Inquiries, Investigation and

Immersion
Quarter 2
The following terms will be encountered in the
lesson:
What is a data?
Data - factual information [as measurements or
statistics] used as a basis for reasoning, discussion,
or calculation.

What is a Data analysis mean for you?

Data Analysis - a process of understanding data or
known facts or assumptions serving as the basis of
any claims or conclusions you have about
something.
 What is Bias means?
Bias - defined as any tendency which prevents
unprejudiced consideration. In research, bias occurs when
“systematic error [is] introduced into sampling or testing
by selecting or encouraging one outcome or answer over
others

What is Plagiarism?
Plagiarism - is presenting someone else’s work or ideas as
your own, with or without their consent, by incorporating
it into your work without full acknowledgement. All
published and unpublished material, whether in
manuscript, printed or electronic form, is covered under
this definition.
What is Intellectual honesty?

Intellectual honesty - is honesty in the

acquisition, analysis, and transmission of ideas. A
person is being intellectually honest when he or
she, knowing the truth, states that truth.
Familiarize yourself with dos and don’ts in citing
sources in research. Then group the words
accordingly using the template. Use a separate
sheet of paper in answering the activity.
 Data Analysis Methods
In reporting the results, the researcher stays close
to the statistical findings without drawing broader
implications or meaning from them. Further, this
section includes summaries of the data rather
than the raw data (e.g., the actual scores for
individuals). A results section includes tables,
figures, and detailed explanations about
the statistical results.
Before writing this section:

Rewrite the Chapters 1-3 before or after data

analysis and before writing Chapter 4.

Rewrite the chapters in past tense, wherever

applicable, and make corrections for actual data
collection and data analysis procedures.
What is the first thing that comes to mind when we see
data?
The first instinct is to find patterns, connections, and
relationships. We look at the data to find meaning in it.
Similarly, in research, once data is collected, the next
step is to get insights from it. For example, if a clothing
brand is trying to identify the latest trends among young
women, the brand will first reach out to young women
and ask them questions relevant to the research
objective. After collecting this information, the brand will
analyze that data to identify patterns — for example, it
may discover that most young women would like to see
more variety of jeans.
Data analysis is how researchers go from a mass
of data to meaningful insights.

There are many different data analysis methods,

depending on the type of research.
 Here are a few methods you can use to analyze
quantitative and qualitative data.
Analyzing Qualitative Data
Qualitative data analysis works a little differently from
quantitative data, primarily because qualitative data is
made up of words, observations, images, and even
symbols. Deriving absolute meaning from such data is
nearly impossible; hence, it is mostly used for
exploratory research. While in quantitative research
there is a clear
distinction between the data preparation and data
analysis stage, analysis for qualitative research often
begins as soon as the data is available.
Data Preparation and Basic Data Analysis
Analysis and preparation happen in parallel and
include the following steps:

1. Getting familiar with the data: Since most

qualitative data is just words, the researcher
should start by reading the data several times to
get familiar with it and start looking for basic
observations or patterns. This also includes
transcribing the data.
2. Revisiting research objectives: Here, the
researcher revisits the research objective and
identifies the questions that can be answered
through the collected data.
3. Developing a framework: Also known as
coding or indexing, here the researcher identifies
broad ideas, concepts, behaviors, or phrases and
assigns codes to them. For example, coding age,
gender, socio_x0002_economic status, and even
concepts such
as the positive or negative response to a question.
Coding is helpful in structuring and labeling the
4. Identifying patterns and connections: Once
the data is coded, the research can start
identifying themes, looking for the most common
responses to
questions, identifying data or patterns that can
answer research questions, and finding areas that
can be explored further.
Qualitative Data Analysis Methods
Several methods are available to analyze
qualitative data. The most commonly used data
analysis methods are:
 Content analysis: This is one of the most
common methods to analyze qualitative data. It is
used to analyze documented information in the
form of texts, media, or even physical items.
When to use this method depends on the research
questions. Content analysis is usually used to
analyze responses from interviewees.
 Narrative analysis: This method is used to
analyze content from various sources, such as
interviews of respondents, observations from the
field, or surveys. It focuses on using the stories
and experiences shared by people to answer the
research questions.
 Framework analysis. This is more advanced
method that consists of several stages such as
familiarization, identifying a thematic framework,
coding, charting, mapping and interpretation.
 Discourse analysis: Like narrative analysis,
discourse analysis is used to analyze interactions
with people. However, it focuses on analyzing the
social context in which the communication
between the researcher and the respondent
occurred. Discourse analysis also looks at the
respondent’s day-to day environment and uses
that information during analysis.
 Grounded theory: This refers to using
qualitative data to explain why a certain
phenomenon happened. It does this by studying a
variety of similar cases in different settings and
using the data to derive causal explanations.
Researchers may alter the explanations or create
new ones as they study more cases until they
arrive at an explanation that fits all cases.
These methods are the ones used most commonly.
However, other data analysis methods, such as
conversational analysis, are also available.
Qualitative data analysis can also be
conducted through the following three
steps:

Step 1: Developing and Applying Codes.

Coding can be explained as categorization of data.
A ‘code’ can be a word or a short phrase that
represents a
theme or an idea. All codes need to be assigned
meaningful titles. A wide range of non-quantifiable
elements such as events, behaviors, activities,
meanings etc. can be coded.
There are three types of coding:
1. Open coding. The initial organization of raw data
to try to make sense of it.
2. Axial coding. Interconnecting and linking the
categories of codes.
3. Selective coding. Formulating the story through
connecting the categories.

Coding can be done manually or using qualitative

data analysis software such as NVivo, Atlas ti 6.0,
Hyper RESEARCH 2.8, Max QDA and others.
When using manual coding you can use folders,
filing cabinets, wallets etc. to gather together
materials that are examples of similar themes or
analytic ideas.
Manual method of coding in qualitative data
analysis is rightly considered as labor_x0002_
intensive, time-consuming and outdated.
In computer-based coding, on the other hand,
physical files and cabinets are replaced with
computer based directories and files. When
choosing software for qualitative data analysis you
need to consider a wide range of factors such as
the type and amount of data you need to analyze,
time required to master the software and cost
considerations.
Moreover, it is important to get confirmation from
your dissertation supervisor prior to application of
any specific qualitative data analysis software.
Step 2: Identifying themes, patterns and
relationships. Unlike quantitative methods, in
qualitative data analysis there are no universally
applicable techniques that can be applied to
generate findings. Analytical and critical thinking
skills of researcher plays significant role in data
analysis in qualitative studies. Therefore, no
qualitative study can be repeated to generate the
same results.
Nevertheless, there is a set of techniques that you
can use to identify common themes, patterns and
relationships within responses of sample group
members in relation to codes that have been
specified in the previous stage.
Specifically, the most popular and effective
methods of qualitative data interpretation include
the following:
 Word and phrase repetitions – scanning
primary data for words and phrases most
commonly used by respondents, as well as, words
and phrases used with unusual emotions;
 Primary and secondary data comparisons –
comparing the findings of interview/focus
group/observation/any other qualitative data
collection method with the findings of literature
review and discussing differences between them;
 Search for missing information – discussions
about which aspects of the issue was not
mentioned by respondents, although you expected
them to be
mentioned;

 Metaphors and analogues – comparing

primary research findings to phenomena from a
different area and discussing similarities and
differences.
Step 3: Summarizing the data. At this last
stage you need to link research findings to
hypotheses or research aim and objectives. When
writing data analysis chapter, you can use
noteworthy quotations from the transcript in order
to highlight major themes within findings and
possible contradictions.
It is important to note that the process of
qualitative data analysis described above is
general and different types of qualitative studies
may require slightly different methods of data
analysis.
Analyzing Quantitative Data
Data Preparation
The first stage of analyzing data is data
preparation, where the aim is to convert raw data
into something meaningful and readable. It
includes four steps:

Step 1: Data Validation

The purpose of data validation is to find out, as far
as possible, whether the data collection was done
as per the pre-set standards and without any bias.
It is a four step process, which includes…
 Fraud, to infer whether each respondent
was actually interviewed or not.
 Screening, to make sure that respondents
were chosen as per the research criteria.
 Procedure, to check whether the data
collection procedure was duly followed.
 Completeness, to ensure that the interviewer
asked the respondent all the questions, rather
than just a few required ones.
To do this, researchers would need to pick a
random sample of completed surveys and validate
the collected data. (Note that this can be time-
consuming for surveys with lots of responses.) For
example, imagine a survey with 200 respondents
split into 2 cities. The researcher can pick a
sample of 20 random respondents from each city.
After this, the researcher can reach out to them
through email or phone and check their responses
to a certain set of questions.
Step 2: Data Editing
Typically, large data sets include errors. For
example, respondents may fill fields incorrectly or
skip them accidentally. To make sure that there are
no such errors, the researcher should conduct
basic data checks, check for outliers, and edit the
raw research data to identify and clear out any
data points that may hamper the accuracy of the
results.
For example, an error could be fields that were left
empty by respondents. While editing the data, it is
important to make sure to remove or fill all the
Step 3: Data Coding
This is one of the most important steps in data
preparation. It refers to grouping and assigning
values to responses from the survey.
For example, if a researcher has interviewed 1,000
people and now wants to find the average age of
the respondents, the researcher will create age
buckets and categorize the age of each of the
respondent as per these codes. (For example,
respondents between 13-15 years old would have
their age coded as 0, 16-18 as 1, 18-20 as 2, etc.)
Then during analysis, the researcher can deal with
simplified age brackets, rather than a massive
range of individual ages.

Quantitative Data Analysis Methods

After these steps, the data is ready for analysis.
The two most commonly used quantitative data
analysis methods are descriptive statistics and
inferential statistics.
Descriptive Statistics
Typically descriptive statistics (also known as descriptive
analysis) is the first level of analysis. It helps researchers
summarize the data and find patterns. A few commonly
used descriptive statistics are:
 Mean: numerical average of a set of values.
 Median: midpoint of a set of numerical values.
 Mode: most common value among a set of values.
 Percentage: used to express how a value or group of
respondents within the data relates to a larger group of
respondents.
 Frequency: the number of times a value is found.
 Range: the highest and lowest value in a set of values
Descriptive statistics provide absolute numbers.
However, they do not explain the
rationale or reasoning behind those numbers.
Before applying descriptive statistics, it’s
important to think about which one is best suited
for your research question and what you want to
show. For example, a percentage is a good way to
show the gender distribution of respondents.
Descriptive statistics are most helpful when the
research is limited to the sample and does not
need to be generalized to a larger population. For
example, if you are comparing the percentage of
children vaccinated in two different villages, then
descriptive statistics is enough.
Since descriptive analysis is mostly used for
analyzing single variable, it is often called
univariate analysis.
Intellectual Honesty in Research
Intellectual Honesty is an applied method of
problem solving, characterized by an unbiased,
honest attitude, which can be demonstrated in a
number of different ways including:
 Ensuring support for chosen ideologies does not
interfere with the pursuit of truth;
 Relevant facts and information are not
purposefully omitted even when such things may
contradict one's hypothesis;
Facts are presented in an unbiased manner, and
not twisted to give misleading impressions or to
support one view over another;

 References, or earlier work, are acknowledged

where possible, and plagiarism is avoided.
Ten Signs of Intellectual Honesty
1. Do not overstate the power of your
argument. One’s sense of conviction should be
in proportion to the level of clear evidence
assessable by most. If someone portrays their
opponents as being stupid or dishonest for
disagreeing, intellectual dishonesty is probably in
play. Intellectual honesty is most often associated
with humility, not arrogance.
2. Show willingness to publicly acknowledge
that reasonable alternative viewpoints exist.
The alternative views do not have to be treated as
equally valid or powerful, but rarely is it the case
that one and only one viewpoint has a complete
monopoly on reason and evidence.
3. Be willing to publicly acknowledge and
question one’s own assumptions and
biases. All of us rely on assumptions when
applying our world view to make sense of the data
about the world. And all of us bring various biases
to the table.
4. Be willing to publicly acknowledge where your
argument is weak. Almost all arguments have weak
spots, but those who are trying to sell an ideology will
have great difficulty with this point and would rather
obscure or downplay any weak points.
5. Be willing to publicly acknowledge when you
are wrong. Those selling an ideology likewise have
great difficulty admitting to being wrong, as this
undercuts the rhetoric and image that is being sold. You
get small points for admitting to being wrong on trivial
matters and big points for admitting to being wrong on
substantive
points. You lose big points for failing to admit being
6. Demonstrate consistency. A clear sign of
intellectual dishonesty is when someone extensively
relies on double standards. Typically, an excessively high
standard is
applied to the perceived opponent(s), while a very low
standard is applied to the ideologues’ allies.
7. Address the argument instead of attacking the
person making the argument.
Ad hominem arguments are a clear sign of intellectual
dishonesty. However, often times, the dishonesty is more
subtle. For example, someone might make a token
effort at debunking an argument and then turn
significant attention to the person making the argument,
relying on stereotypes, guilt-by-association, and
8. When addressing an argument, do not
misrepresent it. A common tactic of the
intellectually dishonest is to portray their
opponent’s argument in straw man terms. In
politics, this is called spin. Typically, such tactics
eschew quoting the person in context, but instead
rely heavily on out-of-context quotes,
paraphrasing and impression. When addressing an
argument, one should shows signs of having made
a serious effort to first understand the argument
and then accurately represent it in its strongest
form.
9. Show a commitment to critical thinking.

10. Be willing to publicly acknowledge when

a point or criticism is good. If someone is
unable or unwilling to admit when their opponent
raises a good point or makes a good criticism, it
demonstrates an unwillingness to participate in the
give-and-take that characterizes an honest
exchange
While no one is perfect, and even those who strive
for intellectual honesty can have a bad day, simply
be on the lookout for how many and how often
these criteria apply to someone. In the arena of
public discourse, it is not intelligence or knowledge
that matters most – it is whether you can trust the
intelligence or knowledge of another. After all,
intelligence and knowledge can sometimes be the
best tools of an intellectually dishonest approach.