ATOM:

 Definition: An atom is the fundamental building block of

matter, consisting of a nucleus made up of protons and
neutrons, surrounded by a cloud of electrons.
 Atom is basic unit of chemical elements.
 The nucleus, at the centre of the atom, contains positively
charged protons and electrically neutral neutrons.
 Electrons, which are negatively charged, orbit around the
nucleus in specific energy levels or shells.
 The number of protons in the nucleus determines the
element's identity, while the number of electrons
determines its chemical behaviour.
 Types Of Atom: There are three types of atoms,
o Elements:
 Each element consist of atoms with the same number of protons in their nuclei.
 The periodic table organizes elements by increasing atomic number (the number of
protons).
o Isotopes:
 Isotopes are atoms of the same element with the same number of protons but
different numbers of neutrons in their nuclei. They have same atomic number but
different atomic masses.
o Ions:
 An ion is an atom or molecule that has gained or lost electrons, resulting in a net
positive or negative charge. When an atom gains electrons, it becomes negatively
charged ion (anion), and when it loses electrons, it becomes a positively charged ion
(cation).

Electron & Proton:

 An Electron and a Proton are subatomic particles that are constituents of an atom.
 Electron: An electron is a negatively charged subatomic particle that orbits around the nucleus of
an atom. It has a very small mass compared to a proton or neutron. Electrons are found in specific
energy levels or shells around the nucleus of an atom and are involved in chemical reactions and the
formation of chemical bonds between atoms.
 Protons: A proton is a positively charged subatomic particle found in the nucleus of an atom. It has
a mass approximately 1836 times greater than an electron. Protons together with neutrons, make up
the nucleus of an atom.
 The number of protons in an atom’s nucleus determines the element’s identity. For Ex: Hydrogen
has one proton, Helium has two protons. On the other hand Electron determines the atom’s
chemical behaviour, its interactions with other atoms, and how it forms chemical bonds.

Element:
 Definition: An element is a pure substance consisting of only one type of atom which all have the
same number of protons in their nuclei.
 Types: Metals, Non-Metals, Metalloids, Noble Gases, Alkali Metals, Halogens.
 In context of electricity we classify:
Metals - Conductors (Copper[Cu], Aluminium[Al], Gold[Au], Silver[Ag], Iron[Fe]).
Non-Metals - Insulators (Nitrogen, Oxygen, Sulphur, Phosphorus, Bromine).
Metalloids - Semi-Conductors (Boron[B], Silicon[Si], Germanium[Ge], Arsenic[As]).

 Conductors:
o Conductors are materials that allow the flow of electric current with minimal resistance.
o They have a high density of free electrons that can easily move through the material when a
voltage is applied.
o Common conductors include metals like copper, aluminium, silver, and gold.
o Due to their abundance of free electrons, these materials conduct electricity efficiently.
 Semiconductors:
o Semiconductors have properties that lie between conductors and insulators.
o They have fewer free electrons than conductors, so they don't conduct electricity as
effectively as metals.
o However, when exposed to certain conditions (such as increased temperature or the addition
of impurities, a process called doping), semiconductors can significantly increase their
conductivity.
o Silicon and germanium are common semiconductor materials widely used in electronic
components like diodes, transistors, and integrated circuits.
 Insulators:
o Insulators are materials that do not conduct electricity effectively.
o They have very few free electrons and a high resistance to the flow of electric current.
o Insulators prevent the movement of electrical charges and are used to insulate conductors to
avoid electrical leakage or short circuits.
o Materials such as rubber, plastic, glass, and ceramic are typical insulators used in various
applications to provide electrical insulation and safety.
Introduction to Electricity:
 Definition: Electricity is a form of energy resulting from the movement of charged particles,
typically electrons, through conductive materials.
 It is a fundamental force of nature responsible for various phenomena, including electrical power,
lightning, and the operation of electrical devices.
 It is a form of energy usually carried by wires and produced by batteries and generators.
 It is used to power machines, computers, Lighting & heating device etc.
 Type:
o Static Electricity: It refers to the accumulation of electric charge on the surface of an object
due to friction or contact with another charged object. This type of electricity remains
stationary until it is discharged, leading to phenomena like static shocks or the attraction of
small objects.
o Current Electricity (Dynamic Electricity): Current electricity involves the flow of electric
charge through a conductor. It is characterized by the movement of electrons from one point
to another in response to an electric field. Current electricity powers most electrical devices
and is used in power transmission. It is created by rubbing two or more objects together.

Current:
 Definition: Current refers to the flow of electric charge through a
conductor. It is the rate at which electric charges moves past a
specific point in a circuit.
 Electric Current is measured in AMPERES (A) and is represented
by the symbol “|”.
 Measurement Device: Ammeter
 Types: There are two primary types of electric current:
o Direct Current (DC): This type of current flows steadily in
one direction through a conductor. It maintains a constant
polarity and magnitude over time. Batteries and most
electronic devices produce direct current.
o Alternating Current (AC): Alternating current periodically
changes direction and magnitude. It reverses direction at
regular intervals, typically following a sinusoidal waveform.
AC is the type of current supplied by power Plants and
used in most household electrical outlets.
 How Current Flow Takes Place?
o Principle: Electric current flows when there is a potential
difference (VOLTAGE) between two points in a circuit.
o This potential difference causes charged particles, usually
electrons, to move from areas of higher potential
(positive terminal) to areas of lower potential (negative
terminal).
o The movement of these charges constitutes the flow of
electric current in a circuit.
Voltage:
 Definition: Voltage is often referred to as electric potential
difference, is a measure of the potential energy per unit charge
between two points in an electrical circuit.
 It represents the force or pressure that drives electric charges
(such as electrons) to move through a conductor.
 Voltage is measured in VOLTS (V).
 Measurement Device: Voltmeter or multimeter

Power:
 Definition: It refers to the rate at which energy is transferred, converted, or consumed in an
electrical circuit. It is the amount of work done per unit of time and is measured in WATTS (W).
 Mathematically, Power (P) can be calculated using the formula:
o P= V x I
o Where,
P is Power in WATTS (W)
V is the Voltage is VOLTS (V)
I is the Current in AMPERES (A).
 Another formula that expresses power is:
o P= I2 x R
o Where,
P is Power in WATTS (W)
I is the Current in AMPERES (A)
R is the Resistance in Ohms ()
 P=VxI [In case of DC]
 P = V x I x Cos [In case of single phase AC]
 P = 3 x V x I x Cos [In case of three phase AC], where 3=1.732 respectively.

OHM’s Law:
 Definition: Ohm’s Law is a fundamental principle in electrical engineering that describes the
relationship between voltage, current, and resistance in an electrical circuit.
 It’s named after the German physicist “Georg Simon Ohm”, who formulated this law.
 Ohm’s Law is expressed by the equation:
o V=IxR
o Where,
V is the voltage across a component in Volts (V)
 I is the current flowing through the component in Amperes (A)
R is the resistance of the component in Ohms ()
This equation illustrates three important aspects:
 Voltage (V): Voltage represents the electric potential difference between two points in a circuit. It is
the driving force that causes electric charges to flow. In the context of Ohm's Law, voltage is
directly proportional to current when resistance remains constant. A higher voltage across a
component will result in a higher current through it, given the same resistance.
 Current (I): Current is the flow of electric charge through a conductor. It is the rate at which charge
moves past a point in a circuit. According to Ohm's Law, current is directly proportional to
voltage when resistance remains constant. Thus, an increase in voltage leads to an increase in
current, assuming the resistance remains constant.
 Resistance (R): Resistance is a property that opposes the flow of current in a circuit. It is measured
in ohms (Ω).As per Ohm's Law, resistance is inversely proportional to current when voltage
remains constant. Higher resistance will result in a reduced current flow for a given voltage.
 Additionally, Ohm’s Law can be rearranged into two other forms:
 In order to measure Resistance we use ohmmeter or Multi-meter (Left).
 In order to measure earth resistance we use MEGGAR (right).
o I = V/R
o R = V/I

Important Definitions:
 Refer the table below:

Property Reactance (X) Inductance (L) Conductance (G) Capacitance (C) Impedance (Z)
The property of an
The opposition to inductor to store The property of a
The ability of a
the flow of energy in a magnetic capacitor to store The total opposition to the
Definition conductor to allow the
alternating current field when electric energy in an electric flow of AC in a circuit.
flow of electric current.
(AC) in a circuit. current flows through field.
it.
Unit of
Ohm (Ω) Henry (H) Siemens (S) Farad (F) Ohm (Ω)
measurement
Either stores or
releases energy Stores energy and
Relationship Stores energy and
depending on the opposes the flow of Allows the flow of AC. Opposes the flow of AC.
to AC opposes the flow of AC.
frequency of the AC.
AC.
Formula X = XL - XC XL = 2πfL G = 1/R XC = 1/(2πfC) Z = R + jX
Reactance is a Conductors are used in a Capacitors are used in a Impedance is a measure of
Inductors are used in a
measure of the wide range of variety of applications, the total opposition to the
variety of applications,
Where used opposition to the applications, including including filters, flow of AC in a circuit.
including transformers,
flow of AC in a wires, cables, and oscillators, and energy Note: here “j” is imaginary
motors, and filters.
circuit. circuits. storage devices. unit which is equal to (-1)
  Reactance: It is the component in an AC circuit, arising from the effect of Inductance or Capacitance
or both and causing the current to be out phase with the voltage.
 Types:
o Inductive Reactance (XL): Inductive reactance occurs in an inductor when it is subjected to
AC. It is caused by the changing magnetic field within the inductor, which induces a voltage
that opposes the change in current. Inductive reactance is directly proportional to the
frequency of the AC and the inductance of the inductor.
o Capacitive Reactance (XC): Capacitive reactance occurs in a capacitor when exposed to AC.
It arises due to the behaviour of the capacitor to store and release electrical energy.
Capacitive reactance is inversely proportional to the frequency of the AC and the capacitance
of the capacitor.
o Impedance (Z): It is the net resultant of ohmic resistance and reactive components in AC
circuits.

Transformer:
 Definition: A transformer is a device used to transfer electrical energy between two or more circuits
through electromagnetic induction. It consists of two coils of wire known as the primary and
secondary windings, usually wound around a common magnetic core.

 Components:
o Primary Coil: The primary winding is connected to the input voltage source. When an AC
passes through the primary winding, it generates a changing magnetic field in the core.
o Secondary Coil: The secondary winding is connected to the load or the circuit where the
transformed voltage is required. The changing magnetic field induced by the primary winding
in the core induces an electromotive force (EEMF) in the secondary winding which generates
an output voltage.
o Magnetic Core: The core, often made of laminated iron or other magnetic materials, serves
to enhance the magnetic coupling between the primary and secondary windings, facilitating
the transfer of energy from the primary to the secondary circuit.
 Principle Of Operation:
o When an AC voltage is applied to the primary winding, it produces an alternating magnetic
field in the core due to the changing current. This changing magnetic field induces a voltage
in the secondary winding through electromagnetic induction.
o The ratio of the number of turns in the primary winding to the number of turns in the
secondary winding determines the transformation ratio and thus the voltage relationship
 between the input and output sides of the transformer. This ratio defines whether the
transformer steps up (increases) or steps down (decreases) the voltage.
 Characteristics and Uses:
o Voltage Transformation: Transformers can step up voltage (increasing it) or step down
voltage (decreasing it) depending on the turn ratio between the primary and secondary
windings.
o Power Transmission: They are crucial in power distribution networks, allowing efficient
transmission of electricity over long distances by stepping up the voltage for reduced energy
losses during transmission and stepping it down for safe use in households or industries.
o Isolation: Transformers provide electrical isolation between the primary and secondary
circuits, which helps in safety, ground fault protection, and noise reduction.
o Applications: They are extensively used in various electrical and electronic devices, power
grids, industrial equipment, and electronic appliances to adapt voltage levels for different
purposes.

Electrical Standards:
 NEC:- NATIOANAL ELECTRICAL CODE

 BS:- BRITISH STADARDS

 IEC:- INTERNATIONAL ELECTRO TECHNICAL COMMISION

 ISO:- INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ORGANISATION

 IS:- INDIAN STANDARDS

 IEEE:- INSTITUTE OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC ENGINEERS

 DEWA:- DUBAI ELECTRICAL AND WATER AUTHORITY

 SEWA:- SHARJAH ELECTRICAL AND WATER AUTHORITY

 ADEWA:- ABU DABHI ELECTRICAL AND WATER AUTHORITY

 NEMA:- NATIONAL ELECTRICAL AND MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION