CONNECT WITH US

WEBSITE: www.eduengineering.in

TELEGRAM: @eduengineering

 Best website for Anna University Affiliated College Students

 Regular Updates for all Semesters
 All Department Notes AVAILABLE
 All Lab Manuals AVAILABLE
 Handwritten Notes AVAILABLE
 Printed Notes AVAILABLE
 Past Year Question Papers AVAILABLE
 Subject wise Question Banks AVAILABLE
 Important Questions for Semesters AVAILABLE
 Various Author Books AVAILABLE
 CS3353 FOUNDATIONS OF DATA SCIENCE

UNIT II DESCRIBING DATA

Types of Data – Types of Variables -Describing Data with Tables and Graphs –Describing
Data with Averages – Describing Variability – Normal Distributions and Standard (z) Scores

 What are the types of data? 2

 How to handling data in a Tables 6
Frequency Distribution and Data: Types, Tables, and Graphs
Frequency distribution in statistics provides the information of the number of occurrences
(frequency) of distinct values distributed within a given period of time or interval, in a list,
table, or graphical representation.

Types of Frequency Distribution:

There are two types of Frequency Distribution.
 Grouped
 Ungrouped
There are two types Data is a collection of numbers or values

Data: Any bit of information that is expressed in a value or numerical number is data. Data
is basically a collection of information, measurements or observations.

For example

 The marks you scored in your Math exam is data

 The number of cars that pass through a bridge in a day.

Raw data :

Raw data is an initial collection of information. This information has not yet been organized.
After the very first step of data collection, you will get raw data. For example,

A group of five friends their favourite colour. The answers are Blue, Green, Blue, Red, and Red.
This collection of information is the raw data.

TELEGRAM: @eduengineering
Discrete data :Discrete data is that which is recorded in whole numbers, like the number
of children in a school or number of tigers in a zoo. It cannot be in decimals or fractions.

Continuous data :Continuous data need not be in whole numbers, it can be in decimals.
Examples are the temperature in a city for a week, your percentage of marks for the last exam
etc.

Example of Data Handling:

 Pictographs

 Bar Graphs

 Histogram and Pie-Charts

 Chance and Probability

 Arithmetic Mean and Median and Mode

Frequency

The frequency of any value is the number of times that value appears in a data set. So from the
above examples of colours, we can say two children like the colour blue, so its frequency is
two. So to make meaning of the raw data, we must organize. And finding out the frequency of
the data values is how this organisation is done.

Frequency Distribution

Many times it is not easy or feasible to find the frequency of data from a very large dataset. So
to make sense of the data we make a frequency table and graphs. Let us take the example of
the heights of ten students in cms.

TELEGRAM: @eduengineering
 Frequency Distribution Table
139, 145, 150, 145, 136, 150, 152, 144, 138, 138

This frequency table will help us make better sense of the data given. Also when the data set is
too big (say if we were dealing with 100 students) we use tally marks for counting. It makes
the task more organized and easy. Below is an example of how we use tally marks.

Frequency Distribution Graph

Using the same above example we can make the following graph:

TELEGRAM: @eduengineering
Learn more about Bar Graphs and Histogram here.

Types of Frequency Distribution

 Grouped frequency distribution.

 Ungrouped frequency distribution.

 Cumulative frequency distribution.

 Relative frequency distribution.

 Relative cumulative frequency distribution.

Grouped Data
At certain times to ensure that we are making correct and relevant observations from the data
set, we may need to group the data into class intervals. This ensures that the frequency
distribution best represents the data. example :the height of students.

Class Interval Frequency

130-140 4

140-150 3

150-160 3

From the above table, you can see that the value of 150 is put in the class interval of 150-160
and not 140-150. This is the convention we must follow.

TELEGRAM: @eduengineering
  The table gives the number of snacks ordered and the number of
days as a tally. Find the frequency of snacks ordered. 2

Answer: From the frequency table the number of snacks ordered ranging between

 2-4 is 4 days

 4 to 6 is 3 days

 6 to 8 is 9 days

 8 to 10 is 9 days

 10 to 12 is 7 days.
So the frequencies for all snacks ordered are 4, 3, 9, 9, 7

 How to find frequency distribution? 2

Answer: We can find frequency distribution by the following steps:

 First of all, calculate the range of the data set.

 Next, divide the range by the number of the group you want your data in and then
round up.

 After that, use class width to create groups

 Finally, find the frequency for each group.

 Define frequency distribution in statistics? 2

Answer: In an overview, the frequency distribution of all distinct values in some variables
and the number of times they occur. Meaning that it tells how frequencies are distributed
overvalues in a frequency distribution. However, mostly we use frequency distributions to
summarize categorical variables.

TELEGRAM: @eduengineering
  Why are frequency distributions important? 2

Answer: It has great importance in statistics. Also, a well-structured frequency distribution

makes possible a detailed analysis of the structure of the population with respect to given
characteristics. Therefore, the groups into which the population break down can be
determined.

 State the components of frequency distribution? 2

Answer: The various components of the frequency distribution are: Class interval, types of
class interval, class boundaries, midpoint or class mark, width or size o class interval, class
frequency,

frequency density = class frequency/ class width,

relative frequency = class frequency/ total frequency, etc.

Descriptive Statistics and the Normal Distribution

Statistics has become the universal language of the sciences, and data analysis can lead to
powerful results.
As scientists, researchers, and managers working in the natural resources sector, we all
rely on statistical analysis to help us answer the questions that arise in the populations we
manage. For example:

 Has there been a significant change in the mean saw timber volume in the red pine stands?
 Has there been an increase in the number of invasive species found in the Great Lakes?
 What proportion of white tail deer in New Hampshire have weights below the limit
considered healthy?
 Did fertilizer A, B, or C have an effect on the corn yield?

 These are typical questions that require statistical analysis for the answers.

 In order to answer these questions, a good random sample must be collected from
the population of interests.

 We then use descriptive statistics to organize and summarize our sample data. The
next step is inferential statistics, which allows us to use our sample statistics and
extend the results to the population, while measuring the reliability of the result.

TELEGRAM: @eduengineering
  But before we begin exploring different types of statistical methods, a brief review
of descriptive statistics is needed.
Statistics
Statistics is the science of collecting, organizing, summarizing, analyzing, and
interpreting information.

Good statistics come from good samples, and are used to draw conclusions or answer
questions about a population. We use sample statistics to estimate population parameters
(the truth).

Figure 1. Using sample statistics to estimate population parameters.

Section 1: Descriptive Statistics

A population is the group to be studied, and population data is a collection of all elements
in the population. For example:

 All the fish in Long Lake.

 All the lakes in the Adirondack Park.
 All the grizzly bears in Yellowstone National Park.

A sample is a subset of data drawn from the population of interest. For example:

 100 fish randomly sampled from Long Lake.

 25 lakes randomly selected from the Adirondack Park.
 60 grizzly bears with a home range in Yellowstone National Park.

TELEGRAM: @eduengineering
 Populations are characterized by descriptive measures called parameters. Inferences about
parameters are based on sample statistics.

For example,

The population mean (µ) is estimated by the sample mean (x̄ ). The population
variance (σ2) is estimated by the sample variance (s2).
Variables are the characteristics we are interested in.

For example:

 The length of fish in Long Lake.

 The pH of lakes in the Adirondack Park.
 The weight of grizzly bears in Yellowstone National Park.

Variables are divided into two major groups: Qualitative And Quantitative.

1. Qualitative variables

 Qualitative variables have values that are attributes or categories.

 Mathematical operations cannot be applied to qualitative variables.

 Examples of qualitative variables are gender, race, and petal color.

 Quantitative variables have values that are typically numeric, such as

measurements.

 Mathematical operations can be applied to these data. Examples of quantitative

variables are age, height, and length.

2. Quantitative variables
o Quantitative variables can be broken down further into two more categories:
discrete and continuous variables.

o Discrete variables have a finite or countable number of possible values.

Think of discrete variables as “hens.” Hens can lay 1 egg, or 2 eggs, or 13
eggs… There are a limited, definable number of values that the variable could
take on.

TELEGRAM: @eduengineering
 o Continuous variables have an infinite number of possible values. Think of
continuous variables as “cows.” Cows can give 4.6713245 gallons of milk, or
7.0918754 gallons of milk, or 13.272698 gallons of milk … There are an
almost infinite number of values that a continuous variable could take on.

Examples

Is the variable qualitative or quantitative?

Species Weight Diameter Zip Code

(qualitative quantitative, quantitative, qualitative)

Descriptive Measures

Descriptive measures of populations are called parameters and are typically written using
Greek letters. The population mean is μ (mu). The population variance is σ2 (sigma
squared) and population standard deviation is σ (sigma).

Descriptive measures of samples are called statistics and are typically written using Roman
letters. The sample mean is (x-bar). The sample variance is s2 and the sample standard
deviation is s. Sample statistics are used to estimate unknown population parameters.

These descriptive statistics help us to identify the center and spread of the data.

Measures of Center

 Explain to find Mean, Median and Mode 13

Mean

The arithmetic mean of a variable, often called the average, is computed by adding up all
the values and dividing by the total number of values.

The population mean is represented by the Greek letter μ (mu).

The sample mean is represented by x̄ (x-bar).

TELEGRAM: @eduengineering
 The sample mean is usually the best, unbiased estimate of the population mean. However,
the mean is influenced by extreme values (outliers) and may not be the best measure of
center with strongly skewed data.

The following equations compute the population mean and sample mean.

where xi is an element in the data set, N is the number of elements in the population,
and n is the number of elements in the sample data set.
Example 2

Find the mean for the following sample data set: 6.4, 5.2, 7.9, 3.4

Median

 The median of a variable is the middle value of the data set when the data are sorted
in order from least to greatest.

 It splits the data into two equal halves with 50% of the data below the median and
50% above the median.

 The median is resistant to the influence of outliers, and may be a better measure of
center with strongly skewed data.

TELEGRAM: @eduengineering
 The calculation of the median depends on the number of observations in the data set.

To calculate the median with an odd number of values (n is odd), first sort the data from
smallest to largest.
Example 3

23, 27, 29, 31, 35, 39, 40, 42, 44, 47, 51

The median is 39. It is the middle value that separates the lower 50% of the data from the
upper 50% of the data.

To calculate the median with an even number of values (n is even), first sort the data from
smallest to largest and take the average of the two middle values.
Example 4

23, 27, 29, 31, 35, 39, 40, 42, 44, 47

Mode

 The mode is the most frequently occurring value and is commonly used with
qualitative data as the values are categorical.

 Categorical data cannot be added, subtracted, multiplied or divided, so the mean and
median cannot be computed.

 The mode is less commonly used with quantitative data as a measure of center.
Sometimes each value occurs only once and the mode will not be meaningful.

 Understanding the relationship between the mean and median is important.

 It gives us insight into the distribution of the variable.

 For example, if the distribution is skewed right (positively skewed), the mean will
increase to account for the few larger observations that pull the distribution to the
right.

 The median will be less affected by these extreme large values, so in this situation,
the mean will be larger than the median.

TELEGRAM: @eduengineering
  In a symmetric distribution, the mean, median, and mode will all be similar in value.
If the distribution is skewed left (negatively skewed), the mean will decrease to
account for the few smaller observations that pull the distribution to the left.

 Again, the median will be less affected by these extreme small observations, and in
this situation, the mean will be less than the median.

Figure 2. Illustration of skewed and symmetric distributions.

Measures of Dispersion

 Measures of center look at the average or middle values of a data set.

 Measures of dispersion look at the spread or variation of the data.
 Variation refers to the amount that the values vary among themselves.
 Values in a data set that are relatively close to each other have lower measures of
variation. Values that are spread farther apart have higher measures of variation.

Examine the two histograms below. Both groups have the same mean weight, but the
values of Group A are more spread out compared to the values in Group B. Both groups
have an average weight of 267 lb. but the weights of Group A are more variable.

Figure 3. Histograms of Group A and Group B.

TELEGRAM: @eduengineering
 There are five measures of dispersion: range, variance, standard deviation, standard error,
and coefficient of variation.

 What is meant by Range 2

 Difference between range and variance 2

Range

The range of a variable is the largest value minus the smallest value. It is the simplest
measure and uses only these two values in a quantitative data set.
Example 5

Find the range for the given data set.

12, 29, 32, 34, 38, 49, 57

Range = 57 – 12 = 45

Variance

 The variance uses the difference between each value and its arithmetic mean.

 The differences are squared to deal with positive and negative differences.

 The sample variance (s2) is an unbiased estimator of the population variance (σ2),
with n-1 degrees of freedom.

Degrees of freedom: In general, the degrees of freedom for an estimate is equal to the
number of values minus the number of parameters estimated en route to the
estimate in question.

 The sample variance is unbiased due to the difference in the denominator.

 If we used “n” in the denominator instead of “n – 1”, we would consistently

underestimate the true population variance.

 To correct this bias, the denominator is modified to “n – 1”.

TELEGRAM: @eduengineering
 Population variance Sample variance

σ2 = s2 =
Example 6

Compute the variance of the sample data: 3, 5, 7. The sample mean is 5.

Standard Deviation

 The standard deviation is the square root of the variance (both population and
sample).

 While the sample variance is the positive, unbiased estimator for the population
variance, the units for the variance are squared.

 The standard deviation is a common method for numerically describing the

distribution of a variable. The population standard deviation is σ (sigma) and
sample standard deviation is s.

Population standard deviation Sample standard deviation

Example 7

Compute the standard deviation of the sample data: 3, 5, 7 with a sample mean of 5.

TELEGRAM: @eduengineering
 Standard Error of the Means

Commonly, we use the sample mean x̄ to estimate the population mean μ.

For example, if we want to estimate the heights of eighty-year-old cherry trees,

 Randomly select 100 trees

 Compute the sample mean of the 100 heights
 Use that as our estimate

 We want to use this sample mean to estimate the true but unknown population
mean.

 But our sample of 100 trees is just one of many possible samples (of the same size)
that could have been randomly selected.

 Imagine if we take a series of different random samples from the same population
and all the same size:

 Sample 1—we compute sample mean x̄

 Sample 2—we compute sample mean x̄
 Sample 3—we compute sample mean x̄ ….Etc.

In this above example, we may get a different result as we are using a different subset of
data to compute the sample mean. This shows us that the sample mean is a random
variable!

The sample mean (x̄ ) is a random variable with its own probability distribution called the
sampling distribution of the sample mean. The distribution of the sample mean will have a
mean equal to µ and a standard deviation equal to .
The standard error is the standard deviation of all possible sample means.

The standard error is the standard deviation of the sample means and can be expressed in
different ways.

Note: s2 is the sample variance and s is the sample standard deviation

TELEGRAM: @eduengineering
Example 8

Describe the distribution of the sample mean.

A population of fish has weights that are normally distributed with µ = 8 lb. and s = 2.6 lb. If
you take a sample of size n=6, the sample mean will have a normal distribution with a mean

of 8 and a standard deviation (standard error) of = 1.061 lb.

If you increase the sample size to 10, the sample mean will be normally distributed with a

mean of 8 lb. and a standard deviation (standard error) of = 0.822 lb.

Notice how the standard error decreases as the sample size increases.

 The Central Limit Theorem (CLT) states that the sampling distribution of the sample
means will approach a normal distribution as the sample size increases.

 If we do not have a normal distribution, or know nothing about our distribution of

our random variable, the CLT tells us that the distribution of the x̄ ’s will become
normal as n increases.

 How large does n have to be? A general rule of thumb tells us that n ≥ 30.

The Central Limit Theorem tells us that regardless of the shape of our population,
the sampling distribution of the sample mean will be normal as the sample size
increases.

Coefficient of Variation

To compare standard deviations between different populations or samples is difficult

because the standard deviation depends on units of measure.

The coefficient of variation expresses the standard deviation as a percentage of the sample
or population mean. It is a unit less measure.

Population data Sample data

CV = CV =

TELEGRAM: @eduengineering
Example 9

Fisheries biologists were studying the length and weight of Pacific salmon. They took a
random sample and computed the mean and standard deviation for length and weight
(given below). While the standard deviations are similar, the differences in units between
lengths and weights make it difficult to compare the variability. Computing the coefficient
of variation for each variable allows the biologists to determine which variable has the
greater standard deviation.

Sample mean Sample standard deviation

Length 63 cm 19.97 cm

Weight 37.6 kg 19.39 kg

There is greater variability in Pacific salmon weight compared to length.

Variability

 Variability is described in many different ways.

 Standard deviation measures point to point variability within a sample, i.e.,

variation among individual sampling units.

 Coefficient of variation also measures point to point variability but on a relative

basis (relative to the mean), and is not influenced by measurement units.

 Standard error measures the sample to sample variability, i.e. variation among
repeated samples in the sampling process.

TELEGRAM: @eduengineering
  Typically, we only have one sample and standard error allows us to quantify the
uncertainty in our sampling process.

Basic Statistics Example using Excel and Minitab Software

Consider the following tally from 11 sample plots on Heiburg Forest, where Xi is the
number of downed logs per acre. Compute basic statistics for the sample plots.

Table 1. Sample data on number of downed logs per acre from Heiburg Forest.

TELEGRAM: @eduengineering
(1) Sample mean:

(2) Median = 35

(3) Variance:

(4) Standard deviation:

(5) Range: 55 – 5 = 50

(6) Coefficient of variation:

(7) Standard error of the mean:

Software Solutions

TELEGRAM: @eduengineering
 Minitab

Open Minitab and enter data in the spreadsheet. Select STAT>Descriptive stats and check
all statistics required.

TELEGRAM: @eduengineering
 Descriptive Statistics: Data

Variable N N* Mean SE Mean StDev Variance CoefVar Minimum Q1

Data 11 0 32.27 4.83 16.03 256.82 49.66 5.00 20.00

Variable Median Q3 Maximum IQR

Data 35.00 45.00 55.00 25.00

Excel

Open up Excel and enter the data in the first column of the spreadsheet. Select DATA>Data
Analysis>Descriptive Statistics. For the Input Range, select data in column A. Check “Labels
in First Row” and “Summary Statistics”. Also check “Output Range” and select location for
output.

TELEGRAM: @eduengineering
 Data

Mean 32.27273

Standard Error 4.831884

Median 35

Mode 25

Standard Deviation 16.02555

Sample Variance 256.8182

Kurtosis -0.73643

Skewness -0.05982

Range 50

Minimum 5

TELEGRAM: @eduengineering
 Maximum 55

Sum 355

Count 11

Graphical Representation

Data organization and summarization can be done graphically, as well as numerically.

Tables and graphs allow for a quick overview of the information collected and support the
presentation of the data used in the project. While there are a multitude of available
graphics, this chapter will focus on a specific few commonly used tools.

Pie Charts

Pie charts are a good visual tool allowing the reader to quickly see the relationship
between categories. It is important to clearly label each category, and adding the frequency
or relative frequency is often helpful. However, too many categories can be confusing. Be
careful of putting too much information in a pie chart. The first pie chart gives a clear idea
of the representation of fish types relative to the whole sample. The second pie chart is
more difficult to interpret, with too many categories. It is important to select the best
graphic when presenting the information to the reader.

Figure 4. Comparison of pie charts.

What is a Pie Chart?

The “pie chart” is also known as a “circle chart”, dividing the circular statistical graphic into
sectors or sections to illustrate the numerical problems. Each sector denotes a proportionate part
of the whole. To find out the composition of something, Pie-chart works the best at that time. In

TELEGRAM: @eduengineering
most cases, pie charts replace other graphs like the bar graph, line plots, histograms, etc.

Formula
The pie chart is an important type of data representation. It contains different segments and sectors
in which each segment and sector of a pie chart forms a specific portion of the total(percentage).
The sum of all the data is equal to 360°.
The total value of the pie is always 100%.
To work out with the percentage for a pie chart, follow the steps given below:

 Categorize the data

 Calculate the total
 Divide the categories
 Convert into percentages
 Finally, calculate the degrees
Therefore, the pie chart formula is given as
(Given Data/Total value of Data) × 360°
Note: It is not mandatory to convert the given data into percentages until it is specified. We can
directly calculate the degrees for given data values and draw the pie chart accordingly.

How to Create a Pie Chart?

Imagine a teacher surveys her class on the basis of favourite Sports of students:

Football Hockey Cricket Basketball Badminton

10 5 5 10 10

The data above can be represented by a pie chart as following and by using the circle graph
formula, i.e. the pie chart formula given below. It makes the size of the portion easy to
understand.
Step 1: First, Enter the data into the table.

Football Hockey Cricket Basketball Badminton

10 5 5 10 10

Step 2: Add all the values in the table to get the total.
I.e. Total students are 40 in this case.

TELEGRAM: @eduengineering
Step 3: Next, divide each value by the total and multiply by 100 to get a per cent:

Football Hockey Cricket Basketball Badminton

(10/40) × 100 (5/ 40) × 100 (5/40) ×100 (10/ 40) ×100 (10/40)× 100

=25% =12.5% =12.5% =25% =25%

Step 4: Next to know how many degrees for each “pie sector” we need, we will take a full circle
of 360° and follow the calculations below:
The central angle of each component = (Value of each component/sum of values of all the
components)✕360°

Football Hockey Cricket Basketball Badminton

(10/ 40)× 360° (5 / 40) × 360° (5/40) × 360° (10/ 40)× 360° (10/ 40) × 360°
=90° =45° =45° =90° =90°
Now you can draw a pie chart.
Step 5: Draw a circle and use the protractor to measure the degree of each sector.

Let us take an example for a pie chart with an explanation here to understand the concept in a
better way.

TELEGRAM: @eduengineering
Question: The percentages of various cops cultivated in a village of particular distinct are
given in the following table.

Items Wheat Pulses Jowar Groundnuts Vegetables Total

Percentage of cops 125/3 125/6 25/2 50/3 25/3 100

Represent this information using a pie-chart.

Solution:
The central angle = (component value/100) × 360°
The central angle for each category is calculated as follows

Items Percentage of cops Central angle

Wheat 125/3 [(125/3)/100] × 360° = 150°

Pulses 125/6 [(125/6)/100] × 360° = 75°

Jowar 25/2 [(25/2)/100] × 360° = 45°

Groundnuts 50/3 [(50/3)/100] × 360° = 60°

Vegetables 25/3 [(25/3)/100] × 360° = 30°

Total 100 360°

Now, the pie-chart can be constructed by using the given data.

Steps to construct:
Step 1: Draw the circle of an appropriate radius.
Step 2: Draw a vertical radius anywhere inside the circle.
Step 3: Choose the largest central angle. Construct a sector of a central angle, whose one radius
coincides with the radius drawn in step 2, and the other radius is in the clockwise direction to the
vertical radius.
Step 4: Construct other sectors representing other values in the clockwise direction in
descending order of magnitudes of their central angles.

TELEGRAM: @eduengineering
Step 5: Shade the sectors obtained by different colours and label them as shown in the figure
below.

Bar Charts and Histograms

Bar charts graphically describe the distribution of a qualitative variable (fish type) while
histograms describe the distribution of a quantitative variable discrete or continuous variables
(bear weight).
The major difference between Bar Chart and Histogram is the bars of bar chart are not just next to each
other. In histogram, the bars are adjacent to each other. In statistics, bar chart and histogram are important for
expressing huge or big number of data. The similarity between bar chart and histogram is both are the pictorial
representation of grouped data. Here, we will learn histogram vs bar graph with examples.

What is the difference between bar chart and histogram?

Bar graph Histogram

Bar graph is the graphical representation of Bar graph is the graphical representation of grouped data
categorical data in continuous manner

There is equal space between each pair of There is no space between the consecutive bars
consecutive bars

The height of the bars shows the frequency and the The frequency of the data is shown by the area of
width gap is zero rectangular bars

TELEGRAM: @eduengineering
Bar Graph V/s Histogram
A bar graph is a pictorial representation using vertical and horizontal bars in a graph. The length of
bars are proportional to the measure of data. It is also called bar chart.
A histogram is also a pictorial representation of data using rectangular bars, that are adjacent to
each other. It is used to represent grouped frequency distribution with continuous classes.

Figure 5. Comparison of a bar chart for qualitative data and a histogram for quantitative
data.

In both cases, the bars’ equal width and the y-axis are clearly defined. With qualitative data,
each category is represented by a specific bar. With continuous data, lower and upper class
limits must be defined with equal class widths. There should be no gaps between classes
and each observation should fall into one, and only one, class.

Boxplots

 Boxplots use the 5-number summary (minimum and maximum values with the
three quartiles) to illustrate the center, spread, and distribution of your data.

 When paired with histograms, they give an excellent description, both numerically
and graphically, of the data.

 With symmetric data, the distribution is bell-shaped and somewhat symmetric.

 In the boxplot, we see that Q1 and Q3 are approximately equidistant from the
median, as are the minimum and maximum values. Also, both whiskers (lines
extending from the boxes) are approximately equal in length.

TELEGRAM: @eduengineering
Box plots divide the data into sections that each contain approximately 25% of the data in that
set.

Box plots are useful as they provide a visual summary of the data enabling researchers to quickly
identify mean values, the dispersion of the data set, and signs of skewness.
Note the image above represents data which is a perfect normal distribution and most box plots
will not conform to this symmetry (where each quartile is the same length).
Box plots are useful as they show the average score of a data set.
The median is the average value from a set of data and is shown by the line that divides the box
into two parts. Half the scores are greater than or equal to this value and half are less.
Box plots are useful as they show the skewness of a data set
The box plot shape will show if a statistical data set is normally distributed or skewed.

When the median is in the middle of the box, and the whiskers are about the same on both sides of
the box, then the distribution is symmetric.

TELEGRAM: @eduengineering
When the median is closer to the bottom of the box, and if the whisker is shorter on the lower end
of the box, then the distribution is positively skewed (skewed right).
When the median is closer to the top of the box, and if the whisker is shorter on the upper end of
the box, then the distribution is negatively skewed (skewed left).
Box plots are useful as they show the dispersion of a data set.
In statistics, dispersion (also called variability, scatter, or spread) is the extent to which a
distribution is stretched or squeezed.
The smallest value and largest value are found at the end of the ‘whiskers’ and are useful for
providing a visual indicator regarding the spread of scores (e.g. the range).

The interquartile range (IQR) is the box plot showing the middle 50% of scores and can
be calculated by subtracting the lower quartile from the upper quartile (e.g. Q3−Q1).
Box plots are useful as they show outliers within a data set.
An outlier is an observation that is numerically distant from the rest of the data.
When reviewing a box plot, an outlier is defined as a data point that is located outside the
whiskers of the box plot.

For example, outside 1.5 times the interquartile range above the upper quartile and below the
lower quartile (Q1 - 1.5 * IQR or Q3 + 1.5 * IQR).

signs of skewness
If the data do not appear to be symmetric, does each sample show the same kind of asymmetry?

TELEGRAM: @eduengineering
TELEGRAM: @eduengineering
TELEGRAM: @eduengineering
Figure 6. A histogram and boxplot of a normal distribution.

With skewed left distributions, we see that the histogram looks “pulled” to the left. In the
boxplot, Q1 is farther away from the median as are the minimum values, and the left
whisker is longer than the right whisker.

Figure 7. A histogram and boxplot of a skewed left distribution.

TELEGRAM: @eduengineering
With skewed right distributions, we see that the histogram looks “pulled” to the right. In
the boxplot, Q3 is farther away from the median, as is the maximum value, and the right
whisker is longer than the left whisker.

Figure 8. A histogram and boxplot of a skewed right distribution.

TELEGRAM: @eduengineering
 Probability Distribution

Once we have organized and summarized your sample data, the next step is to identify the
underlying distribution of our random variable.

Computing probabilities for continuous random variables are complicated by the fact that
there are an infinite number of possible values that our random variable can take on, so the
probability of observing a particular value for a random variable is zero.

Therefore, to find the probabilities associated with a continuous random variable, we use a
probability density function (PDF).

A PDF is an equation used to find probabilities for continuous random variables. The PDF
must satisfy the following two rules:

1. The area under the curve must equal one (over all possible values of the random variable).
2. The probabilities must be equal to or greater than zero for all possible values of the
random variable.

The area under the curve of the probability density function over some interval
represents the probability of observing those values of the random variable in that
interval.

The Normal Distribution

Many continuous random variables have a bell-shaped or somewhat symmetric

distribution.

This is a normal distribution. In other words, the probability distribution of its relative
frequency histogram follows a normal curve.

The curve is bell-shaped, symmetric about the mean, and defined by µ and σ (the mean and
standard deviation).

TELEGRAM: @eduengineering
Figure 9. A normal distribution.

There are normal curves for every combination of µ and σ.

 The mean (µ) shifts the curve to the left or right.

 The standard deviation (σ) alters the spread of the curve.

 The first pair of curves have different means but the same standard deviation.

 The second pair of curves share the same mean (µ) but have different standard
deviations.

 The pink curve has a smaller standard deviation. It is narrower and taller, and the
probability is spread over a smaller range of values.

 The blue curve has a larger standard deviation. The curve is flatter and the tails are
thicker. The probability is spread over a larger range of values.

Figure 10. A comparison of normal curves.

TELEGRAM: @eduengineering
 Properties of the normal curve:

 The mean is the center of this distribution and the highest point.
 The curve is symmetric about the mean. (The area to the left of the mean equals the area to
the right of the mean.)
 The total area under the curve is equal to one.
 As x increases and decreases, the curve goes to zero but never touches.

 The PDF of a normal curve is .

 A normal curve can be used to estimate probabilities.
 A normal curve can be used to estimate proportions of a population that have certain x-
values.

The Standard Normal Distribution

The standard normal distribution, also called the z-distribution, is a special normal distribution
where the mean is 0 and the standard deviation is 1. Any normal distribution can be
standardized by converting its values into z-scores. There are millions of possible combinations of
means and standard deviations for continuous random variables.

Finding probabilities associated with these variables would require us to integrate the PDF
over the range of values we are interested in.

To avoid this, we can rely on the standard normal distribution. T

he standard normal distribution is a special normal distribution with a µ = 0 and σ = 1. We

can use the Z-score to standardize any normal random variable, converting the x-values to
Z-scores, thus allowing us to use probabilities from the standard normal table. So how do
we find area under the curve associated with a Z-score?

Standard Normal Table

 The standard normal table gives probabilities associated with specific Z-scores.
 The table we use is cumulative from the left.
 The negative side is for all Z-scores less than zero (all values less than the mean).
 The positive side is for all Z-scores greater than zero (all values greater than the mean).
 Not all standard normal tables work the same way.

TELEGRAM: @eduengineering
Example 10

What is the area associated with the Z-score 1.62?

Figure 11. The standard normal table and associated area for z = 1.62.

Reading the Standard Normal Table

 Read down the Z-column to get the first part of the Z-score (1.6).
 Read across the top row to get the second decimal place in the Z-score (0.02).
 The intersection of this row and column gives the area under the curve to the left of the Z-
score.

Finding Z-scores for a Given Area

 What if we have an area and we want to find the Z-score associated with that area?
 Instead of Z-score → area, we want area → Z-score.
 We can use the standard normal table to find the area in the body of values and read
backwards to find the associated Z-score.
 Using the table, search the probabilities to find an area that is closest to the probability you
are interested in.

TELEGRAM: @eduengineering
Example 11

To find a Z-score for which the area to the right is 5%:

Since the table is cumulative from the left, you must use the complement of 5%.

1.000 – 0.05 = 0.9500

Figure 12. The upper 5% of

the area under a normal curve.

 Find the Z-score for the area of 0.9500.

 Look at the probabilities and find a value as close to 0.9500 as possible.

Figure
13. The standard normal table.
The Z-score for the 95th percentile is 1.64.Area in between Two Z-scores
Example 12

To find Z-scores that limit the middle 95%:

 The middle 95% has 2.5% on the right and 2.5% on the left.
 Use the symmetry of the curve.

TELEGRAM: @eduengineering
 Figure 14. The middle
95% of the area under a normal curve.

 Look at your standard normal table. Since the table is cumulative from the left, it is easier
to find the area to the left first.
 Find the area of 0.025 on the negative side of the table.
 The Z-score for the area to the left is -1.96.
 Since the curve is symmetric, the Z-score for the area to the right is 1.96.

Common Z-scores

There are many commonly used Z-scores:

 Z.05 = 1.645 and the area between -1.645 and 1.645 is 90%
 Z.025 = 1.96 and the area between -1.96 and 1.96 is 95%
 Z.005 = 2.575 and the area between -2.575 and 2.575 is 99%

Applications of the Normal Distribution

Typically, our normally distributed data do not have μ = 0 and σ = 1, but we can relate any
normal distribution to the standard normal distributions using the Z-score. We can
transform values of x to values of z.

For example, if a normally distributed random variable has a μ = 6 and σ = 2, then a value of
x = 7 corresponds to a Z-score of 0.5.

TELEGRAM: @eduengineering
This tells you that 7 is one-half a standard deviation above its mean. We can use this
relationship to find probabilities for any normal random variable.

Figure 15. A normal and standard normal curve.

To find the area for values of X, a normal random variable, draw a picture of the area of
interest, convert the x-values to Z-scores using the Z-score and then use the standard
normal table to find areas to the left, to the right, or in between.

TELEGRAM: @eduengineering
Example 13

Adult deer population weights are normally distributed with µ = 110 lb. and σ = 29.7 lb. As
a biologist you determine that a weight less than 82 lb. is unhealthy and you want to know
what proportion of your population is unhealthy.

P(x<82)

Figure 16. The area

under a normal curve for P(x<82).

Convert 82 to a Z-score

The x value of 82 is 0.94 standard deviations below the mean.

Figure 17. Area under

a standard normal curve for P(z<-0.94).
Go to the standard normal table (negative side) and find the area associated with a Z-score
of -0.94.

This is an “area to the left” problem so you can read directly from the table to get the
probability.

P(x<82) = 0.1736

Approximately 17.36% of the population of adult deer is underweight, OR one deer chosen
at random will have a 17.36% chance of weighing less than 82 lb.

TELEGRAM: @eduengineering
Example 14

Statistics from the Midwest Regional Climate Center indicate that Jones City, which has a
large wildlife refuge, gets an average of 36.7 in. of rain each year with a standard deviation
of 5.1 in. The amount of rain is normally distributed. During what percent of the years does
Jones City get more than 40 in. of rain?

P(x > 40)

Figure 18. Area under a normal

curve for P(x>40).

P(x>40) = (1-0.7422) = 0.2578

For approximately 25.78% of the years, Jones City will get more than 40 in. of rain.

Assessing Normality

 If the distribution is unknown and the sample size is not greater than 30 (Central
Limit Theorem), we have to assess the assumption of normality.

 Our primary method is the normal probability plot. This plot graphs the observed
data, ranked in ascending order, against the “expected” Z-score of that rank.

 If the sample data were taken from a normally distributed random variable, then the
plot would be approximately linear.

 Examine the following probability plot.

 The center line is the relationship we would expect to see if the data were drawn
from a perfectly normal distribution.

 Notice how the observed data (red dots) loosely follow this linear relationship.
Minitab also computes an Anderson-Darling test to assess normality.

TELEGRAM: @eduengineering
  The null hypothesis for this test is that the sample data have been drawn from a
normally distributed population. A p-value greater than 0.05 supports the
assumption of normality.

Figure 19. A normal probability plot generated using Minitab 16.

Compare the histogram and the normal probability plot in this next example. The
histogram indicates a skewed right distribution.

Figure 20. Histogram and normal probability plot for skewed right data.

The observed data do not follow a linear pattern and the p-value for the A-D test is less
than 0.005 indicating a non-normal population distribution.

Normality cannot be assumed. You must always verify this assumption. Remember, the
probabilities we are finding come from the standard NORMAL table. If our data are NOT
normally distributed, then these probabilities DO NOT APPLY.

TELEGRAM: @eduengineering
 IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1. What are the types of data.

2. List out the types of variables.

3. How to describing data with table and graph.

4. Define variability

5. What is meant by normal distribution.

6. Define standard (z) scores.

7. What is standard errors.

8. Difference between bar chart and histogram.

9. Write the properties of the normal curve

10. To find a z-scores for a given area which the area to the right at 5% and 95%
of area under normal.

11. Application of the normal distribution.

12. Explain mean ,median and mode with proper example.

13. Shorts notes on range and variance

14. How to find the standard deviation of a given data 3,5,7 with a sample mean
is 5.

15. Write short notes on Normal distribution.

TELEGRAM: @eduengineering
 CONNECT WITH US

WEBSITE: www.eduengineering.in

TELEGRAM: @eduengineering

 Best website for Anna University Affiliated College Students

 Regular Updates for all Semesters
 All Department Notes AVAILABLE
 All Lab Manuals AVAILABLE
 Handwritten Notes AVAILABLE
 Printed Notes AVAILABLE
 Past Year Question Papers AVAILABLE
 Subject wise Question Banks AVAILABLE
 Important Questions for Semesters AVAILABLE
 Various Author Books AVAILABLE