Functional Materials

Magnetism
and Magnetic Materials

Laura C. J. Pereira
 Functional Materials
Module Magnetism and Magnetic Materials

Contents:
1- Magnetism: introduction and basic concepts; physical quantities;
measurement techniques.
2- Overview on different magnetic materials and their applications:
2.1- Nanomaterials: Magnetic nanoparticles
2.2- Molecular magnetic materials
2.3- Seminar: “Nanoparticles as a multimodal platform for cancer
theranostic” + Quiz

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 Bibliography:

• Introduction to Solid State Physics, Charles Kittel, John Wiley & Sons Inc., 8th Ed., 2005
• Magnetism in condensed matter, Stephen Blundell, Oxford Univ. Press Inc. NY, 2001
• Physics of Magnetism and Magnetic Materials, K. H. J. Buschow and F. R. de Boer (ed.s)
Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2004

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 Magnetism
is the force of attraction or repulsion of a magnetic material due
to the arrangement of its atoms, particularly its electrons.
• A (permanent) magnet is a material or object that generates a magnetic field.
• This magnetic field is responsible for the most notable property of a magnet, such as iron:
a force that pulls on other magnetic materials and attracts or repels other magnets.
• There are other substances that respond weakly to a magnetic field, by one of other types
of magnetism.

Repulsive
Atractive magnetic force
magnetic force “horseshoe magnet” made of ALNICO, an
iron alloy composed by Al, Ni, and Co
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 Magnetism: A Little of History
Magnetism has changed the world three times:
Exploration of the planet The Electromagnetic revolution The Information revolution

-1000 0 1600 1820 1900 1935 1960 2000

Seven Ages of magnetism

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 Exploration of the planet
• Term Magnetism comes from the ancient Greek city of Magnesia (nowadays in
Turkey) , where many natural magnets were found;
• These materials which contain magnetite or Lodestone attract pieces of iron by
huge electric currents in lightning strikes.
• (202 BC – 220 AD) Chinese are believed to have first used Lodestone as a
“south pointer” or compass: shao shih

Chinese compass, sec. XIV

Lodestone (magnetite, Fe3O4) shao shih, means loving stone (the French l'aimant, for magnet
meaning attraction or friendship). Is a ladle-shaped magnet that
balances and pivots on a brass plate.
The handle of the ladle is the north-seeking pole of the compass.

Portuguese compass, sec. XV

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 Magnetism: The electromagnetic revolution
• 1819 Hans Christian Øersted made a connection between the electrical and magnetic phenomena
demonstrating that a compass needle in the vicinity of a wire carrying electrical current was deflected;
He showed that magnetic effects could be produced by moving electrical charges;
• In 1820 André-Marie Ampère suggested that magnetic properties of matter were due to tiny atomic
currents; Biot-Savart’s law relates electricity with magnetism.
• In 1831 Michael Faraday and Joseph Henry showed that electric currents
could be produced by moving magnets; Faraday made a simple motor
and found a connection between magnetism and light

Source of Magnetism: Moving Electric Charge (Current)

Electric charges in motion
Kinetic moment Magnetic moment
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 Magnetism: The Information revolution
New magnetic materials technology are used in many applications in everyday life combining
energy, natural resources and human health: the earth, cars, audio, video, telecommunications,
computer technology, electric motors, cyber security, medical diagnostics and imaging, …

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 Magnetic Effects and Magnetic Field
• Every magnet has at least one North pole and one South pole. North and south poles
always exist in pairs.

Fe filings subjected to a magnet

• If you take a bar magnet and break it into two pieces, each piece will again have a north
pole and a south pole. If you take one of those pieces and break it into two, each of the
smaller pieces will have a north pole and a south pole. No matter how small the pieces of
the magnet become, each piece will have a north pole and a south pole.
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 Magnetic Field and Magnetic Field Lines
• Magnetic Field, B, is the space region where the magnetic field lines exerts a
force. By convention, they leave the north end of a magnet and enter the
south end of a magnet
• Magnetic field lines are a graphical representation of the magnitude and the
direction of a magnetic field and are continuous and unbroken, forming
closed loops.
• The strength of the B-field is inversely proportional to the distance between
field lines: the closer the magnetic field lines, the more intense the field.

Magnetic sphere Attracting bars Repelling bars

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Laura C. J. Pereira 10
 Magnetism: Atomic Magnetic Moment
Ampère, 1821: A current loop or coil is equivalent to a magnet.
• Consider 𝐴 the area enclosed by an electric current, 𝐼. The direction of 𝑢𝑛 is perpendicular to
the plane of the loop, and follows right hand thumb rule:

μ m  IAu n
Unit vector normal
to the surface

Magnetic moment Current loop Area circled by current

A unit or a vector, which describes the magnetic

precession. It indicates the orientation and the
strength of a magnetic dipole.
• Each magnet creates a magnetic field around it describing the magnetic precession. It indicates the
orientation and the strength of a magnetic dipole.
• In a material, this acts on any material in the vicinity but strongly with another magnet. The magnet
attract or repel depending on their mutual orientation.
 Magnetism: Magnetic Moment; Magnetic field
How to relate the three vectors, 𝜇𝑚 , H and B?
Consider a long straight wire in a free space. A circular electric current loop in a single plane creates a
magnetic field: magnetic dipole moment. At a given point, P, at a distance r, the magnetic induction, B, is
calculated using the following expression:
Ampère’s law (of the electromagnetism) ර 𝐵 ∙ 𝑑𝑠 = 𝜇0 𝐼

𝜇0 = 4𝜋 ∙ 10−7 H/m, permeability of free space

C
the integration of each infinitesimal component ds around the closed-
loop path C gives the conduction current enclosed within C: r ds
𝐼 ℓ = 2πr P
𝐵 = 𝜇0 = 𝜇0 𝐻
2𝜋 ∙ 𝑟

• An electric current is the source of the magnetic field B

Amperes’ law gives the way to calculate the magnetic field, produced due Ex: If I = 1 A, r = 1 mm
to the result of an electric current moving through a wire of any shape. H = 159 A m-1
 Magnetism: Magnetic Moment; Magnetic field
(a) Consider a long solenoid with free space as medium inside
In a cylindrical coil (or solenoid) consisting of 𝑵 closely spaced turns with a
length 𝒍, when an electric current 𝑰 is applied it generates an external applied
magnetic field (𝑯, magnetic field strength) :

𝑵𝑰
𝑯= 𝒍
(A/m)

M
𝑩𝟎 = 𝝁𝟎 𝑯 (Wb/m2)

(b) A cylindrical material medium inserted into the solenoid develops a

magnetization M
A
The magnetic induction (B, magnetic flux density) represents the magnitude of the
internal field strength within a substance that is subjected to the external field 𝑯 :
𝑩 = 𝝁𝑯 (Wb/m2)

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 Magnetism in Matter: Magnetic Permeability
Magnetic field in a magnetized medium; magnetization of a solid
For a sample within an infinite solenoid:
𝐵 = 𝐵0 + 𝜇0 𝑀 = 𝜇0 𝐻 + 𝑀 = 𝜇0 𝐻 + 𝜇0 𝑀 = 𝜇0 𝐻 + 𝜇0 𝜒𝑚 𝐻 = (1 + 𝜒𝑚 ) ∙ 𝜇0 𝐻

The term 𝜇0 𝑀 is the contribution of the magnetic moments within the material that tend to be aligned with the field
and reinforce it by virtue of their magnetic fields
𝐵 = (1 + 𝜒𝑚 )𝜇0 𝑛𝐼 permeability of a vacuum, or free space,
𝜇0 = 4𝜋 ∙ 10−7 H/m (SI); 𝜇0 = 1 (cgs)
With 𝜇 called the magnetic permeability of a material:

𝜇 = 1 + 𝜒𝑚 𝜇0 and 𝐵 = 𝜇𝐻 = 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 𝐻

⇒ 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 𝐻 = 𝜇0 𝐻 ∙ (1 + 𝜒𝑚 )

Relative permeability, 𝜇𝑟 is a measure of the degree to which the material can be magnetized and is a
function of the r magnetic field intensity, 𝑯
𝐵
𝜇𝑟 = 1 + 𝜒𝑚 or, 𝜇𝑟 = 𝜇 or even, 𝝁𝒓 = 𝝁/𝝁𝟎
0𝐻 14
 Magnetism in Matter: Magnetizing field, H
P. Curie, 1894: There is a material dependent relation between sample magnetization and the applied
magnetic field.
𝑴 is the sum of all magnetic moments of a given material per unit of volume or mass.
The magnitude of 𝑴 is proportional to the applied field 𝑯:

𝑴
𝑴 = 𝝌 𝒎𝑯 𝝌𝒎 =
𝑯

𝝌𝒎 is defined as the molar magnetic susceptibility and can be understood as the quantitative measure of
the response of the material in the presence of a magnetizing field 𝐻.
He observed that 𝝌𝒎 of many compounds had a simple dependency with T:
𝑪
𝝌𝒎 =
𝑻

He also showed that the magnetic properties of a given substance change at a certain temperature -
this temperature is now known as the Curie point (later on this class).
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 Magnetic Quantities and their units

Quantity SI CGS
μ0, vacuum 4π∙10-7 Vs/(Am) 1
permeability • The legal SI units are not generally accepted.
Instead, the CGS system is still widely used.
B, magnetic flux T = Vs/m2 G = (erg/cm3)1/2
density 1T 104 G • Do not mix the systems, e.g., use G (gauss)
H, magnetic field 1 A/m (4π∙10-3 ) Oe instead of T (tesla) in the CGS/emu system.
strength
• Use B0 = μ0H in graphical representations
M, magnetization 𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝐻 + 𝑀 𝐵 = 𝐻 + 4π𝑀
(conversion factor: 10-4 T/Oe).
1 A/m 10-3 G
χg , magnetic mass χg=χ/ρ χg = χ/ρ • emu is a electromagnetic unit that is used in the
susceptibility 1 m3/kg 10 /(4π) cm3/g
3
CGS system

χmol , magnetic molar χmol=χMr/ρ χmol=χMr/ρ

susceptibility 1 m3/mol 4π/106 cm3/mol
4π/106 emu/mol

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 Magnetism of the Electron
• An electric current consists of moving electrons; the movement of electrons in matter is
the source of the magnetism in matter
• Electrons are the main source of magnetic moments in solids
• Electrons movement generates an electric current which makes each electron acting as a
microscopic magnet
• There are two distinct sources of angular momentum, one is associated with orbital
motion around the nucleus, the other is spin
 Magnetism of the Electron
• Magnetic moment (M) helps us to understand the origin of the magnetic field

a) orbital motion of an electron around the nucleus; an b) electron spin, which is directed along the spin
electron is considered as a small current loop, generating a axis. Spin magnetic moments may be only in an
very small magnetic field, and having a magnetic moment “up” direction or in a “down” direction.
along its axis of rotation.

Two different magnetic orientations

ML = –L(e/2m) Magnetic moment of an isolated electron Ms = –S(μB/ħ)

𝑒ℎ 𝑒 = elementary charge
fundamental unit Bohr magneton 𝜇𝐵 = = 9,274 × 10−24 𝐽𝑇 −1
4𝜋𝑚𝑒 ℎ = Planck constant
𝑚𝑒 = electron’s mass
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 Atomic Magnetic Moment: Quantum

Overall magnetic moment of an atom depends on the orbital motions and spins of all the
electrons
Two contributions for the magnetic moments:
Orbital Magnetic Moment
Spin Magnetic Moment

𝜇Ԧ𝑙 = −𝑔𝑙 𝜇𝐵 𝑙Ԧ
Nucleus
𝜇Ԧ𝑠 = −𝑔𝑠 𝜇𝐵 𝑠Ԧ

With 𝒈𝒍 = 1 and 𝒈𝒔 = 2 𝑒ℏ
and the Bohr magneton,
𝜇𝐵 = = 9,274 × 10−24 𝐽𝑇 −1
2𝑚𝑒
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 Atomic Magnetic Moment: Quantum
Atomic configuration of an atom in a shell:
The state of an electron in an atom is characterized by four quantum numbers:
• Principal quantum number, 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3,…
• Angular (orbital) quantum number, 𝑙 = 0, 1, 2,…, 𝑛 − 1
• Magnetic quantum number, 𝑚𝑙 = −𝑙, …, 0, …, +𝑙
1 1
• Magnetic spin quantum number, 𝑚𝑠 = − , +
2 2

The distribution of the electrons of in the atomic orbitals obeys the rules and principles:
According to the Pauli exclusion principle, two electrons in an atom can’t have the same four quantum
numbers.
The Aufbau principle states that electrons are added to the lowest energy orbitals first before moving to
higher energy orbitals.
According to Hund’s rule, the most stable arrangement of electrons is the one in which the number of
electrons with the same spin is maximized.
 Two electrons in an atom exert influence on each other – their spins and their orbital angular momenta
are coupled!
• Twoelectrons are termed paired if they coincide in all of their quantum numbers except the
magnetic spin quantum number. In such an electron pair the magnetic moments of the electrons
compensate each other.
• Substanceshaving only paired electrons are diamagnetic, and are slightly repelled by an external
applied magnetic field.
• Unpaired electrons in different orbitals tend to orient their spins parallel and thus produce an
accordingly larger magnetic field (HUND’s rule); they have the same magnetic spin quantum
number and differ in some other quantum number.
• Ina paramagnetic substance unpaired electrons are present. When an external magnetic field
acts on a paramagnetic substance, the magnetic moments of the electrons adopt the orientation
of this field, the sample is magnetized and a force pulls the substance into the field

Magnetization can be determined quantitatively by measuring this force: Magnetic

Susceptibility, χ
χ𝑇 = χ𝐷 + χ𝑃 Total magnetic susceptibility
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 4 unpaired electrons; Paramagnetic

Paired electrons; Diamagnetic

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 Atomic Magnetic Moment: Quantum

 The magnetic moment of a material arises from any unpaired electron spins in the material.
 The interactions between these unpaired electron spins will define the type of magnetism in
the substance.

𝐵 • χ𝑃 is positive and is due to the presence of

𝐵 unpaired electrons;
χ > 0 and S ≠ 0 • Their spin will align under an external field H
paramagnetism and revert to random orientation when the
field is removed
• Temperature dependent
• χ𝐷 is negative and small; it arises from the
𝐵 𝐵 χ < 0 and S = 0 interaction of the applied magnetic field with
diamagnetism the motion of paired electrons in their orbitals
• Independent of temperature and intensity of
the applied magnetic field
• Inherent to all materials
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