Ch-1.

Fluid Mechanics & Hydraulics

Fluid mechanics deals with the study of all fluids under static and dynamic
situations. Fluid mechanics is a branch of continuous mechanics which deals with
a relationship between forces, motions, and static conditions in a continuous
material.

Concept of continuum- Fluid mechanics is supposed to describe motion of fluids

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and related phenomena at macroscopic scales, which assumes that a fluid can be
regarded as a continuous medium. This means that any small volume element in
the fluid is always supposed so large that it still contains a very great number of

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molecules. Accordingly, when we consider infinitely small elements of volume,
we mean very small compared with the volume of the body under consideration,
but large compared with the distances between the molecules. The expressions
fluid particle and point in a fluid are to be understood in this sense.

Properties are considered to be either intensive or extensive. Intensive properties

are those that are independent of the mass of a system, such as temperature,
pressure, and density. Extensive properties are those whose values depend on the
size or extent of the system. Total mass, total volume and total momentum are 1
some examples of extensive properties.
 Types of flows
Types of Fluids

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 Properties of Fluids

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V. Viscosity

Viscosity is defined as the measure of the resistance of a fluid to gradual

deformation by shear or tensile stress. In other words, viscosity describes a fluid’s
resistance to flow. Simply put, we can say that honey is thicker than water , in turn, 5
honey is more viscous than water.
 Newton’s Law of Viscosity

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Surface tension is the phenomenon that occurs when the surface of a liquid is in
contact with another phase (it can be a liquid as well). Liquids tend to acquire the
least surface area possible. The surface of the liquid behaves like an elastic sheet.
The pulling force that causes this tension acts parallel to the surface and is due to
the attractive forces between the molecules of the liquid. The magnitude of this
force per unit length is called surface tension s and is usually expressed in the unit
N/m. This effect is also called surface energy.

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Capillarity - Another interesting consequence of surface tension is the capillary
effect, which is the rise or fall of a liquid in a small-diameter tube inserted into the
liquid. Such narrow tubes or confined flow channels are called capillaries. The
curved free surface of a liquid in Capillary Tube is called the meniscus. It is
commonly observed that water in a glass container curves up slightly at the edges
where it touches the glass surface; but the opposite occurs for mercury: it curves
down at the edges. This effect is usually expressed by saying that water wets the
glass (by sticking to it) while mercury does not.

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 Dimensions and Units
A dimension is a measure of a physical variable. In fluid mechanics, there are
four primary dimensions: mass, length, time, and temperature.
A unit is a way to assign a number or measurement to that dimension. For
example, length is a dimension, but it is measured in units of feet (ft) or
meters (m) Unit- Metric system (MKS and CGS) and SI (System International)

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Pressure and Fluid Statistics
Pressure is defined as a normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area. We speak of
pressure only when we deal with a gas or a liquid. The counterpart of pressure in
solids is normal stress. Since, pressure is defined as force per unit area, it has the unit
of newton per square meter (N/m2), which is called a Pascal (Pa). That is,
1 Pa ︎= 1 N/︎m2
Pressure at a Point

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Pressure is the compressive force per unit area, and it gives the impression of being a
vector. However, pressure at any point in a fluid is the same in all directions. That is,

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it has magnitude but not a specific direction, and thus it is a scalar quantity. This can
be demonstrated by considering a small wedge-shaped fluid element of unit length.
The mean pressures at the three surfaces are P1, P2, and P3, and the force acting on
a surface is the product of mean pressure and the surface area.
From Newton’s second law, a force balance in
the x- and z- directions gives

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Measurement of Pressure- The actual pressure at a given position is called the
absolute pressure, and it is measured relative to absolute vacuum (i.e., absolute
zero pressure). Most pressure-measuring devices, however, are calibrated to read
zero in the atmosphere pressure. This difference is called the gage pressure.
Pressures below atmospheric pressure are called vacuum pressures and are
measured by vacuum gages that indicate the difference between the atmospheric
pressure and the absolute pressure. Absolute, gage, and vacuum pressures are all
positive quantities and are related to each other by

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P gage = Pabs- Patm

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P vac = P atm -P abs

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Variation of pressure with depth- pressure in a fluid at rest does not change in the
horizontal direction. However, this is not the case in the vertical direction in a
gravity field. Pressure in a fluid increases with depth because more fluid rests on
deeper layers, and the effect of this “extra weight” on a deeper layer is balanced by
an increase in pressure
To obtain a relation for the variation of pressure with depth, consider a rectangular
fluid element of height z, length x, and unit depth (into the page) in equilibrium.
Assuming the density of the fluid ρ to be constant, a force balance in the vertical z-

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direction gives

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 Pressure Measuring Devices
The Manometer
A fluid column can be used to measure pressure differences. A device based on this
principle is called a manometer, and it is commonly used to measure small and moderate
pressure differences. A manometer mainly consists of a glass or plastic U-tube
containing one or more fluids such as mercury, water, alcohol, or oil. To keep the size of
the manometer to a manageable level, heavy fluids such as mercury are used if large

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pressure differences are anticipated.
Consider the manometer shown in Fig. 3–11 that is used to

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measure the pressure in the tank. Since the gravitational effects of
gases are negligible, the pressure anywhere in the tank and at
position 1 has the same value. Furthermore, since pressure in a
fluid does not vary in the horizontal direction within a fluid, the
pressure at point 2 is the same as the pressure at point 1, P 2 = P 1 .

The differential fluid column of height h is in static equilibrium,

and it is open to the atmosphere. Then the pressure at point 2 is
determined directly from Eq. 3–8 to be
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P 2 = P atm + ρgh
Differential manometer

A differential manometer is a device that measures the difference in pressure between

two places. Differential manometers can range from devices simple enough to be built at
home to complex digital equipment.

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Barometer- Atmospheric pressure is measured by a device called a barometer; thus, the
atmospheric pressure is often referred to as the barometric pressure.

The Italian Evangelista Torricelli (1608–1647) was the first to conclusively prove that
the atmospheric pressure can be measured by inverting a mercury-filled tube into a
mercury container that is open to the atmosphere, as shown in Fig. 3–17. The pressure at
point B is equal to the atmospheric pressure, and the pressure at C can be taken to be

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zero since there is only mercury vapor above point C and the pressure is very low
relative to Patm and can be neglected to an excellent approximation. Writing a force

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balance in the vertical direction gives

Patm= ρgh

. Remember that the atmospheric pressure at a location

is simply the weight of the air above that location per
unit surface area. Therefore, it changes not only with
elevation but also with weather conditions.
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Mechanical guages- Another type of commonly used mechanical pressure
measurement device is the Bourdon tube, named after the French engineer and
inventor Eugene Bourdon (1808–1884), which consists of a hollow metal tube bent
like a hook whose end is closed and connected to a dial indicator needle. When the
tube is open to the atmosphere, the tube is undeflected, and the needle on the dial at
this state is calibrated to read zero (gage pressure). When the fluid inside the tube is
pressurized, the tube stretches and moves the needle in proportion to the pressure

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applied.

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 Fluid Statistics
Fluid statics deals with problems associated with fluids at rest. The fluid can be
either gaseous or liquid. Fluid statics is generally referred to as hydrostatics when the
fluid is a liquid and as aerostatics when the fluid is a gas.
Fluid statics is used to determine the forces acting
on floating or submerged bodies and the forces

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developed by devices like hydraulic presses and car
jacks. The design of many engineering systems such

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as water dams and liquid storage tanks requires the
determination of the forces acting on the surfaces
using fluid statics. The complete description of the
resultant hydrostatic force acting on a submerged
surface requires the determination of the magnitude,
the direction, and the line of action of the force.
In fluid statics, there is no relative motion between adjacent fluid layers, and thus there
are no shear (tangential) stresses in the fluid trying to deform it. The only stress we deal
with in fluid statics is the normal stress, which is the pressure, and the variation of
pressure is due only to the weight of the fluid. 24
 Hydrostatic forces on plane surfaces

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 curved surfaces

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EXAMPLE
Measuring Pressure with a Manometer

A manometer is used to measure the pressure in a tank.

The fluid used has a specific gravity of 0.85, and the
manometer column height is 55 cm, as shown in Fig. 3–
12. If the local atmospheric pressure is 96 kPa, determine

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the absolute pressure within the tank.

SOLUTION

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 https://youtu.be/8a9wasmt9ek

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Lu6FvT8bUk8

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Law of Conservation of Energy

The law of conservation of energy is one of the basic laws of physics along with the
conservation of mass and the conservation of momentum. The law of conservation of
energy states that energy can change from one form into another, but it cannot be
created or destroyed. Or the general definition is:
The total energy of an isolated system remains constant over time.

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Newton’s cradle. A device that demonstrates the Law of Conservation of Mechanical
Energy and Momentum.

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Energy can be defined as the capacity for doing work. It may exist in a variety of
forms and may be transformed from one type of energy to another in hundreds of ways.

For example, burning gasoline to power cars is an energy conversion process we rely
on. The chemical energy in gasoline is converted to thermal energy, which is then
converted to mechanical energy that makes the car move. The mechanical energy has
been converted to kinetic energy. When we use the brakes to stop a car, that kinetic
energy is converted by friction back to heat, or thermal energy.
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ofgeRSCLyXc
The continuity equation reflects the fact that mass is conserved in any non-nuclear
continuum mechanics analysis. The equation is developed by adding up the rate at
which mass is flowing in and out of a control volume, and setting the net in-flow equal
to the rate of change of mass within it.

https://youtu.be/wykn-JTnacE

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The Bernoulli Equation

The Bernoulli equation is an approximate relation between pressure, velocity, and

elevation, and is valid in regions of steady, incompressible flow where net frictional
forces are negligible (Fig. 12–1). Despite its simplicity, it has proven to be a very
powerful tool in fluid mechanics.

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The key approximation in the derivation of the
Bernoulli equation is that viscous effects are

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negligibly small compared to inertial,
gravitational, and pressure effects. Since all
fluids have viscosity (there is no such thing as
an “inviscid fluid”), this approximation cannot
be valid for an entire flow field of practical
interest. In other words, we cannot apply the
Bernoulli equation everywhere in a flow, no
matter how small the fluid’s viscosity.

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Limitations on the Use of the Bernoulli Equation

The Bernoulli equation (Eq. 12–9) is one of the most frequently used and misused
equations in fluid mechanics. Therefore, it is important to understand the
restrictions on its applicability and observe the limitations on its use.
1. Steady flow
2. Negligible viscous effects
3. No shaft work
4. Incompressible flow

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Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL) and Energy Grade Line (EGL)

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 Applications of the Bernoulli Equation

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Venturimeter- It is a device used to measure the speed and flow rate or discharge of
fluid through a pipe. Venturimeter is work on Bernoulli's equation. Its basic principle
also depend on Bernoulli's equation and continuity equation. Velocity increases pressure
decreases.

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Convergent cone- It is that portion of the venturi where the fluid gets converges.

Throat- It is the portion that lies in between the converging and diverging part of the
venturi. The cross section of the throat is much less than the cross section of the
converging and diverging parts. As the fluid enters in the throat, its velocity increases
and pressure decreases.

Diverging Cone- It is the portion of the venturimeter (venturi) where the fluid gets
diverges. 45
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https://youtu.be/EjUqt8x0LZw https://youtu.be/YzCHPOpNcM4

https://youtu.be/3nwtrgc0oHM

https://youtu.be/X_TLcZK7GRM

https://youtu.be/U33VVUcu81c

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Pipe Hydraulics
Fluid flow in circular and noncircular pipes is commonly encountered in practice.
The hot and cold water that we use in our homes is pumped through pipes. Water in a
city is distributed by extensive piping networks.

The terms pipe, duct, and conduit are usually used interchangeably for flow sections.

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In general, flow sections of circular cross section are referred to as pipes (especially
when the fluid is a liquid), and flow sections of noncircular cross section as ducts
(especially when the fluid is a gas). Small diameter pipes are usually referred to as

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tubes.

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Laminar, Transition and Turbulent Flow- If you have been around smokers, you
probably noticed that the cigarette smoke rises in a smooth plume for the first few
centimeters and then starts fluctuating randomly in all directions as it continues its rise.
Other plumes behave similarly (Fig. 8–3). Likewise, a careful inspection of flow in a
pipe reveals that the fluid flow is streamlined at low velocities but turns chaotic as the
velocity is increased above a critical value, as shown in (Fig. 8–4). The flow regime in
the first case is said to be laminar, characterized by smooth streamlines and highly
ordered motion, and turbulent in the second case, where it is characterized by velocity
fluctuations and highly disordered motion. The transition from laminar to turbulent flow

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does not occur suddenly; rather, it occurs over some region in which the flow fluctuates
between laminar and turbulent flows before it becomes fully turbulent. Most flows

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encountered in practice are turbulent. Laminar flow is encountered when highly viscous
fluids such as oils flow in small pipes or narrow passages.

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 Velocity Profile in Pipes
Laminar flow- The thickness of this boundary layer increases in the flow direction
until the boundary layer reaches the pipe center and thus fills the entire pipe, as shown
in Fig. 8–8. The region from the pipe inlet to the point at which the boundary layer
merges at the centerline is called the hydrodynamic entrance region, and the length of
this region is called the hydrodynamic entry length Lh . Flow in the entrance region is
called hydrodynamically developing flow since this is the region where the velocity

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profile develops. The region beyond the entrance region in which the velocity profile
is fully developed and remains unchanged is called the hydrodynamically fully

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developed region. The flow is said to be fully developed when the normalized
temperature profile remains unchanged as well.

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Darcy–Weisbach equation is an empirical equation, which relates the head loss, or
pressure loss, due to friction along a given length of pipe to the average velocity of the
fluid flow for an incompressible fluid.

https://youtu.be/QJ0pyd8JCME

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Turbulent Flow In Pipes

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Most flows encountered in engineering practice are turbulent, and thus it is important
to understand how turbulence affects wall shear stress. However, turbulent flow is a
complex mechanism dominated by fluctuations, and despite tremendous amounts of
work done in this area by researchers, the theory of turbulent flow remains largely
undeveloped.

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The Moody Chart
The friction factor in fully developed turbulent pipe flow depends on the Reynolds
number and the relative roughness ε/D, which is the ratio of the mean height of
roughness of the pipe to the pipe diameter.
In 1939, Cyril F. Colebrook (1910–1997) combined the available data for transition
and turbulent flow in smooth as well as rough pipes into the following implicit

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relation known as the Colebrook equation:

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We note that the logarithm in above Eq. is a base 10 rather than a natural logarithm.
In 1942, the American engineer Hunter Rouse (1906–1996) verified Colebrook’s
equation and produced a graphical plot of f as a function of Re and the product Re
√f . He also presented the laminar flow relation and a table of commercial pipe
roughness. Two years later, Lewis F. Moody (1880–1953) redrew Rouse’s diagram
into the form commonly used today. The now famous Moody chart is given in the
below Fig..
It presents the Darcy friction factor for pipe flow as a function of the Reynolds number 55
and ε/D over a wide range. It is probably one of the most widely accepted and used
charts in engineering. Although it is developed for circular pipes, it can also be used
for noncircular pipes by replacing the diameter by the hydraulic diameter.
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Minor Losses

The fluid in a typical piping system passes through various fittings, valves, bends,
elbows, tees, inlets, exits, enlargements, and contractions in addition to the pipes.
These components interrupt the smooth flow of the fluid and cause additional losses
because of the flow separation and mixing they induce. In a typical system with long
pipes, these losses are minor compared to the total head loss in the pipes (the major
losses) and are called minor losses.

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Minor losses are usually expressed in terms of the loss coefficient KL (also called the
resistance coefficient)

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Pipes in Parallel & Series
https://youtu.be/6EfsdxPXuXE
Laminar flow- f=64/Re

https://youtu.be/C5ie4uz_6iw

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https://youtu.be/Qj54PpRYNB8

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https://youtu.be/fEikEjJxav0

https://youtu.be/ipXo6J_DClE

https://youtu.be/76lek5Ea0QY

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Unsteady Flow in Pipes
Pressure Transient

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Water Hammer- The near-instantaneous stopping of all the water in a long pipeline
can only be brought about by huge pressures.

In practice, the fluid adjacent to the valve is compressed and a positive pressure pulse
propagates back along the pipe at speed c (rather akin to the build-up of cars in a
motorway pile-up). The propagating front is referred to as a shock, and the phenomenon
in pipelines as water hammer.

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Although the phenomenon is most often associated with valve closure, large negative
pressure pulses may occur if the valve is opened rapidly, and may lead to cavitation,

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which should be avoided at all costs.

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 Open Channel Flow
An open channel is a flow system in which the top surface of the fluid is exposed to the
atmosphere. The term open channel refers to liquid flow that is not completely enclosed
by solid boundaries (such as in a river). In open channel flow therefore, the flowing
liquid has a free surface, and thus the liquid is not under gauge pressure at the surface.

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open channel is takes place due to slope of bed of the channel only. The Hydraulic
grade line of open channel flow is exactly conceding with the water surface but the
total energy lines lie at a distance of (V2 /2g) above the hydraulic grade line at every

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section as in closed channel.

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 Specific Energy

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https://youtu.be/yZlUdToqX2o

https://youtu.be/2D24RzHOVs0

https://youtu.be/stWSGCsfgEE

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