[CPE 6398 – CpE Design Project 1]

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[Presentation, Data Analysis, and Interpretation of Data]

Module 08 Data Presentation

Course Learning Outcomes:

At the end of this module, the student should be able to:
1. Describe the “Result Section” of a research paper.
2. Identify the components of the Result Section.

The Result Section of a Research Paper

The “Result Chapter” contains a clear and comprehensive presentation of the results of
your data analysis. You begin the Results Chapter with an introduction, containing one or
two paragraphs. In it, you provide an overview of the chapter, an advance organizer. The
advance organizer lays out the structure of the chapter; it prepares the reader for what is
to follow.
The purpose of the Results section is to summarize the data that were collected and their
statistical treatment. The Results section should tell the reader how the data were analyzed
and the results of this analysis.
There are two main purposes of the results section: (a) to show the reader that you
competently analyzed the data, and (b) to tell the reader what you found.

Data Presentation
Data presentation is the process of organizing data into logical, sequential, and
meaningful categories and classifications that is appropriate for study and
interpretation. There are three ways of presenting data: Textual, Tabular, and
Graphical.
Textual presentation of data is a form of presentation that combines words or text
and numerical facts in a statistical report.
Tables is a way of presenting data using rows and columns and it is good for clearly
presenting data on any number of variables and can be used for descriptive or
inferential statistics.
Graphs are pictorial representations of data.
Histograms: good for presenting distributions for a single variable.
Scatterplots: illustrate the relationship between two continuous variables to
help you see: whether the relationship is linear, the direction of the
relationship (upward left to right indicates a positive relationship and
downward left to right indicates a negative relationship), the strength of the
relationship, outlying points, and if you have an intervening (moderating)
variable
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Bar and line graphs: good for illustrating one or more categorical variables
that are the independent variables and one continuous variable that is the
dependent variable. Typically the independent variable(s) is on the x-axis
(horizontal) and the dependent variable is on the y-axis (vertical).
Data Analysis and Interpretation of Data
Data analysis may be defined as an explanation of data or facts in terms of quantity, quality,
attributes, traits, patterns, rends, relationships among others so as to answer research
questions which involves statistical techniques and procedures.

Quantitative Data Analysis

There are several interrelated steps used in the process of analyzing
quantitative data. The first step is to prepare the data for analysis. This
involves determining how to assign numeric scores to the data, assessing the
types of scores to use, selecting a statistical program, and inputting the data
into a program, and then cleaning up the database for analysis. The next step
is to report the results that are found using tables, figures, and a discussion of
the key results. Then begins the data analysis. Typically you conduct a
descriptive analysis of the data reporting measures of central tendency and
variation. Then you conduct more sophisticated inferential analysis to test
hypotheses and you examine confidence intervals and effect sizes. Finally,
you interpret the results from the data analysis.
Preparing the Data for Analysis
(i) Score the Data. Scoring data means that the researcher assigns a
numeric score (or value) to each response category for each question
on the instruments used to collect data.
(ii) Select a Statistical Program. After scoring the data, researchers select
a computer program to analyze their data. Academic researchers
generally use statistical programs available as software programs for
desktops or laptops.
(iii) Input Data. After choosing a statistical program, your next step is to
enter the data from your instruments or checklists into the computer
program. Inputting the data occurs when the researcher transfers the
data from the responses on instruments to a computer file for
analysis.
(iv) Clean and Account for Missing Data. After entering data into the
computer grid, you need to determine if there are errors in the data or
missing data. Errors occur when participants in your study provide
scores outside the range for variables or you input wrong numbers
into the data grid. Missing data may result when instrument data is
lost, individuals skip questions, participants are absent when you

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collect observational data, or individuals refuse to complete a

sensitive question.
Statistical Calculations in Analyzing the Data
Descriptive Analysis
(i) Measures of central tendency. Measures of central tendency are
summary numbers that represent a single value in a distribution of
scores. They are expressed as an average score (the mean), the middle
of a set of scores (the median), or the most frequently occurring score
(the mode). In quantitative studies, researchers typically report all
three measures.
(ii) Measures of Variability. Variability indicates the spread of the scores
in a distribution. Range, variance, and standard deviation all indicate
the amount of variability in a distribution of scores. This information
helps us see how dispersed the responses are to items on an
instrument.
(iii) Measures of Relative Position. Measures of relative position are
statistics that describe one score relative to a group of scores. These
measures are standard scores (Z or T scores), quartiles, and percentile
ranks.
Inferential Analysis
(i) Significance of Difference between Means.It is used to determine
whether a true difference exists between population means of two
samples.
(ii) Analysis of Variance. The Z or t tests are used to determine whether
there was any significant difference between the means of two
random samples. The F test enables the researcher to determine
whether the sample means differ from one another to a greater extent
then the test scores differ from their own sample means using the F
ratio.
(iii) Analysis of Co-Variance. It is an extension of analysis of variance to
test the significance of difference between means of final experimental
data by taking into account the Correlation between the dependent
variable and one or more Co-variates or control variables and by
adjusting initial mean differences in the group.
(iv) Correlation Methods. Either of two methods of correlation can be used
for the purpose of calculating the significance of the difference
between Co-efficient of Correlation.
(v) Chi Square Test. It is used to estimate the like hood that some factor
other than chance accounts to the observed relationship. In this test

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the expected frequency and observed frequency are used for

evaluating Chi Square.
(vi) Regression Analysis. For calculating the probability of occurrence of
any phenomenon or for predicting the phenomenon or relationship
between different variables regression analysis is cone.
Interpreting the results respond to each research question or hypothesis. A
typical approach is to respond to each question or hypothesis one by one in
the order in which they were introduced in the statement of the problem.
The researcher presents detailed information and develop explanations
about the specific results of the descriptive and inferential statistical
analyses. Also, the researcher stays close to the statistical findings and draws
implications and meaning form them.
Qualitative Data Analysis
Analyzing qualitative data requires understanding how to make sense of text
and images so that you can form answers to your research questions.

Qualitative Data analysis Process

Qualitative researchers first collect data and then prepare it for data analysis.
This analysis initially consists of developing a general sense of the data, and
then coding description and themes about the central phenomenon.
These steps are not always taken in sequence, but they represent preparing
and organizing the data for analysis; engaging in an initial exploration of the
data through the process of coding it; using the codes to develop a more
general picture of the data - descriptions and themes; representing the
findings through narratives and visuals; making an interpretation of the
meaning of the results by reflecting personally on the impact of the findings
and on the literature that might inform the findings; and finally, conducting
strategies to validate the accuracy of the findings.

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[Presentation, Data Analysis, and Interpretation of Data]

Source: https://slideplayer.com/slide/6413295/
Preparing Data for Analysis
Initial preparation of the data for analysis requires organizing the vast
amount of information, transferring it from spoken or written words to a
typed file and making decisions about whether to analyze the data by hand or
by computer.
At an early stage in qualitative analysis, you organize data into fi le folders or
computer files. Organization of data is critical in qualitative research because
of the large amount of information gathered during a study.
During qualitative data collection, you will collect text or words through
interviewing participants or by writing field notes during observations. This
necessitates a need to convert these words to a computer document for
analysis. Transcription is the process of converting audiotape recordings or
field notes into text data.
With the popularity of computers, researchers have a choice about whether
to hand analyze data or to use a computer. The hand analysis of qualitative
data means that researchers read the data, mark it by hand, and divide it into
parts. Traditionally, analyzing text data involves using color coding to mark
parts of the text or cutting and pasting text sentences onto cards. Some
qualitative researchers like to hand analyze all of their data. A computer
analysis of qualitative data means that researchers use a qualitative
computer program to facilitate the process of storing, analyzing, sorting, and
representing or visualizing the data. A qualitative data analysis computer
program is a program that stores data, organizes your data, enables you to
assign labels or codes to your data, and facilitates searching through your
data and locating specific text or words.
Qualitative Data Analysis

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After you have organized and transcribed your data and decided whether to
hand or computer analyze it, it is time to begin data analysis. This consists of
exploring the data and developing codes as first steps in analysis.
The first step in data analysis is to explore the data. A preliminary
exploratory analysis in qualitative research consists of exploring the data to
obtain a general sense of the data, memoing ideas, thinking about the
organization of the data, and considering whether you need more data.
The further process of analyzing text (or images) in qualitative research
begins when you code the data. Coding is the process of segmenting and
labeling text to form descriptions and broad themes in the data. Using a
visual model will help you learn this procedure. The object of the coding
process is to make sense out of text data, divide it into text or image
segments, label the segments with codes, examine codes for overlap and
redundancy, and collapse these codes into broad themes.
Describing and developing themes from the data consists of answering the
major research questions and forming an in-depth understanding of the
central phenomenon through description and thematic development. Not all
qualitative projects include both description and themes, but all studies
include at least themes. Because description is a detailed rendering of people,
places, or events in a setting in qualitative research, it is easiest to start the
analysis after the initial reading and coding of the data. In addition to
description, the use of themes is another way to analyze qualitative data.
Because themes are similar codes aggregated together to form a major idea
in the database, they form a core element in qualitative data analysis. Like
codes, themes have labels that typically consist of no more than two to four
words.
Interpretation in qualitative research means that the researcher steps back
and forms some larger meaning about the phenomenon based on personal
views, comparisons with past studies, or both. Qualitative research is
interpretive research, and you will need to make sense of the findings.
Interpretation of finding may include: Personal reflections of the researcher
about the meaning of the data and personal views compared or contrasted
with the literature.

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References and Supplementary Materials

Books and Journals
1. AMAES Student Research Manual
2. Francisco M. Zulueta, Jose R. Perez (2010). Methods of Research Thesis Writing and
Applied Statistics. Philippines. National Bookstore
3. Fred C. Lunenburg, Beverly J. Irby; 2008; Writing a Successful Thesis or Dissertation;
California; Corwin Press
4. John W. Creswell (2012). Educational Research (4th Edition). Boston. Pearson
Education Inc.
5. Larry B. Christensen et al; 2015; Research Methods Design and Analysis; England;
Pearson
6. Patricia Leavy (2017). Research Design. New York. The Guilford Press
7. Rabhat Pandey, Meenu Mishra Pandey; 2015; Research Methodology Tools and
Techniques; Romania; Bridge Center
8. R. Burke Johnson, Larry Christensen (2014). Educational Research (5th Edition). USA.
SAGE Publication Inc.

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[Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendation]

Module 09 Summary, Conclusions, and

Recommendation

Course Learning Outcomes:

At the end of this module, the student should be able to:
1. Describe the content of the Summary section.
2. Describe the content of Conclusion section.
3. Describe the content of Recommendations section.

The Discussion Chapter

This chapter includes a summary of the main findings of the thesis, and states the deduction/s
obtained. It also presents the significance of the study, and relates findings to the objectives
and problems written in the introduction part of the thesis. Recommendation/s must be stated
in this chapter. This part usually directs the reader to conduct further research on some
specific areas related to the thesis topic. This chapter contains the Summary, Conclusion, and
Recommendations.

Summary
A summary is a statement that reviews the major findings to each of the research
questions or hypotheses. Discussions and implications should not be mentioned in
this section. The major findings is presented on a one-on-one correspondence with
the research problems. Thus, the number of major findings is based on how many
specific research problems enumerated in Statement of the problem section of
Chapter 1. In this section, you will state each individual research question again and
provide findings for each question.
Conclusions
The conclusions section is very important, because it is the summative statement of
the researcher’s study. Its function is similar to the summary of findings, except that
the conclusions section is the conclusion of the whole study. It provides closure to
the entire project. Conclusions are assertions based on the findings. By reading your
conclusions, readers discover to what extent research questions posed have been
answered or to what extent hypotheses are sustained or not sustained. Thus,
conclusions address issues that support or fail to support your theoretical
framework.
Recommendations
Future research directions are suggestions made by the researcher about additional
studies that need to be conducted based on the results of the present research.

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[Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendation]

These suggestions are a natural link to the limitations of a study, and they provide
useful direction for new researchers and readers who are interested in exploring
needed areas of inquiry or applying results to educational practice.
Any research must ultimately answer the question “So what?” This section directly
answers this question on at least three levels. There are other possible implications
and recommendations.
(i) Theoretical Issues. This section explains 1) the theoretical value of the
findings and 2) the soundness of the original study framework. It must chart
future research directions on the same topic but use a different theoretical
perspective. It may also offer a new theory—this is particularly important for
a dissertation.
(ii) Methodological Issues. This section explains the soundness of the
methodology as it was implemented. It discusses the implications of the
methods, the units of analysis, sampling scheme, research instruments, and
data gathering procedures on the resultant findings. It must chart future
directions on the same topic but use a different methodology.
(iii) Practical Issues. This section describes the practical implications and
applications of the findings. Examples include recommendations on
improving media literacy and communication practice.

References and Supplementary Materials

Books and Journals
1. AMAES Student Research Manual
2. Fred C. Lunenburg, Beverly J. Irby; 2008; Writing a Successful Thesis or Dissertation;
California; Corwin Press
3. John W. Creswell (2012). Educational Research (4th Edition). Boston. Pearson
Education Inc.

Course Module