Qualitative Data Analysis

 The purpose of qualitative data is to provide

‘evidence’

 Qualitative data does not measure, but

provide understanding and insights

 The main goal is to explain the nature of

situations, to learn deeper relationships and
their characteristics

QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS INVOLVES:-

1. Data Preparation
2. Data Analysis
3. Presentation and Reporting

DATA PREPARATION

I. Theoretical Saturation
The idea is that you carry on collecting data until all categories have been saturated
with
data.

 No new or relevant data seem to be emerging regarding a category

 All of the categories are well-developed in terms of their properties and dimensions

 The relationship among categories are well-established

II. Transcribing
 Using recorded audio or video
 Verbatim- putting text to word
 Inclusion of other communication features
 No editing at this stage

III. Manual Analysis – CAQDAS

CAQDAS are computer programmes for organizing qualitative data into

appropriate categories
 E.g. NVivo
 Manual Analysis is organising qualitative data into appropriate
categories without help of a specialist computer programme
 E.g. pen & paper & highlighter
 E.g. Microsoft Excel
Approaches to Qualitative Data Analysis

 Thematic Analysis
 Discourse Analysis
 Content Analysis

I. Thematic Analysis
 Thematic analysis is a technique or method for identifying and
interpreting patterns of meaning (or ‘themes’) in qualitative data.
Code & Coding

A code is a short label that captures the key idea in the fragments of the
data. Coding involves systematically identifying these ideas in the dataset
and tagging them with your code

 Emergent coding (data driven - inductive)

 Priori coding (theory driven - deductive)

Problems with Coding

 Losing the context of what was said

 Fragmentation of data – loss of narrative flow

 Risk of providing a descriptive account of the data rather than

theorising

Coding – Important points!

 Code as soon as possible

 Read through your initial set of transcripts

 Read it again!

 Review your codes

 Consider more general theoretical ideas in relation to codes

 Remember that any one item of data can and should be coded in more
than one way

 Do not worry about generating too many codes

Searching for Themes

Themes are recurrent and distinctive features of participants’ accounts,

characterising particular perceptions and/or experiences, which the
researcher sees as relevant to the research question.
 Themes identify general patterning of meaning

To identify themes:

 Identify repeated ideas, concepts or meanings

 Cluster together codes that relate to a particular issue

 Decide if the candidate theme centrally relevant to answering your

research question

 Decide if the candidate theme evident across more than one or two data
items

II. DISCOURSE ANALYSIS

 Discourse analysis explores how discourses construct or constitute

social reality and social relations through creating meanings and
perceptions

 Studies sources or passages of naturally occurring talk

 Appropriate for research on organisational communication, culture,

decision-making, governance, power, trust

 Careful reading and interpretation of texts

 Interpretations should be backed by reference to linguistic evidence in

the data

 Suspension of belief in what is normally taken for granted in language

use

 Reading the text mindful of what the functions might be

 Coding (mostly data-driven coding)

III. CONTENT ANALYSIS

Content analysis is analytical technique that codes and categorises

qualitative data in order to analyse them quantitatively
 Codes and categories are predetermined before data collection
begins (theory-driven)

 However, some approaches of content analysis allows new categories

to emerge during the analysis.

This is not a way of taking tally!

 It is important to explore and identify the relationships between codes and

reveal meanings

Let’s look at this example of content analysis. A researcher explores the attitudes
toward organisational policy based on gender and age and department of the
employee.
First, she will identify terms denoting positive and negative attitudes by searching the
literature. This will result with a list of various positive and negative codes. She will
then go to her dataset and searches for these terms in the dataset. This could be
minutes from meetings and archival documents, or emails.
This process is very similar to coding. It is indeed a version of theory-driven coding.
After she identified these terms in the dataset, she will then look at the gender, age
and department of the person who has used each terms. This way she can analyse
the terms or codes to the person’s age, gender and department.

Key Points

 Qualitative data collection frequently results in the accumulation of a large

volume of information.

 Qualitative data analysis is not governed by codified rules.

 Coding is a key process in most qualitative data analysis strategies

 Problem of fragmentation
 TOPIC 17 WRITING UP AND PRESENTING FINDINGS

Essential Points for Writing Up Quantitative Data Analysis

• Consider the nature of the data being analysed when using a particular technique

• Answer your research objectives

• Address all of your hypotheses if you have more than one

• Present only analyses that are relevant to your research questions

• Ensure you include the appropriate figures e.g. for a t-test the t value and
significance

• Make sure tables and graphs are clearly presented

• Comment on all the analyses presented

Common Problems with Results Sections

• Lack of data interpretation: So do not present the data or some tables by

its own. You need to comment on them and explain what does this mean.

• Lack of relevance: You also need to explain the relevance of this data
with respect to your research question and objectives

• Placing too much emphasis on too few statistics: sometimes students

report only a few statistics and do not pay attention to others which might
come useful to answer their research question

• Lack of structure: have a clear understandable and logical structure, do

not jump from one thing to another.

• Emphasis on the packaging rather than the quality: finally sometimes

students spend too much time trying to make their reports look pretty but
do not show enough effort to improve the quality of their findings.
CHECKLIST: Essential Graph Presentation Points

Graphs should,

o Have a number and a brief, clear title.

o Show the data.
o Avoid distorting the data
o Make large datasets coherent.
o Be referred to in the text (e.g. see Graph 1).
o Be selective(Don’t include a graph for each one of your questions!)

CHECKLIST: Essential Table Presentation Points

• Give the table a number and a full, clear title.

• Give it clear column headings.
• Make sure the columns and rows are in a logical sequence.
• Make sure the units of measurement are clearly stated.
• Make sure the sample size(s) are clearly stated.
• If the table is secondary data include your source as reference underneath.
• If any abbreviations are used ensure explanatory notes are included.
• Refer to any table in the text.
• Do not leave any table without commentary.

Essential Points for Writing Up Qualitative Data Analysis

• Consider the nature of data analysis method.

-Eg. Discourse analysis will require use of quotations from participants but
content analysis will focus on frequency of your codes

• Clarify what is your interpretation and what is the results of your analysis

• Think of your main argument and make sure to connect all elements of your
discussion to it.

Discussion Section

• Do NOT simply repeat the results.

• Interpret the results in light of the problem being addressed.

o Theory
o Managerial implications

• Be realistic in your interpretation

• Do NOT write a summary of how you have conducted the research.

• A couple of paragraphs is probably not enough

Presentation of your report

• Write in simple sentences

• Avoid unexplained jargon

• Beware of using large numbers of quotations from the literature

• Check your spelling and grammar (don’t trust your computer)

• Be consistent with your tense

Limitations

• Refer back to the sources of error

• Do not hide anything
• Balanced perspective

Appendices

• Documents that provide additional detail to help

understanding of the research project.

• Refer to appendices in the body of the report.

• Examples:
o Information Sheet & Consent form
o Focus group schedule
o Interview guide
o Survey questionnaire
o Transcripts
o SPSS outputs

Important

• Start early
• Be persuasive
• Get feedback
• Use inclusive language
• Proofread your work and don’t rely solely on Microsoft grammar/language check
• Use clear signposting throughout, e.g. section headings and subheadings
• The rationale of the research should be spelled out clearly
How to Manage your Dissertation
Supervisor!

• Stay in touch!
• Prepare for meetings & bring your forms with you
• Listen!
• Stick to the deadlines
• Attend the dissertation workshops
• No major changes of the topic in February