of cycles in one second. It is formally expressed in Hertz
(Hz)

Note: Frequency and period are the inverse of each other

Peak amplitude:
 The peak amplitude of a signal is the absolute value of its highest
intensity, proportional to the energy it carries
 It is normally measured in volts
Two signals with the same phase and frequency, but different amplitudes

Two signals with the same amplitude and phase, but different frequencies
Example 1:
The power we use at home has a frequency of 50 Hz. Find
out the period of this sine wave.
𝟏 𝟏
T= = = .02 s = 20 ms
𝒇 𝟓𝟎
Example 2:
The period of a signal is 100 ms. What is its frequency in
kilohertz?
Solution: First we change 100 ms to seconds, and then we
calculate the frequency from the period (1 Hz = 10−3 kHz)
Periodic Analog Signals

Note:
 Frequency is the rate of change with respect to time
 Change in a short span of time means high frequency
 Change over a long span of time means low frequency
 If a signal does not change at all, its frequency is zero
 If a signal changes instantaneously, its frequency is infinite
Phase:
 Phase describes the position of the waveform relative to time 0
 It is measured in degrees or radians [360o = 2 Π rad]
Periodic Analog Signals

Three sine waves with the same amplitude and frequency, but different
phases
 Example 3

A sine wave has offset 1/6 cycle with respect to time 0. What is
its phase in degrees and radians?

Solution:
We know that 1 complete cycle is 360°. Therefore, 1/6 cycle is
Wavelength and period

Wavelength (λ): It is the distance a simple signal can travel in one

period.

Wavelength = Propagation speed x Period

= Propagation speed/Frequency
The time-domain and frequency-domain plots of a sine wave

● A complete sine wave in the time domain can be represented by

one single spike in the frequency domain
The time domain and frequency domain of three sine waves

● The frequency domain is more compact and useful when we are

dealing with more than one sine wave
Basics of Analog & Digital Signals
 Periodic Analog Signals

 A single-frequency sine wave is not useful in data communications; we

need to send a composite signal, a signal made of many simple sine
waves
 According to Fourier analysis, any composite signal is a combination of
simple sine waves with different frequencies, amplitudes, and phases

A composite periodic signal

Decomposition of a composite periodic signal in the time and
frequency domains

fundamental frequency = f, also known as first harmonic

 Analog Signals
● If the composite signal is periodic, the decomposition gives a series of
signals with discrete frequencies
● If the composite signal is non-periodic or aperiodic (signal created by
a microphone or a telephone set), the decomposition gives a
combination of sine waves with continuous frequencies

The time and frequency domains of a nonperiodic signal

 Bandwidth
● The bandwidth of a composite signal is the difference between the
highest and the lowest frequencies contained in that signal

The bandwidth of periodic and nonperiodic composite signals

 Example 1
If a periodic signal is decomposed into five sine waves with frequencies
of 100, 300, 500, 700, and 900 Hz, what is its bandwidth? Draw the
spectrum, assuming all components have a maximum amplitude of 10 V
Solution:
Let fh be the highest frequency, fl the lowest frequency, and B the
bandwidth. Then
 Example 2
A periodic signal has a bandwidth of 20 Hz. The highest frequency is 60
Hz. What is the lowest frequency? Draw the spectrum if the signal
contains all frequencies of the same amplitude.
Solution:
Let fh be the highest frequency, fl the lowest frequency, and B the
bandwidth. Then

The spectrum contains all integer frequencies

 Example 3
A non-periodic composite signal has a bandwidth of 200 kHz, with a
middle frequency of 140 kHz and peak amplitude of 20 V. The two
extreme frequencies have an amplitude of 0. Draw the frequency
domain plot of the signal.
Solution:
The lowest frequency must be at 40 kHz and the highest at 240 kHz.
Following figure shows the frequency domain plot and the bandwidth
 Digital Signals
● In addition to being
represented by an
analog signal,
information can also
be represented by a
digital signal
● For example, a 1
can be encoded as a
positive voltage and
a 0 as zero voltage
● A digital signal can
have more than two
levels. In this case,
we can send more
than 1 bit for each
level
 Example
A digital signal has eight levels. How many bits are needed per
level? We calculate the number of bits from the formula

Each signal level is represented by 3 bits

 Digital Signals
Bit Rate:
● The bit rate is the number of bits sent in 1 second
● It is expressed in bits per second (bps)
Bit Length
● It is the distance one bit occupies on the transmission medium
Bit length = Propagation speed x bit duration

Example 1
Assume we need to download text documents at the rate of 100 pages
per second. What is the required bit rate of the channel?
A page contains an average of 24 lines with 80 characters in each line.
If we assume that one character requires 8 bits, the bit rate is

Solution: 100 x 24 x 80 x 8 = 1,536,000 bps = 1.536 Mbps

Example 2
A digitized voice channel, is made by digitizing a 4-kHz bandwidth analog voice
signal. We need to sample the signal at twice the highest frequency (two
samples per hertz). We assume that each sample requires 8 bits. What is the
required bit rate?
Solution:
The bit rate can be calculated as

Example 3: What is the bit rate for high-definition TV (HDTV)?

There are 1920 by 1080 pixels per screen, and the screen is renewed 30 times
per second. Twenty-four bits represents one color pixel.

Solution:
 Digital Signal as a Composite Analog
Signal
 A digital signal is a composite analog signal with an infinite bandwidth.
 Transmission of Digital Signals
Baseband Transmission [Local area network]

 Baseband transmission means sending a digital signal over a channel

without changing the digital signal to an analog signal

 It typically use digital signaling over a single wire; the transmissions

themselves take the form of either electrical pulses or light

 The digital signal used in baseband transmission occupies the entire

bandwidth of the network media to transmit a single data signal

 Baseband communication is bidirectional, allowing computer to both send

and receive data using single cable. However, the sending and receiving
cannot occur on the same wire at the same time.

 Using baseband transmissions, it is possible to transmit multiple signals on

a single cable by using multiplexing. Baseband typically uses Time-Division
Multiplexing (TDM)
 Transmission of Digital Signals

Broadband Transmission [Wide area network]

 Broadband transmission or modulation means changing the digital signal

to an analog signal for transmission

 Broadband uses analog signals in the form of optical or electromagnetic

waves over multiple transmission frequencies

 For signals to be both sent and received, the transmission media must be
split into two channels. Alternatively, two cables can be used: one to send
and one to receive transmissions

 Multiple channels are created in a broadband system by using a

multiplexing technique known as Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
Transmission of Digital Signals
Transmission Impairment & Data Rate Limits
 Transmission Impairment
● Signals travel through transmission media, which are not perfect.
The imperfection causes signal impairment

● This means that the signal at the beginning of the medium is not
the same as the signal at the end of the medium. What is sent is
not what is received

Causes of impairment
 Attenuation
 Loss of energy. When a signal, simple or composite, travels through a
medium, it loses some of its energy in overcoming the resistance of the
medium. To compensate for this loss, amplifiers are used to amplify the
signal
 The decibel (dB) measures the relative strengths of two signals or one
signal at two different points
dB = 10 log10 P2/P1
Example 1
Suppose a signal travels through a transmission medium and its power is
reduced to one-half. This means that P2 is (1/2)P1. In this case, the attenuation
(loss of power) can be calculated as

A loss of 3 dB (–3 dB) is equivalent to losing one-half the power

Example 2
A signal travels through an amplifier, and its power is increased 10 times. This
means that P2 = 10P1. In this case, the amplification (gain of power) can be
calculated as
 Distortion
 Distortion means that the signal changes its form or shape
 It can occur in a composite signal made of different frequencies. Each
signal component has its own propagation speed through a medium and,
therefore, its own delay in arriving at the final destination. Differences in
delay may create a difference in phase
 Noise
 Several types of noise, such as thermal noise, induced noise,
crosstalk, and impulse noise, may corrupt the signal
 Thermal noise is the random motion of electrons in a wire, which
creates an extra signal not originally sent by the transmitter
 Induced noise comes from sources such as motors and appliances
 Crosstalk is the effect of one wire on the other
 Impulse noise is a spike (a signal with high energy in a very short
time) that comes from power lines, lightning etc.
 Signal-to-Noise Ratio
 To find the theoretical bit rate limit, we need to know the ratio of the
signal power to the noise power. The signal-to-noise ratio is defined as:

SNR = average signal power/average noise power

 A high SNR means the signal is less corrupted by noise; a low SNR means
the signal is more corrupted by noise
 Since SNR is the ratio of two powers, it is often described in decibel units:

SNRdB = 10log10SNR
Example
The power of a signal is 10 mW and the power of the noise is 1 μW; what are the
values of SNR and SNRdB?

Solution:
The values of SNR and SNRdB can be calculated as follows:
SNR = (10,000 μW)/(1 μW) = 10,000
SNRdB = 10log10 10,000 = 10 log10 104 = 40 dB
 Data Rate Limits
● A very important consideration in data communications is how fast we can
send data, in bits per second, over a channel. Data rate depends on three
factors:
 The bandwidth available
 The level of the signals we use
 The quality of the channel (the level of noise)
● Two theoretical formulas were developed to calculate the data rate: one by
Nyquist for a noiseless channel, another by Shannon for a noisy channel
● For a noiseless channel, the Nyquist bit rate formula defines the
theoretical maximum bit rate
BitRate = 2 * bandwidth * log2L
where L is the number of signal levels used to represent data
Example
Consider a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 3000 Hz transmitting a
signal with two signal levels. The maximum bit rate can be calculated as
Noisy Channel: Shannon Capacity
 In reality, we cannot have a noiseless channel. In 1944, Claude Shannon
introduced a formula, called the Shannon capacity, to determine the
theoretical highest data rate for a noisy channel:
Capacity = bandwidth x log2 (1 + SNR)

Example 1
Consider an extremely noisy channel in which the value of the signal-to-
noise ratio is almost zero. In other words, the noise is so strong that the
signal is faint. For this channel the capacity C is calculated as

This means that the capacity of this channel is zero regardless of the
bandwidth. In other words, we cannot receive any data through this
channel
Example 2
We have a channel with a 1 MHz bandwidth. The SNR for this channel
is 63. What are the appropriate bit rate and signal level?
Solution:
First, we use the Shannon formula to find the upper limit

The Shannon formula gives us 6 Mbps, the upper limit. For better
performance we choose something lower, 4 Mbps, for example. Then we
use the Nyquist formula to find the number of signal levels
BitRate = 2 * bandwidth * log2L

Note: The Shannon capacity gives us the upper limit; the Nyquist
formula tells us how many signal levels we need
 Performance
● One important issue in networking is the performance of the
network. One characteristic that affect network performance is
bandwidth
● In networking, we use the term bandwidth in two contexts
 The first, bandwidth in hertz, refers to the range of frequencies in a
composite signal or the range of frequencies that a channel can pass
 The second, bandwidth in bits per second, refers to the speed of bit
transmission in a channel or link

● Mainly, performance of a network can be measured in terms of:

 Throughput
 Latency (Delay)
Example

A network with bandwidth of 10 Mbps can pass only an average of

12,000 frames per minute with each frame carrying an average of
10,000 bits. What is the throughput of this network?

Solution:
We can calculate the throughput as

The throughput is almost one-fifth of the bandwidth in this case

 Latency (Delay)
 A packet starts in a host (the source), passes through a series of
routers, and ends its journey in another host (the destination)

 The latency or delay defines how long it takes for an entire

message to completely arrive at the destination from the time the
first bit is sent out from the source.

Latency = propagation + transmission + queuing + processing

 Latency (Delay)
 Propagation time measures the time required for a bit to travel
from the source to the destination.

Propagation time = Distance / (Propagation Speed)

 Example
 What is the propagation time if the distance between the two
points is 12,000 km? Assume the propagation speed to be 2.4
×10 8 m/s in cable.
 Latency (Delay)
 The transmission time of a message depends on the size of the
message and the bandwidth of the channel.

Transmission time = (Message size) / Bandwidth

Example
 What are the propagation time and the transmission time for a
2.5-KB (kilobyte) message (an email) if the bandwidth of the
network is 1 Gbps? Assume that the distance between the sender
and the receiver is 12,000 km and that light travels at 2.4 ×10 8
m/s .
Bandwidth-Delay Product
Digital Transmission
 Digital-to-digital Conversion
 We can represent digital data by using digital signals
 The conversion involves three techniques:
 Line coding
 Block coding
 Scrambling
 Line coding is always needed; block coding and scrambling may or
may not be needed

Line coding and decoding

 Line Coding
Signal element versus data element
Data Element : smallest entity that can represent a piece of information
Signal Element : shortest unit (timewise) of a digital signal

ratio r is the number

of data elements
carried by each
signal element.
 Line Coding
 Line coding is the process of converting digital data to digital
signals

Data Rate versus Signal Rate:

 Data rate (or bit rate): Number of data elements (bits) sent in
one second. Unit is bits per second (bps)
 Signal rate (or pulse rate or modulation rate or baud rate):
Number of signal elements sent in one second. The unit is baud
Signal rate (S) = c x Data rate (N)/r
Where r = number of data elements carried by each signal element
c = case factor , best worst average
 Line Coding
Example

A signal is carrying data in which one data element is encoded as one

signal element (r = 1). If the bit rate is 100 kbps, what is the average
value of the baud rate if c is between 0 and 1?
 Line Coding
Bandwidth

 bandwidth (range of frequencies) is proportional to the signal rate

(baud rate).
Line coding characteristics

Baseline Wandering
● Baseline : a running average of the received signal power
● Baseline Wandering :
A long string of 0s or 1s can cause a drift in the baseline
● It makes difficult for the receiver to decode correctly.
● A good line coding scheme needs to prevent baseline wandering.

DC Components
● When the voltage level in a digital signal is constant for a while
● It creates very low frequencies around zero
● Creates problems for a system that cannot pass low frequencies
● For example, a telephone line cannot pass frequencies below 200 Hz.
Line coding characteristics

Self-synchronization
● A self-synchronizing digital signal includes timing information in the
data being transmitted.
● If the receiver clock is faster or slower, the receiver might
misinterpret the signals
● In the following figure, receiver has a shorter bit duration
Line coding characteristics

Self-synchronization : Example
● In a digital transmission, the receiver clock is 0.1 percent faster than
the sender clock. How many extra bits per second does the receiver
receive if the data rate is 1 kbps? How many if the data rate is 1
Mbps?
Line coding characteristics

Built-in Error Detection

● It is desirable to have a built-in error-detecting capability in the
generated code

Immunity to Noise and Interference

● It a code that is immune to noise and other interferences.

Complexity
● A complex scheme is more costly to implement than a simple one.
Line coding schemes
Unipolar NRZ (Nonreturn to Zero) scheme

Unipolar: All the signal levels are on one side of the time axis, either above
or below
● Signal does not return to zero at the middle of the bit

Unipolar NRZ:
● 0 = low level
● 1 = high level
Polar schemes: NRZ-L (Nonreturn to Zero-Level )
and NRZ-I (Nonreturn to Zero Inverted)

● Polar schemes: The voltages are on both sides of the time axis
● In NRZ-L the level of the voltage determines the value of the bit.
In NRZ-I the inversion or the lack of inversion determines the
value of the bit

NRZ-L:
● 0 = high level
● 1 = low level
NRZ-I:
● 0 = no transition at
beginning of interval
● 1 = transition at
beginning of interval
NRZ-S and NRZ-M (Two versions of NRZ-I)

 Mark and Space

 Mark: Binary 1

 Space: Binary 0

 NRZ-S: A binary encoding scheme in which a signal parameter,

such as voltage, undergoes a change in a level every time when a
“0" occurs, but when a "one" occurs, it remains the same, i.e. , no
transition occurs

 NRZ-M: A binary encoding scheme in which a signal parameter,

such as voltage, undergoes a change in a level every time when a
“1" occurs, but when a "zero" occurs, it remains the same, i.e. , no
transition occurs

Note: NRZ-S and NRZ-M schemes are inverse to each other

Polar RZ (Return-to-zero) scheme

● The main problem with NRZ encoding occurs when the sender and
receiver clocks are not synchronized
● In RZ, the signal changes not between bits but during the bit
● In RZ, signal goes to 0 in the middle of each bit and it remains
there until the beginning of the next bit
RZ:
● 0 = low level to zero
● 1 = high level to zero
 Polar biphase: Manchester and differential Manchester schemes

● In Manchester and differential Manchester encoding, the transition

at the middle of the bit is used for synchronization

Manchester:
● 0 = transition from high to low
● 1 = transition from low to high

Differential Manchester:
Always a transition in middle of
interval
● 0 = transition at beginning of
interval
● 1 = no transition at beginning
of interval
Bipolar schemes: AMI (alternate mark inversion) and pseudoternary

AMI:
● 0 = neutral zero voltage
(or no line signal)
● 1 = positive or negative
level, alternating for
successive ones

Pseudoternary:
● 0 = positive or negative
level, alternating for
successive zeros
● 1 = no line signal
Multilevel: mBnL

 m: Length of the binary pattern

 B: Means binary data
 n: Length of signal pattern
 L: Number of levels
Multilevel: 2B1Q (two binary one quaternary) scheme

● 2B1Q scheme uses data pattern of size 2 and encodes the 2-bit
patters as 1 signal element belonging to a four-level signal

● Here, m = 2, n = 1, and L = 4 (quaternary)

Multitransition : MLT-3

● Because of synchronization requirements we force transitions.

● Codes can be created that are differential at the bit level forcing
transitions at bit boundaries.
Summary of line coding schemes
 Block Coding
 For a code to be capable of error detection, we need to add
redundancy, i.e., extra bits to the data bits.

 Synchronization also requires redundancy - transitions are

important in the signal flow and must occur frequently.

 Block coding is normally referred to as mB/nB coding.

 It replaces each m-bit group with an n-bit group.

 Block coding is done in three steps:

 division,

 substitution and

 combination
Block Coding
 Block Coding

Using block coding 4B/5B with NRZ-I line coding scheme

4B/5B
 Scrambling
 The best code is one that does not increase the bandwidth for
synchronization and has no DC components.

 Scrambling is a technique used to create a sequence of bits that

has the required c/c‟s for transmission - self clocking, no low
frequencies, no wide bandwidth.

 It is implemented at the same time as encoding.

 It replaces „unfriendly‟ runs of bits with a violation code that is easy

to recognize.
 Scrambling : B8ZS
 B8ZS substitutes eight consecutive zeros with 000VB0VB.

 V stands for violation, It violates the line encoding rule.

 B stands for bipolar, it implements the bipolar line encoding rule.

 Scrambling : HDB3
 HDB3 substitutes four consecutive zeros with 000V or B00V.

 If # of non zero pulses is even the substitution is B00V.

 If # of non zero pulses is odd the substitution is 000V.

 Analog-to-digital Conversion
 A digital signal is superior to an analog signal
 Because it is more robust to noise and can easily be recovered,
corrected and amplified.
 The tendency today is to change an analog signal to digital data.
 The device used for converting analog data into digital form for
transmission, and subsequently recovering the original analog
data from the digital, is known as a codec (coder-decoder).
 Techniques for digitization
 Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
 Delta Modulation (DM)
 Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

● PCM consists of three steps to digitize an analog

signal:
 Sampling
 Quantization
 Binary encoding
 Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
 Components of PCM encoder
 Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
 Sampling
 Analog signal is sampled every TS secs.
 TS is referred to as the sampling interval.
 fs = 1/ TS is called the sampling rate or sampling frequency.
 There are 3 sampling methods:
 Ideal - an impulse at each sampling instant
 Natural - a pulse of short width with varying amplitude
 Flattop - sample and hold, like natural but with single
amplitude value
 The process is referred to as pulse amplitude modulation PAM.
 The outcome is a signal with analog (non integer) values.
 Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
 Sampling
 Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
 Sampling
 Pulse code modulation (PCM) is based on the sampling
theorem:

SAMPLING THEOREM: If a signal f(t) is

sampled at regular intervals of time and at a
rate higher than twice the highest signal
frequency, then the samples contain all the
information of the original signal.

The function f(t) may be reconstructed from

these samples by the use of a low pass filter.
 Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
 Example

A complex low-pass signal has a bandwidth of

200 kHz. What is the minimum sampling rate
for this signal?

Solution
The bandwidth of a low-pass signal is between 0 and
f, where f is the maximum frequency in the signal.
Therefore, we can sample this signal at 2 times the
highest frequency (200 kHz). The sampling rate is
therefore 400,000 samples per second.
 Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

 Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
 Quantization Levels
 The midpoint of each zone is assigned a value from 0 to
L-1 (resulting in L values)
 Each sample falling in a zone is then approximated to
the value of the midpoint.

 Encoding
 Each quantized sample can be changed to an n-bit code
word.
 The bit rate can be found from the formula
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
 Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)


The signal-to-noise ratio for quantizing noise can be

expressed as

SNQRdB = 6.02n + 1.76 dB

 Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
 Quantization Error
 Signals with lower amplitude values will suffer more
from quantization error as the error range: ∆/2, is fixed
for all signal levels.
 Non linear quantization is used to alleviate this problem.
Goal is to keep SNQR fixed for all sample values.
 Two approaches:
 The quantization levels follow a logarithmic curve. Smaller
∆‟s at lower amplitudes and larger ∆‟s at higher
amplitudes.
 Companding: The sample values are compressed at the
sender into logarithmic zones, and then expanded at the
receiver. The zones are fixed in height.
 Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
 PCM Decoder
 To recover an analog signal from a digitized signal we
follow the following steps:
 We use a hold circuit that holds the amplitude value
of a pulse till the next pulse arrives.
 We pass this signal through a low pass filter with a
cutoff frequency that is equal to the highest
frequency in the pre-sampled signal.
 The higher the value of L, the less distorted a signal is
recovered.
 Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
 PCM Decoder
 Delta Modulation (DM)

 Delta modulation is simplest technique.

 DM finds the change in amplitude from the

previous sample.

 Modulator
 The process records the small positive or negative
changes, called delta δ.

 If the δ is positive, the process records a 1

 If the δ is negative, the process records a 0

Delta Modulation (DM)
Delta Modulation (DM)
Delta Modulation (DM)
 Delta Modulation (DM)

 Adaptive DM
 The value of delta is not fixed.

 The value of delta changes according to the amplitude.

 Quantization error of DM is less than PCM.

Transmission Modes
Parallel Transmission
Serial Transmission
Asynchronous Transmission
Synchronous Transmission
Analog Transmission
 Digital-to-Analog Conversion
 Digital data needs to be carried on an analog signal.
 A carrier signal (frequency fc) performs the function of
transporting the digital data in an analog waveform.
 Digital-to-analog conversion is the process of changing one of the
characteristics of an analog signal based on the information in
digital data.
 Characteristics are:
 Amplitude
 Frequency
 Phase
Types of digital-to-analog conversion
 Data Rate versus Signal Rate
 In the analog transmission of digital data, the signal or baud rate is
less than or equal to the bit rate.

Signal rate (S) = Data rate (N)/r bauds

Where r = number of data bits carried by each signal element

 Bandwidth

 The required bandwidth for analog transmission of digital data is

proportional to the signal rate except for FSK

 The difference between the carrier signals needs to be added in FSK.

 Carrier Signal

 The sending device produces a high-frequency signal that acts as a base

for the information signal.
 Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
 ASK is implemented by changing the amplitude of a carrier signal
to reflect amplitude levels in the digital signal.

 The bandwidth B of ASK is proportional to the signal rate S.

B = (1+d)S

 “d” is due to modulation and filtering, lies between 0 and 1.

Binary ASK (BASK) or on-off keying (OOK).

Implementation of binary ASK
 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
 The digital data stream changes the frequency of the carrier signal,
fc.

 a “0” could be represented by f1=fc - f

 a “1” could be represented by f2=fc+f

 The bandwidth B of FSK is:

B = (1+d)S +2 f
Binary FSK (BFSK)
Implementation of binary FSK
 Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
 The digital data stream changes the phase of the carrier signal, fc.

 a “0” could be represented 180 degree

 a “1” could be represented 0 degree

 The bandwidth B of PSK is:

B = (1+d)S

• PSK is much more robust than ASK as it is not that vulnerable to

noise
Binary PSK (BPSK)
Implementation of binary PSK
 Analog-to-Analog Conversion
 Analog-to-analog conversion is the representation of analog
information by an analog signal.
 Modulation is needed if the medium is bandpass in nature or if
only a bandpass channel is available to us.
 Amplitude Modulation(AM)
 A carrier signal is modulated only in amplitude value.

 The modulating signal is the envelope of the carrier.

 The required bandwidth

BAM = 2B
 Frequency Modulation(FM)
 The modulating signal changes the freq. fc of the carrier signal.

 The bandwidth for FM is high.

 The required bandwidth

BFM = 2(1 + β)B

 Phase Modulation (PM)
 The modulating signal only changes the phase of the carrier signal.

 The phase change manifests itself as a frequency change but the

instantaneous frequency change is proportional to the derivative of
the amplitude.

 The bandwidth is higher than AM

 The required bandwidth

BPM = 2(1 + β)B

Phase Modulation (PM)
Multiplexing Techniques
 Bandwidth Utilization: Multiplexing

● In real life, we have links with limited bandwidths

● The wise use of these bandwidths has been, and will be, one
of the main challenges in data communications
● Bandwidth utilization is the wise use of available
bandwidth to achieve specific goals
● Efficiency can be achieved by multiplexing
● Whenever the bandwidth of a medium linking two devices is
greater than the bandwidth needs of the devices, the link
can be shared
● Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allows the
simultaneous transmission of multiple signals across a single
data link
 Multiplexing

● As data and telecommunications use increases, so does traffic

● We can accommodate this increase by continuing to add individual
links each time a new channel is needed; or we can install higher-
bandwidth links and use each to carry multiple signals
● In a multiplexed system, n lines share the bandwidth of one link

Dividing a link into channels

Categories of multiplexing
 Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM)
● FDM is an analog technique that can be applied when the bandwidth
of a link is greater than the combined bandwidths of the signals to be
transmitted
● In FDM, signals generated by each sending device modulate different
carrier frequencies. These modulated signals are then combined into a
single composite signal that can be transported by the link
● Channels can be separated by strips of unused bandwidth - guard
bands - to prevent signals from overlapping
● Applications: AM and FM radio broadcasting; television broadcasting;
telephone networks etc.
FDM multiplexing process
FDM demultiplexing process
 Example

Five channels, each with a 100-kHz bandwidth, are to be

multiplexed together. What is the minimum bandwidth of
the link if there is a need for a guard band of 10 kHz
between the channels to prevent interference?
Solution
For five channels, we need at least four guard bands. This
means that the required bandwidth is at least
5 × 100 + 4 × 10 = 540 kHz,
as shown in Figure
 Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM)
 WDM is an analog multiplexing technique to combine optical signals
 It is designed to use the high-data-rate capability of fiber-optic cable
 It is conceptually the same as FDM, except that the multiplexing and
demultiplexing involve optical signals. In WDM, we combine different
signals of different frequencies. The difference is that the frequencies
are very high
 Application: SONET (synchronous optical network) network
Prisms in wavelength-division multiplexing and demultiplexing
 Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM)
 TDM is a digital multiplexing technique for combining several low-rate
channels into one high-rate link
 TDM allows several connections to share the high bandwidth of a link
 Instead of sharing a portion of the bandwidth as in FDM, time is
shared. Each connection occupies a portion of time in the link
 Application: Telephone networks
Synchronous time-division multiplexing

● In synchronous TDM, each input connection has an allotment in

the output even if it is not sending data
● In synchronous TDM, the data rate of the link is n times faster,
and the unit duration is n times shorter
Example 1
Following figure shows synchronous TDM with a data stream for each
input and one data stream for the output. The unit of data is 1 bit. Find
(a) the input bit duration, (b) the output bit duration, and (c) the
output bit rate.

Solution:
We can answer the questions as follows:
a. The input bit duration is the inverse of the bit rate:
1/1 Mbps = 1 μs
b. The output bit duration is one-fourth of the input bit duration, or ¼
μs
Example 1 (Contd…)

c. The output bit rate is the inverse of the output bit duration or
1/(4μs) or 4 Mbps.
This can also be deduced from the fact that the output rate is 4
times as fast as any input rate; so the output rate = 4 × 1 Mbps
= 4 Mbps
 Data Rate Management

 Not all input links maybe have the same data rate.

 Some links maybe slower. There maybe several

different input link speeds

 There are three strategies that can be used to overcome

the data rate mismatch: multilevel, multislot and pulse
stuffing

6.172
 Data rate matching
 Multilevel: used when the data rate of the input links
are multiples of each other.

 Multislot: used when there is a GCD between the data

rates. The higher bit rate channels are allocated more
slots per frame, and the output frame rate is a multiple
of each input link.

 Pulse Stuffing: used when there is no GCD between the

links. The slowest speed link will be brought up to the
speed of the other links by bit insertion, this is called
pulse stuffing.
Multilevel multiplexing
Multiple-slot multiplexing
Pulse stuffing
Statistical Time-Division Multiplexing

 In synchronous TDM, each input has a reserved slot in the output

frame. This can be inefficient if some input lines have no data to
send
 In statistical time-division multiplexing, slots are dynamically
allocated to improve bandwidth efficiency
 The multiplexer checks each input line in round robin fashion; it
allocates a slot for an input line if the line has data to send;
otherwise, it skips the line and checks the next line
 An output slot in synchronous TDM is totally occupied by data; in
statistical TDM, a slot needs to carry data as well as the address
of the destination because there is no fixed relationship between
the inputs and outputs
 In statistical multiplexing, the number of slots in each frame is
less than the number of input lines
Synchronous vs Statistical Time-Division Multiplexing
Transmission media
 Transmission Media

 Located below the physical layer and are directly controlled

by the physical layer
 A transmission medium can be broadly defined as anything
that can carry information from a source to a destination
Classes of transmission media
 Twisted-Pair Cable
 A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires
 The wires are twisted together in a helical form
 The pairs are twisted to provide protection against crosstalk.
 Twisted pairs can run several kilometers without
amplification.
 But for longer distances the signal becomes too attenuated
and repeaters are needed.
 Types of twisted pair cable

Two types of twisted pair cables:

• Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

• Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
UTP connector
Coaxial Cable
Categories of coaxial cables
BNC (Bayonet Neill-Concelman) connectors
 Fiber-Optic Cable
 A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic.
 Transmits signals in the form of light.
 Optical fibers use reflection to guide light through a channel.
 Bending of light ray
 Fiber-Optic Cable
 A glass or plastic core is surrounded by a cladding of less
dense glass or plastic.
 Transmits signals in the form of light.
 Bending of light ray
Propagation modes
Propagation modes
Fiber construction
Fiber-optic cable connectors
 UNGUIDED MEDIA: WIRELESS
 Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves without
using a physical conductor.

Electromagnetic spectrum for wireless communication

Propagation methods
Wireless Bands
Wireless transmission waves
 Radio Waves
 Radio waves are used for multicast communications.
 They can penetrate through walls.
 Highly regulated.
 Use omni directional antennas.
 Microwaves
 Microwaves are used for unicast communication.
 Higher frequency ranges cannot penetrate walls.
 Use directional antennas.
 point to point line of sight communications.
 Infrared
 Infrared signals can be used for short-range
communication.
 line-of-sight propagation.