G-5 MAGNETISM 2.

Lenz’ law
-Magnetism is the force exerted by magnets when they Lenz’ law demonstrates the reason for the negative sign in
attract or repel each other. Magnetism is caused by the Faraday’s law of induction. In other words. Lenz’ law
motion of electric charges. explains why the emf generated according to Faraday’s
What is magnetic Field? law is negative.A common way to state Lenz’ law is.
-a region around a magnetic material or a moving electric “When emf is generated by a change in magnetic flux, the
charge within which the force of magnetism acts. polarity of the induced emf is such that it generates a
History current whose magnetic field is in a direction that opposes
William Gilbert (1540-1603) the change that produced it (the original magnetic field).”
- was the first to investigate the phenomenon of That is, the induced magnetic field always works to keep
magnetism systematically using scientific methods. He the magnetic flux constant.
also discovered that the Earth is itself a weak magnet.
- The Englishman
Hans Christian Oersted(1777-1851)
- Danish physicist, first suggested a link between
electricity and magnetism. Experiments involving the
effects of magnetic and electric fields on one another were
then conducted by Frenchman Andre Marie Ampere
(1775-1836) and Englishman Michael Faraday (1791-
1869), but it was the Scotsman,
James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879), who provided the 3. Lorentz force
theoretical foundation to the physics of electromagnetism There is disagreement over whether the Lorentz force was
in the nineteenth century by showing that electricity and originally derived by James Clerk Maxwell or by Oliver
magnetism represent different aspects of the same Heaviside, but credit is typically given to Heaviside.
fundamental force field. Hendrik Lorentz derived the modern form of the equation
-The first known magnets were naturally occurring in 1891. The Lorentz force is the force that a particle
lodestones, a type of iron ore called magnetite (Fe3O4). experiences due to electric and magnetic fields. Electric
People of ancient Greece and China discovered that a fields exert a force on a particle whether it is moving or
lodestone would always align itself in a longitudinal not, while magnetic fields exert a force only when the
direction if it was allowed to rotate freely. This property particle is in motion.
of lodestones allowed for the creation of compasses two
thousand years ago, which was the first known use of the
magnet.
-In the 1600’s William Gilbert, physician of Queen
Elizabeth I.Concluded that Earth itself is a giant magnet.
-Danish physicist Hans Christian Ørsted discovered an
electric current flowing through a wire can cause a
compass needle to deflect, showing that magnetism and
electricity were related.
4. Ampère’s circuital law
Principle of Magnetism
Despite its name. Ampère’s circuital law was derived not
-The magnet has two poles and they are the south pole and
by André-Marie Ampère. But by James Clerk Maxwell in
the north pole.
1860, and is one of the Maxwell equations of
-The magnetic force of lines never intersects each other.
electromagnetism. (Ampère formulated Ampère’s force
-The magnetic force can be either attractive or repulsive.
law, which describes the attractive or repulsive force
-The magnetic force always travels from the north pole to
between two current-carrying wires.)A magnetic field
exerts a force on a straight wire that is carrying current.

the south pole.

6 Kinds of Magnetism
 Diamagnetism Ferrimagnetism
- Diamagnetism arises from the orbiting electrons - is an antiparallel alignment of atomic dipole moments
surrounding each atomic nucleus. When an external which does yield an appreciable net magnetization
magnetic field is applied, the orbits are shifted in such a resulting from unequal moments of the magnetic
way that the atoms set up their own magnetic field in sublattices. Remanent magnetization is detectable (see
opposition to the applied field. below). Above the Curie temperature the substance
becomes paramagnetic.

Paramagnetism
- results from the electron spin of unpaired electrons. An
electron has a magnetic dipole moment—which is to say
that it behaves like a tiny bar magnet—and so when a Superparamagnetism
group of electrons is placed in a magnetic field, the dipole - occurs in materials having grains so small (about 100
moments tend to line up with the field. The effect angstroms) that any cooperative alignment of dipole
augments the net magnetization in the direction of the moments is overcome by thermal energy.
applied field.

Ferromagnetism
- also exists because of the magnetic properties of the
electron. Unlike paramagnetism, however,
ferromagnetism can occur even if no external field is
applied. The magnetic dipole moments of the atoms
spontaneously line up with one another because it is G-6 Magnetic Circuits and the Units of
energetically favourable for them to do so. Magnetism
In 1819, the Danish physicist Hans Christian
Oersted discovered that whenever an electric current flows
through a conductor, a magnetic field is created in the
space around the conductor. This was explained by the
statement that the flow of current through a conductor
causes movement of the flow of the electron. The motion
of electrons produces magnetic field. The research was
Antiferromagnetism carried out to find out the converse, if conductor is
- occurs when the dipole moments of the atoms in a brought in a magnetic field does an induce movement of
material assume an antiparallel arrangement in the electrons take place. Thus the work advanced in the
absence of an applied field. The result is that the sample direction of conversion of magnetism into electricity. By
has no net magnetization. The strength of the the demonstration of the needle of a compass would
susceptibility is comparable to that of paramagnetic deflect if brought near a current carrying conductor. For
materials. the first time it was demonstrated that electricity and
magnetism were related.
In 1831, Michael Faraday discovered that if a
closed conductor is moved in a magnetic field in a certain
manner there will be an induced current in the moving
conductor. This phenomenon is known as electromagnetic
induction. Further, Faraday enunciated the basic laws of
electromagnetic induction upon which is based the
 working of most of the commercial apparatus like motors,
generators and transformers, etc. this was produced
The relations between B and H in the two systems
of units are:
B = μ0(H+M) (SI)
B = H+4πM (CGS)
In the last equation (in the centimeter-gram-
second system (CGS)) B is measured in gauss (G) and the
experimentally and then analytically that when a magnetic
unit of H is the oersted (Oe). In the CGS system the
field linking with a closed conductor moves relative to the
constant 4π appears explicitly in the expression of B.
conductors, it produces a flow of electrons or the current.
Magnetic circuit found in motors, generators,
Magnetic Circuit
speakers, transformers, galvanometer, solenoids, MRI
Defined as a closed path followed by the
machines and hard disk. It is made up of magnetic
magnetic flux. A magnetic circuit is made up of one or
materials having high permeability such as iron, soft steel,
more closed loop paths containing magnetic flux. In the
etc. In the magnetic circuit, the magnetic circuits must
magnetic circuit, magnetic flux or magnetic lines of force
have the correct strength, have the correct paths, and be
starts from a point and ends at the same point after
made in suitable shapes and of suitable materials.
completing its path; the path followed by magnetic lines
of force as they leave the north pole of a magnet and
Unit of Magnetism
return to the south pole.
- Is a force of attraction between ferromagnetic
Magnetic circuit paths may be series or parallel.
metals such as iron, nickel and cobalt and a force
The magnetic circuit is analogous to the electric circuit.
of repulsion between diamagnetic materials such
as antimony and bismuth.
- A magnet displays a properties of magnetism.
Magnet occur naturally such as mineral magnetite.
Coiling insulated wire around an iron core and
running circuit through the wire can produce an
electromagnet

Terms Involved in the Magnetic Circuit

There are 2 systems of units based on the metric system
that scientists use;
1. MKS (meter-kilogram-second) units
- Amperes/meter
- Weber
- Weber/meter2
2. CGS (centimeter-gram-second) units
- Oersteds
- Maxwell
- Tesla
The International System of Units (System Some Examples of Magnetic Circuits are:
International Units) (SI) contains two types of units: base - horseshoe magnet with iron keeper (low-
units and derived units. The seven base units are: meter, reluctance circuit).
kilogram, second, ampere, kelvin, mole, and candela. - horseshoe magnet with no keeper (high-
Some units relevant to magnetism have special names in reluctance circuit).
the SI. They are the following, together with their - electric motor (variable-reluctance circuit).
expression in terms of other SI units: - some types of pickup cartridge (variable-
reluctance circuits).

Permanent magnet
Is a piece of ferromagnetic materials such as iron,
nickel or cobalt which has properties of attracting other
 The unit of magnetic field strength H has no pieces of these materials. A permanent magnet will
special name; H is measured in amperes per meter (A position itself in a north or south direction when freely
m−1). The magnetic induction or magnetic flux density B suspended. The north-seeking end of the magnet is called
(or simply B-field) has the tesla (T) as the unit and is north pole, N
related to the magnetic field intensity H through the Line of Induction
magnetic constant or vacuum magnetic permeability μ0, The lines of force are external to the magnet and
that has a value of 4π × 10−7 H m−1 in the SI. they pass from north pole through the field to the south
and the south-seeking end is the south pole, S. pole. But the lines within the magnetic materials are called
lines of induction.
Magnetic field Magnetic Flux
The area around the magnet that the effects of the Is the amount of magnetic field (or the number of
magnetic force produced by the magnet can be detected lines of force) produced by a magnetic source. They have
thus, magnetic field is a force field. no physical existence and so are referred as imaginary
A magnetic field cannot be seen, felt, or heard ad lines. They simply represent the distribution of magnetic
therefore it is difficult to represent. Michael Faraday field.
suggested that the magnetic field could be represented The symbol for magnetic flux is Փ (Greek letter
pictorially, by imagining the field to consist of lines of ‘phi’). The unit of magnetic flux is the weber, Wb.
magnetic flux, which enables investigation of the The magnetic flux Φ is analogous to the electric
distribution and density of the field to be carried out. current.
Magnetic field can be mapped with the help of a small The magnetic flux lines radiate from the north
compass needle into the series of imaginary lines, called pole to the south pole, returning to the north pole through
lines of magnetic flux. the metallic bar.The magnetic flux lines take the longer
A magnetic field is present around every wire that but easier path through the soft iron, rather than the
carries an electric current. The direction of the magnetic shorter path that they would normally take.
flux lines can be found simply by placing the thumb of the Note: The nonmagnetic materials like plastic, woods,
right hand in the direction of conventional current flow glass have no effect on the field.
and noting the direction of the fingers. (This method is
commonly called the right-hand rule.)
The field is strongest at the poles of the magnet
where lines of magnetic flux are most dense, its direction
is from north (N) to south (S) external to the magnet, and
the flux lives never cross.

Magnetic Flux Density (Magnetic Induction)

Is the amount of flux passing through a defined
area that is perpendicular to the direction of the flux? Flux
Laws of Magnetic Reaction density is found by dividing the total flux passing
1. Attraction perpendicularly through an area by the size of the area.
- Attract magnetic field
- If unlike poles attract, flux lines pass from one
magnet to the other.
- The magnetic field is strongest in between the
two magnets, shown by the lines of flux being
close together.
The symbol for magnetic flux density (i.e., flux
per unit area) is B. Since flux is measured in Wb and area
A in m 2, flux density is measured as Wb/m 2, then the unit
of magnetic flux density is the tesla (T), where 1 T = 1
Wb/m 2.
2. Repulsion
- Repel magnetic field Permeability (µ)
- If like poles repel, and flux line are pushed The ability of materials to respond to how much
back as indicated by the flattening of the field electromagnetic flux it can support to pass through itself
within an applied electromagnetic field. In the other word
 between two magnets magnetic permeability is the degree of magnetization
capability. It is similar in many respects to conductivity in
electric circuits.
In 1885, mathematician Oliver Heaviside
expressed permeability in µ. Permeability is a ratio of flux
density (B)
B – H curves
of a material to that produced in air under similar The graph plotted between the flux density (B)
conditions or the electro-magnetizing force. And the unit and the magnetizing force (H) of any material is called B-
is Henry/meter or Newton/sq-ampere. Hence, H Curve or the magnetization curve. The shape of the B-H
curve is mostly non-linear this means that the relative
permeability (µr) of the material varies and is not constant.
The value of relative permeability mainly depends on the
where; B = flux density value of flux density.
H = magnetism force in amp-turns/m
µ = permeability of the materials. Reluctance - Is the ‘magnetic resistance’ of a magnetic
circuit to the presence of magnetic flux. The opposition
If cores of different materials with the same offered by a magnetic circuit to the production of
physical dimensions are used in the electromagnet the magnetic flux. It is the property of the materials that
strength of the magnet will vary in accordance with the opposes the creation of magnetic flux in a magnetic
core used. This variation in strength is due to the greater circuit. In an electric circuit, the resistance opposes the
or lesser number of flux lines passing through the core. flow of current in the circuit and it dissipates the electric
Materials in which flux lines can readily be set up are said energy. The magnetic reluctance in a magnetic circuit is
to be magnetic and to have high permeability. analogous to the resistance in an electric circuit as it
opposes the production of magnetic flux in a magnetic
Types of Permeability circuit but it does not give rise to the dissipation of energy
a. Absolute permeability rather it stores magnetic energy.
-the permeability of free space or vacuum The lower the reluctance and high permeability, the easier
which has a least amount of permeability. It it is for magnetic flux to flow through the core material.
also referred as magnetic constant And for nonmagnetic materials have a high reluctance and
a low permeability.
Reluctance is directly proportional to the length of
−7 W magnetic circuit and inversely proportional to area of the
Where µ0=4 πx 10 is the constant value for cross section of the magnetic path. It is the scalar quantity
A .m
absolute permeability of the air. denoted by S. The unit of reluctance is 1/H (or H −1 ) or
AT/Wb. It can be expressed as
b. Relative permeability where; l = length of the magnetic path in
-the ratio of the permeability of a material to meters
that of free space µ0= permeability of free space
(vacuum)
µr = relative permeability
A= cross sectional area in square meter
Note: for ferromagnetic materials, µr ≥ 100 and for
nonmagnetic materials, µr = 1. In AC as well as DC magnetic fields, the
reluctance is the ratio of the magnetomative force (mmf)
Types of Permeability Materials the magnetic flux in a magnetic circuit. In a pulsating AC
a. Diamagnetic – materials that have permeability or DC filed, the reluctance is also pulsating. And it can
slightly less than that of free space. These type of express as
materials, when placed in a magnetic field, they
get magnetized easily. Example are,
superconductor, mercury and silver.
b. Paramagnetic - those with permeabilities slightly The reciprocal of reluctance is the what we so
greater than one or that of free space. When we called Permeance, which it measures the ease with flux
placed such materials in magnetic field, they can be set up in the magnetic circuit. It is denoted by P in
become slightly magnetized. Aluminum and unit of Wb/AT or Henry. It is express as P = flux/mmf.
titanium are some of the example.
 c. Ferromagnetic - Materials with these very high
permeabilities. Their permeability is not constant. Reluctance in a Series Magnetic Circuit
It can vary with the parameters we just saw few Like in a series electrical circuit, the total
minutes ago. Magnetic materials, such as iron, resistance is equal to the sum of the individual resistances.
nickel, steel, cobalt, and alloys of these metals, Similarly, in a series of magnetic circuits, the total
have permeabilities hundreds and even thousands reluctance equals the sum of the individual reluctance
of times that of free space. encountered around the closed flux path.
S = S1 + S2 + S3 +… … ..+ Sn

Hopkinson Law / Rowland's Law

Magnetic field lines are continuous. Magnetic such as current in an electric circuit. Magnetic flux is
circuit operating conditions are determined by calculating established in the core through the alteration of the atomic
circuit conditions and parameters such as magnetic lines structure of the core due to external pressure and is not a
of force (magnetic flux), magneto motive force, measure of the flow of some charged particles through the
reluctance, the intensity of magnetizing force, core.
permeability, hysteresis, and permeance. These conditions
and properties are calculated by applying Rowland's law. Magnetic Field Strength (Magnetizing Force)
Hopkinson law is an analogous to ohm’s law and The magnetomative force per unit length (AT/l) is
it is expressed as called the magnetizing force (H).
Fm
F = ՓR H= where; F m= NI
l
l = length
Where, F = is the magnetomotive force (mmf) Substituting for the magnetomative force will result in
Փ = is the magnetic flux ¿
R = reluctance of the materials H=
l
OHM’S LAW FOR MAGNETIC CIRCUITS In the figure above the direction of the flux can be
1. Magnetomative Force (mmf) determined by placing the fingers of the right hand in the
Is the cause of the existence of a magnetic flux in direction of the current around the core and noting the
a magnetic circuit also known as magnetic potential, direction of the thumb. It is interesting to realize that the
and magnetomative force is analogous to magnetizing force is independent of the type of core
electromotive force or voltage in electricity. material—it is determined solely by the number of turns,
Recall the equation used in introducing ohm’s law for the current, and the length of the core.
electric circuits;
Effect = cause/ opposition Relationship of flux density and the magnetizing force
The applied magnetizing force has a pronounced
For magnetic circuits, the effect desired is the flux effect on the resulting permeability of a magnetic material.
(Փ). The cause will be the magnetomative force ( F m ) As the magnetizing force increases, the permeability rises
which is the external force (or pressure) required to set up to a maximum and then drops to a minimum, as shown in
the magnetic flux lines within the magnetic materials. The figure below for three commonly employed magnetic
opposition to the setting up of the flux is the reluctance materials.
(S). The flux density and the magnetizing force are related by
F the following equation:
Substituting we have; Փ = m
S
The magnetomative force is proportional to the This equation indicates that for a particular magnetizing
product of the number of turns around the core (in which force, the greater the permeability, the greater will be the
the induced flux density.
flux is to be established) and the current through
the turns of wire. In equation form, Hysteresis - is the ‘lagging’ effect of flux density B
whenever there are changes in the magnetic field strength
H. from the Greek hysterein, meaning “to lag behind.”
The flux density B lagged behind the magnetizing
force H during the entire plotting of the curve. When H
Where N is the number of conductors (or turns) was zero at c, B was not zero but had only begun to
and I is the current in amperes. The unit of mmf is decline. Long after H had passed through zero and had
become equal to -Hd did the flux density B finally become
sometimes expressed as ‘ampere-turns’. However since equal to zero.
‘turns’ have no dimensions, the SI unit of mmf is the The core is initially unmagnetized and the current I =0.
ampere. If either the current through a coil (as in an If the current I is increased to some value above zero, the
electromagnet) or the number of turns of wire in the coil is magnetizing force H will increase to a value determined
increased, the mmf is greater, and if the rest of the by
magnetic circuit remains the same, the magnetic flux
increases proportionally.
This equation clearly indicates that an increase in
the number of turns or the current through the wire will Hysteresis results in a dissipation of energy which
result in an increased “pressure” on the system to establish appears as a heating of the magnetic material. The energy
flux lines through the core. Although there is a great deal loss associated with hysteresis is proportional to the area
of similarity between electric and magnetic circuits, one of the hysteresis loop.When an initially unmagnetized
must continue to realize that the flux is not a “flow” ferromagnetic material is subjected to a varying magnetic
variable For the total magnetomative force (mmf)
field strength H, the flux density B produced in the
material varies shown in the figure below. Total mmf = ՓS
Distance OX indicates the residual flux density or
remanence, OY indicates the coercive force, and PP’ is the Putting the value of S in the equation
saturation flux density

Hysteresis Loop
the arrows in the figure above indicating the As B = Փ/A then
direction of the cycle.
The area of a hysteresis loop varies with the type
of material. The area, and thus the energy loss, is much
greater for hard materials than for soft materials. For AC-
excited devices the hysteresis loop is repeated every cycle
of alternating current. Thus a hysteresis loop with a large
area (as with hard steel) is often unsuitable since the
energy loss would be considerable. Silicon steel has a 2. Parallel Magnetic Circuit
narrow hysteresis loop, and thus small hysteresis loss, and
is suitable for transformer cores and rotating machine A magnetic circuit having two or more than two paths for
armatures. the magnetic flux is called a parallel magnetic circuit. Its
behavior can be compared to the parallel electric circuit.
Types of Composite Magnetic Circuit The parallel magnetic circuit contains different
dimensional areas and materials having various numbers
of paths.

The above figure shows a parallel magnetic circuit. In this

circuit, a current-carrying coil is wound on the central
limb AB. This coil sets up the magnetic flux φ 1 in the
central limb of the circuit. The flux φ 1 which is in the
upward direction is further divided into two paths namely
1. Series Magnetic Circuit ADCB and AFEB. The path ADCB carries flux φ 2, and
- A magnetic circuit that has many parts of the path AFEB carries flux φ 3. It is clearly seen from the
different dimensions and materials connected above circuit that;
in series is called as series magnetic circuit
φ1 = φ 2 + φ 3
- When the same amount of magnetic flux
flows through each part of the magnetic
The two magnetic paths ADCB and AFEB form the
circuit, where the same amount of current
parallel magnetic circuit, thus, the ampere-turns (ATs)
flows through the circuit
required for this parallel circuit are equal to the ampere-
Consider a composite series magnetic circuit (a turns (ATs) required for any one of the paths.
series magnetic circuit that has parts of different
dimensions and materials is called a composite series As we know, reluctance is
magnetic circuit) consisting of two different magnetic
materials of different relative permeability. Each part
of this series magnetic circuit will offer reluctance to
the magnetic flux. Since the different parts of the
magnetic circuit are in series, the total reluctance is
equal to the sum of reluctances of individualLet l 1, l 2
and l 3 be the length, a 1, a 2and a 3 be the cross-sectional If S1 = reluctance of path BA will be
areas and µr 1, µr 2and µr 3be the relative permeabilities of
the parts A,B and C respectively. If S1, S2 and S3 are the
reluctances of these three parts then

S2 =reluctance of path ADCB will be

metals, electric currents were produced and studied. Georg

Simon Ohm (1787–1854) found the direct proportion
relating current and potential difference, which became a
measure of the ability of various metals to conduct
electricity. Extensive theoretical studies of currents were
carried out by Andre´ Marie Ampe`re (1775–1836).
To honor these scientists, the systeme internationale (SI)
S3 = reluctance of the path AFEB will be units use their names. The unit of potential difference is
the volt, and potential difference is more commonly called
voltage. The unit of electrical resistance is the ohm, and
the unit of current is the
ampere. The relation among these functions is known as
Ohm’s law.
Therefore, the total MMF or the total Ampere turns Franklin is remembered for an unlucky mistake. He
required in the parallel magnetic circuit will be the postulated that there was only one type of electricity, not
sum of all the individual parallel paths. Total mmf two as others thought, in the phenomena known in his day.
required = mmf required for the path BA + mmf He arbitrarily called one form of static electric charge
required for the path ADCB + mmf required for the positive and attributed the opposite charge to the absence
path AFEB; of the positive. All subsequent studies continued the
convention he established. Late in the nineteenth century,
when advancements in both electrical and vacuum
Where φ1. Φ2, φ3 is the flux and S1, S2, S3 are technology led to the discovery of cathode rays, streams of
the reluctances of the parallel path BA, ADCB and AFEB particles issuing from a negative electrode in an evacuated
respectively. tube, Sir Joseph John Thomson (1856–1940) identified
these particles as common to all metals used as cathodes
G-7 CONDUCTORS and negatively charged. The historical concept of a
positive current issuing from an anode is mathematically
We studied that each substance is unique and has its own self-consistent and leads to no analytical errors, so the
qualities and properties, as we had all learnt from our convention is maintained but understood to be a
previous year. Free electrons are electrically charged convenience.
particles that are free to travel within some materials. CONDUCTORS
These materials begin to conduct electricity upon being  Conduct - Transfer of something
connected to either a battery or a cell because the free  Conductors - Materials that transfer something
electrons begin to move. Conductivity is the property of a through themselves
material that allows electricity to flow through it.  Electrical Conductors - Materials that transfer
Materials are categorized as conductors, insulators, or electricity through them.
superconductors according to their conductivity.  In simplicity, conductors are materials that allow
the electric current to flow through them.
Conversely, substances with good electron mobility are
referred to as conductors, whereas those with poor
electron mobility are considered insulators. A good DEFINITIONS
conductor of electricity is characterized as having a
relatively simple electron flow. Let's learn about the  Conductor means a metallic material, usually in
characteristics of the greatest electrical conductor in this the form of a wire or cable, suitable for carrying
paper. an electric current. In other words, electrical
conductors is a substance or material that allows
HISTORY electricity to flow through it.
 In a conductor, electrical charge carriers, usually
The early studies of electrical conduction in metals were electrons or ions, move easily from atom to atom
done in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. when voltage is applied.
Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790) in his experiments with  Most metals like copper are considered good
lightning (leading to his invention of the lightning rod), conductors, while nonmetals are considered bad
reasoned that the charge would travel along the metallic conductors -- that is, insulators.
rod. Alessandro Volta (1745–1827) derived the concept of  Conductivity refers to the capacity of a substance
electrical potential from his studies of static electricity, to transmit electricity or heat.
and then discovered the principle of the battery in his
experiments with dissimilar metals in common contact
with moisture. Once batteries were available for contact
with
PROPERTIES OF ELECTRICAL CONDUCTORS

When the electrical conductor is connected across the

battery terminals, due to the potential differences, the
vibrations start in electrons and they start to flow from
negative terminal to positive terminal.

In the equilibrium condition, electrical conductors exhibit

the following properties,
Good electrical conductors include the following:
1. Silver o Conductors have free electrons available.
2. Gold
o Conductors allow electrons to move with little or
3. Copper
no resistance.
4. Aluminum
o The charge density is equal to zero.
5. Mercury
6. Steel o There is no potential or electric field difference
7. Iron within the conductors
8. Seawater o Electrons on the surface of the conductors are
9. Concrete only available to carry current when applied.
10. Mercury The difference in temperature affects its performance. At
extremely low temperatures, the resistance offered by
Other strong conductors include: conductors to electricity becomes minimal as compared to
the room temperature resistance. This phenomenon is
1. Platinum
known as superconductivity and the metals which exhibit
2. Brass
this property and termed as superconductors.
3. Bronze
4. Graphite
Size or thickness and length of the conductor also affect
5. Dirty water
the performance. Thinner wire shows more resistance as
6. Lemon juice
compared to the thick wire. So, it can be said that the
resistance of a wire is inversely proportional to the cross-
CHARACTERISTICS OF ELECTRICAL sectional area.
CONDUCTORS
The length of the wire also affects the flow of electrical
Important features of an electrical conductor include the current. The resistance offered by a wire is directly
following: proportional to the length of it. Longer the wire higher
 It ensures free movement of electrons or ions will be the resistance.
through it.
 It has a zero electric field inside, which permits
 the movement of electrons or ions.
 Outside the conductor, the electric field is Types of conductors
perpendicular to the conductor's surface.
 It has a zero charge density, ensuring that the Based on their Ohmic response, electrical conductors are
positive and negative charges cancel each other classified as either of the following:
and free charges exist only on the surface.  Ohmic conductors
 Conductors have low resistance and high thermal Ohmic conductors always follow Ohm's law in
conductivity. which the voltage applied is directly proportional to the
 In addition, conductors have low resistance and current flowing. Examples include aluminum, copper and
high thermal conductivity. Furthermore, a silver.
conductor placed in a magnetic field does not  Non Ohmic conductors
store energy. Finally, both ends of the conductor Non Ohmic conductors, which don't follow Ohm's
are at the same potential. Electricity flows through law, include thermistors and light-dependent resistors, or
the conductor when the potential is changed at one photo resistors .
end, which allows electrons to start flowing from
one end to another.

Conductors are useful for many applications, including

the following: separate electrical conductors without allowing current
 Aluminum, a good conductor of heat and through themselves. An insulating material used in bulk to
electricity, is commonly used to manufacture wrap electrical cables or other equipment is called
cooking utensils. It is also used in foils for food insulation. The term insulator is also used more
storage and preservation. specifically to refer to insulating supports used to attach
 Iron, a good conductor of heat, is used in electric power distribution or transmission lines to utility
manufacturing vehicle engines. poles and transmission towers. They support the weight of
 Conductors are also used in automobile radiators the suspended wires without allowing the current to flow
to drive heat away from the engine. through the tower ground.
 Though aluminum has slightly less conductivity
than the copper metal it is very cheap therefore it HISTORY
is used in transmission lines. Electrical insulators are very important parts of sub-
 Though gold and silver metals are very good stations and distribution and transmission lines within the
conductors but are costlier than copper and electric power system. In the early days, insulators were
aluminum. Hence, they are used in very made of ceramic and glass materials. In 1963, the first
sophisticated instruments like computers, mobiles non-ceramic materials were used for insulation and the
and other instruments where a precise amount of very first polymer insulators were developed to improve
electricity is required. performance where ceramics did not perform well.
 Copper is abundantly available and is widely used
in home appliances and circuits. A polymeric insulator consists of a fiberglass core rod
Utility companies use different conductor materials for covered by rubber housing and weather-sheds of polymer
different applications. Copper, aluminum, and steel are the such as silicone rubber, polytetrafluoroethylene, EPDM
primary types of conductor materials used in electrical (ethylene propylene diene monomer) and equipped with
power systems. Other types of conductors, such as silver metal end fittings. Polymers, sometimes called composite
and gold, are actually better conductors of electricity; insulators, are made of at least two insulating parts — a
however, cost prohibits wide use of these materials. core and housing equipped with end fittings.
In the late 1970 and early 1980 generations, polymer
G8- UTILITIES 1: INSULATOR insulators were used primarily as special designs for
What is an Insulator? extreme applications at a premium cost to the utilities.
Polymeric insulators have many advantages over ceramic
- An electrical insulator refers to a material where the and glass insulators: good performance in contaminated
electron cannot move freely for having atoms along environments, lightweight, vandal resistant, easy to
with tightly restricted electrons. The internal electric handle, and maintenance free. Because of these properties,
charges for these electrons, held tight together, cannot they gained popularity worldwide and sparked a series of
flow freely. Therefore, only a limited amount of electric
current can flow, and that too, mainly during the strong manufacturing and design improvements that led to the
presence of an electric field. This stands in sharp polymer insulators of today. Polymer transitioned from a
oppositions to conductors of electric current. premium high cost insulator to today’s lower cost
insulator when compared to porcelain or glass.
A perfect insulator does not exist because even insulators
contain small numbers of mobile charges (charge carriers) Properties of Insulators
which can carry current. In addition, all insulators become
electrically conductive when a sufficiently large voltage is Materials which are poor conductors of heat and
applied that the electric field tears electrons away from the electricity are called Insulators. The high voltage supply
atoms. This is known as the breakdown voltage of an through an electrical circuit can be extremely dangerous
insulator. Some materials such as glass, paper, and PTFE, but the insulators around the wires will reduce the danger
which have high resistivity, are very good electrical by not letting the electric charge flow through it. Some of
insulators. A much larger class of materials, even though the examples of insulators are plastic, wood, glass, rubber
they may have lower bulk resistivity, are still good enough and air.
to prevent significant current from flowing at normally Impurities can convert an insulator into a conductor. For
used voltages, and thus are employed as insulation for example, pure water is an insulator, dirty water is a weak
electrical wiring and cables. Examples include rubber-like conductor, when salt is added to water because of the free-
polymers and most plastics which can be thermoset or floating ions, it conducts well. A number of properties
thermoplastic in nature. limit the insulators ability to conduct electricity which is
Insulators are used in electrical equipment to support and listed below

Insulator Examples and Their Purpose

Energy works by flowing from one medium to another. Glass
But what happens when it reaches a material that it can't Tiny glass fibers are used in fiberglass, but glass itself can
flow or transfer to? Take a look at several insulator also be used as an insulator. Glass was a popular electrical
examples including both electrical and thermal insulators insulator in telephone and power lines before other
and how they are used in our everyday lives. materials, such as ceramic and fiberglass, became
available. Now, you're more likely to find glass insulators
Insulator examples and definition in the antique shops rather than everyday life.
Electrical Insulator Examples Oil
Also known as transforming oil, insulating oil has many
Electrical insulators are materials that do not allow practical uses. It's found in oil-filled transformers, high-
electrical energy to pass through. Unlike electrical voltage switches, circuit breakers, capacitors, and
conductors, which allow electricity to flow freely, fluorescent lamps. Transforming oil does need to be
electrical insulators have covalent bonds that prevent replaced before it degrades, but it a generally stable
electrons from passing through. The electrons in insulator electrical insulator.
materials are more tightly bound to their atoms than in
electrical conductors, which are mainly metals such as Paper
silver and copper. The natural cellulose in paper makes it a strong electrical
insulator. Many early electrical machines were made with
Air paper board or pressboard, which is made with many
Electricity does not travel well through air; that's why layers of dry paper. Later electrical and telephone cables
putting a little space between circuits can be enough to were often insulated with thick paper, though many
insulate them. However, electric fields with very high companies are replacing these cables with plastic
voltage (over 3 million Volts) can break down the insulation.
insulation of air and make it conductive. That's why a bolt
of lightning — which can be around 300 million Volts — Plastic
can travel through miles of atmosphere. Plastic is one of the most popular forms of electrical
insulation. It's used in wire insulation (particularly PVC,
Ceramic or polyvinyl chloride) in vehicles, commercial buildings
Ceramic materials, which are made with brown, red or and homes. You'll also find PVC and other types of plastic
white clay, are effective insulators of electrically insulation in electrical bedding and sheathing. Plastic is
conductive materials. Most high voltage systems contain often used to replace old rubber insulation.
ceramic wire holders or ceramic coating to insulate wires
conducting electric currents. Many industrial companies Porcelain
now use ceramic insulation instead of glass insulation. Porcelain is similar to ceramic, but it's made with white
clay and is fired at a much higher temperature. For that
Cotton reason, porcelain is stronger than ceramic and can be used
When dry, cotton is an excellent insulating material. It's to insulate more electrically conductive materials at higher
commonly used in cloth tape to insulate electrical wires voltages. You'll find porcelain insulators in power lines
and keeping people from receiving an electrical shock. and substations.
However, when cotton is wet, it is no longer an effective
insulator and may even become an electrical conductor. Pure Water
You may have heard that electricity travels through water,
Diamond but that's not strictly true. Pure water — water without
Most diamonds are insulators because of their tight carbon dissolved salts and metals — is an electrical insulator, not
bonds. Blue diamonds are an exception, as there is enough a conductor. However, the materials found in impure
boron present to make them semi-conductors. Diamonds water do conduct electricity. Bathwater, pool water and
are not thermal insulators, however; they conduct heat other everyday types of water are not likely to be pure,
quite efficiently. You'll find diamond insulation in many and therefore may be dangerous when combined with
electrical machines such as generators and electromotors. electric currents.
Fiberglass Rubber
Fiberglass is a very common insulator material. It consists Rubber is a tried-and-true material in electrical insulation.
of glass fibers and plastic woven into a flat sheet. When Most electricians wear rubber gloves to protect them
used as electrical insulation, fiberglass is often tightly against electric shocks, and protective rubber electric mats
braided around high voltage wires and cable conductors. are often found in front of fuse boxes and switchboards.
Many wires in high-temperature systems, such as ovens or Silicone rubber is often found in electrical insulation and
furnaces, use wires made with fiberglass. wire sheathing.
Wood
Wood has a lot of empty space, making it difficult for
electricity to move through it. But that's only the case with Electrical Conductivity
dry wood. When wood gets wet, it expands — leaving less Insulation applies to more than heat management;
empty space and making it easier to conduct electricity. electricity must stay in its place, too. Electrical
That's why wood is not often used as a commercial conductivity describes the ability for electricity to pass
insulator. through an object. High electrical conductivity means the
object allows electricity to move through it. Items like
These materials include: copper wires and superconductors must allow electricity
to flow.
Air - Wearing thick clothing traps air against your skin.
Air holds onto the heat without passing it along, which However, electrical conductivity should be quite low for
keeps you warm in your winter coat. electrical insulation materials. These insulators must keep
electrical flow within set boundaries; otherwise, loose
Ceramic - Your favorite coffee or cocoa cup is probably a electricity could flow freely. Electrical insulation reduces
ceramic mug. That's probably because it keeps your drink the likelihood of electrocution and electrical fires,
nice and warm for a longer period of time. improving the safety of all people and machines nearby.
Cotton - Dry cotton is an excellent thermal insulator. But Dielectric Strength
if you've ever worn wet jeans in the winter, you know that Electrical insulation can resist strong currents of flowing
its thermal insulation is no longer effective! Wet cotton electricity. However, insulators have a breakdown point
not only stops insulating heat, but it also conducts it. where their electrons bend to the will of the current and
become conductive. An insulator’s dielectric strength
Fiberglass - Most modern houses include a puffy pink describes this phenomenon and how much voltage a
layer of fiberglass in their walls. Fiberglass is a very material can take.
effective thermal insulator that can hold the heat of entire
rooms and houses. Structural Features
While every insulator relates to the thing it insulates from,
Glass - Well-constructed windows can keep a home cool there are other properties that determine its viability for
against a hot day. That's because glass is a strong thermal use. These more structural features are critical to assess
insulator — it prevents heat from passing through. before implementing a material.
Plastic - Plastic foam, such as the Styrofoam cups used Density
for hot drinks, is an effective thermal insulator. It keeps The density of a material determines the speed of
the heat on one side (the drink) and prevents it from movement for electricity or heat through it. Imagine a heat
coming out the other side (your hand). source trying to warm your hand on the other side of a
 piece of paper. The heat would pass through that thin,
low-density object quite quickly, and you would feel the
Properties of Insulators heat almost immediately. But replace the paper with a
Thermal Conductivity high-density piece of polished concrete, and it would take
Thermal conductivity, as the name suggests, measures quite some time for you to feel anything. That is because
how well an item allows heat to pass through it. When two the amount of matter per unit of volume in an item is a
objects touch, heat transfers between them, even if it a determining factor in the rate of diffusion.
nominal amount. Think about a time when you have Fire Resistance
touched an ice cube. The first thing you felt was the In situations involving heat or electricity, a fire could start
stinging cold of the ice against your skin—the ice at any moment. Molecules that heat up only need the
transferring its low temperature to you on contact. Yet, if slightest jolt to create a full-on flame. Fire resistance is a
you keep holding the ice, your body heat will transfer to it crucial reading for engineers to anticipate. A material’s
and melt the cube into water. fire resistance classification determines the scope of
Temperature Limits applications available.
By definition, a thermal insulator must interact with high Vapor Permeability
temperatures. Yet, every item has a melting point, though Many heat processes involve water. At least, the
it may be incredibly high. When evaluating the properties vaporization of water in raw material. When solid items
of insulators, you must consider the operating temperature heat, any internal gases and liquids also heat up. It is not
limits for a material. If foamed plastic continues to melt at unusual for water vapor to rise out of raw materials during
your current operating heat, it might be time for higher- product machining. In order to account for this, insulators
quality items that can withstand your production needs. must have a certain vapor permeability
space to keep heat in an enclosed area. While you’ll need Thermal Expansion
a tightly sealed area that traps the heat, you also need Suppose you install a thermal insulating sheet in a tight
room for items to expand when heated. It is critical to note
that a thermal insulator’s thermal resistance will impact 3. POST INSULATOR
how hot the material actually gets, impacting its expansion - Post insulator is a High Voltage (HV) type of insulator
size. which is designed based on the IEC, ANSI and other
TYPES OF INSULATORS standards. They can be used in a power system of up to
1. DISC INSULATORS 1100 kV.
- The disc insulators provide a cost-effective solution for - The post insulator is constructed from composite
medium & low polluted environments and these are materials (silicone rubber) or one piece of porcelain.
designed with high-grade raw materials. These insulators The post insulator is extensively used in different
are well-known in the broad market because they are applications because of its excellent mechanical
mostly used in transmission & distribution lines. properties.
2 TYPES OF DISC INSULATORS 4. STAY INSULATOR
a.) SUSPENSION INSULATOR
- Stay insulator is a type of low voltage insulator designed
- An insulator that acts as a conductor to protect an
overhead transmission cable. It is generally used with the to fasten and counterweight the dead end pole by
steel towers . It consist of a number of porcelain discs connecting with a stay wire or guy grip, it is also called
connected in series by metal links in the form of string. stay type insulator or egg insulator.
The line conductor is suspended at the bottom end of this
- To avoid the dead end pole or terminal pole fall down, it
string and the other end of the string is fixed to the cross-
should select the suitable types of stay insulators and pole
arm of the steel tower.
line fittings. Rax Industry stay insulators have the function
b.) STRAIN INSULATOR to avoid the electric conduction on the stay wire by
- is an electrical insulator that is designed to work in accident.
mechanical tension (strain), to withstand the pull of a
suspended electrical wire or cable. 5. SHACKLE INSULATOR
works with low voltage is known as a shackle insulator.
- They are used in overhead electrical wiring, to support This insulator is also known as a spool insulator. These
radio antennas and overhead power lines. A strain insulators can be worked in two positions like horizontal
insulator may be inserted between two lengths of wire to otherwise vertical. At present, the usage of this insulator
isolate them electrically from each other while
- An insulator that is used in distribution networks that has
maintaining a mechanical connection, or where a wire decreased because of the underground cable used in
attaches to a pole or tower, to transmit the pull of the wire distribution purposes.
to the support while insulating it electrically.
6. GLASS INSULATOR
2. PIN INSULATOR - The purpose of glass insulators was to insulate the
- is a device that isolates a wire from a physical support electricity and telegraph wires from the wooden poles.
such as a pin (a wooden or metal dowel of about 3 cm With the development of technology glass insulators were
diameter with screw threads) on a telegraph or utility pole. used for telephone wires and electrical wires as well.
It is a formed, single layer shape that is made out of a non-
- Glass insulators started being used in the 18th century for
conducting material, usually porcelain or glass. It is
telegraph and telephone lines, which were then, replaced
thought to be the earliest developed overhead insulator
by ceramic and porcelain types in the 19th century. To
and is still popularly used in power networks up to 33 KV.
overcome this, toughened glass types were introduced,
- are one of three types of overhead insulators, the others which became popular due to their longer lifespan.
being strain insulators and suspension insulators. Unlike
the others, pin insulators are directly connected to the
physical support compared to being suspended from the
wire.
-Pin insulators are shaped to allow the secure attachment
of the conducting wire and avoid it coming adrift. The
wire is usually attached to the insulator by being wrapped
around it or in other circumstances, fixed into grooves on
the insulator itself.