Volume 9, Issue 3, March – 2024 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology

ISSN No:-2456-2165 https://doi.org/10.38124/ijisrt/IJISRT24MAR1139

The Potential Significance of Algae in

Agriculture Field
Raju Potharaju1* M. Aruna2
1* 2
Department of Botany, City Womens Degree college, Professor & Head Department of Botany, Hydrobiology
Hanamkonda, Telangana, India and Algal Biotechnology Laboratory, Telangana University,
Dichpally, Nizamabad, Telangana, India

Corresponding Author:- Raju Potharaju1*

Abstract:- As a vast and varied collection of microbes, semi-arid environments rely on algae. The distribution and
algae are capable of photosynthesis, which allows them condition of these organisms may also provide clues about
to convert energy from sunlight into chemical the state of the ecosystem. Furthermore, since algae control
compounds. The agricultural sector relies heavily on the water flow into soils, their presence also reduces erosion.
algae due to their usefulness as biofertilizers and soil Soil fertility, soil reclamation, bio-controlling agricultural
stabilizers. The use of algae, especially seaweeds, as pests, microbiological crust development, treatment of
fertilizers leads to a decrease in nitrogen and phosphorus agricultural wastewater, and recycling treated water are all
discharge compared to that produced by animal dung. areas where they work similarly [2]. Agrarian practices are
The water that eventually makes its way into rivers and fundamental to human civilisation. The soil's fertility is a
seas is therefore of higher quality. As dietary major factor in agricultural success or failure. Algae, which
supplements for humans, these creatures are farmed all inhabit a variety of soil types, may, like other species,
over the globe. They need very little water to grow, and contribute to the soil's improvement of properties including
they may be cultivated on desert and abandoned land, carbon content, texture, aeration, and nitrogen fixation [3].
producing food that is both clean and carbon neutral. The soil's physical and chemical properties impact the
Iodine is abundant in seaweeds. The dietary intake of the makeup of the algal population, which in turn determines
milking cow determines the milk's iodine content. If you the amount of these improvements.[4]
want more iodine in your milk, feed your cows seaweed.
Incorporating algae into chicken feed speeds up the egg- Fertilizers made from marine algae are applied to fields
laying process. This article provided a concise overview that are near the water. One kind of marine algae is the big
of algae and its agricultural applications, covering the brown and red algae, which are organic fertilizers. These
essentials for anyone involved in this field. algae are often higher in potassium content but lower in
nitrogen and phosphorus. Whether it's a solid fertilizer or a
Keywords:- Algae, Agriculture, Biofertilizer, Soil liquid one the weed is often applied directly and worked into
Stabilizers. the soil. Seaweeds are most often used as liquid fertilizers in
farming [5]. The high concentration of trace elements and
I. INTRODUCTION growth regulating chemicals, especially cytokinins, in liquid
fertilizers is the major reason for their beneficial impact.
Algae are an incredibly diversified group of creatures Soil acidity may be decreased in the UK and France with the
that consist of several plant-like forms. Sizes of algae may help of calcareous red algae called maerl. Most people don't
vary greatly, from single cells measuring less than a know how economically significant and diversely used algae
millimeter to enormous seaweeds reaching lengths of more are, especially marine algae. Food, medicine, textiles, paper,
than fifty meters. There are a lot of protozoa-integrating and paint are just a few of their many uses. Chemical
unicellular forms, and a lot of them are motile. In addition to extracts from bigger marine algae, like alginic acid,
soils, permanent ice, snow fields, hot springs, and both hot carrageenan, or agar, are utilized in food manufacturing.
and cold deserts, algae may be found practically everywhere Diatomaceous earth, which is made up of deposits of diatom
on Earth. When compared to other plants, algae have many frustules, is used extensively as a material for filtration and
similarities in their biochemistry and physiology. They are polishing. Additionally, algae may be used for wastewater
all related to one another biochemically; they all contain treatment and are significant surface-binding agents that
chlorophyll-a, and they all have carbs, proteins, and decrease erosion. The prokaryotes associated with
products that are similar to higher plants.[1] Additionally, cyanobacteria are quite varied. Similar to algae and higher
aquatic food webs are largely dependent on algae because of plants, they all engage in oxygenic photosynthesis.[6].
their status as the principal manufacturers of organic Because they use water and sunlight as fuel, they produce
substances. In addition to providing the primary fuel for oxygen when exposed to light. Carbon dioxide reduction
these food webs, they also provide the oxygen that the typically makes use of the energy and reductants produced
creatures that eat them need to function metabolically. The by photosynthesis. These microscopic organisms are found
primary goal of this piece is to reaffirm the idea that dry and all over the world and help plants thrive in their shared

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Volume 9, Issue 3, March – 2024 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No:-2456-2165 https://doi.org/10.38124/ijisrt/IJISRT24MAR1139

environments. This is because they do three things: 1) Cyanobacteria are highly compatible biofertilizers for
increase soil fertility in many ecosystems, 2) create a wide rice-based cropping systems. They are the primary
variety of substances with biological activity, and 3) biosorb constituents of wetland rice ecosystems, which are readily
heavy metals more efficiently. accessible and serve as the most cost-effective sources of
natural biofertilizers [9].While the integration of genes into
II. METHODOLOGY AND DISCUSSION rice plants through tissue culture and contemporary genetic
techniques continues to be a challenging research objective,
A. Identification and Assay of Nitrogen Fixation Method: the utilization of cyanobacterial diazotrophic technology in
Many methods are used for estimating nitrogen in the rice cultivation presents a viable and potentially sustainable
soil and water samples substitute for synthetic nitrogen fertilizers, particularly in
developing nations and globally. Nevertheless, a notable
 Kjeldahl Method: limitation of this technique lies in the extensive use of
This is most commonly used method for routine various harmful agrochemicals, particularly herbicides.
analysis and no require no special equipment. The Basic These substances are often identified as inhibitors of
Principle is to convert the nitrogen in the sample to cyanobacterial diazotrophic development and, in some
ammonium by digestion with concentrated sulphuric acid instances, as mutagenic agents. Hence, the achievement of
and to estimate the nitrogen by alkaline distillation. A full effective biotechnology necessitates the careful choice of
discussion of the procedure details can be found in Hesse’s appropriate diazotrophic strains as biofertilizers capable of
Text book of Soil Chemical Analysis. withstanding the high concentrations of herbicides seen in
the field [10].
 Enhancing Soil Fertility
Although oxygen created from photosynthetic activity  The Nitrogen Fixation
in the same cell is deleterious to nitrogen fixation, certain Many agricultural soils rely on algae, particularly
cyanobacteria are able to convert ambient nitrogen to cyanobacteria, as their primary nitrogen-fixing agent.
ammonia. Nitrogen fixation and oxygen evolution may Numerous researchers have examined their significance as
occur at separate times in many unicellular and filamentous, nitrogen fixers in rice fields. Although most nitrogen-fixing
non-heterocyst strains, whereas filamentous cyanobacteria cyanobacteria are likely hetero-cystous, there are certain
use spatial separation and cellular differentiation into non-heterocystous species that are capable of fixing nitrogen
nitrogen fixing heterocysts as a strategy to avoid [11].Plants at a higher level are able to reabsorb the nitrogen
oxygen.[7].The terminally differentiated cells known as that the algae fixed. The nitrogen-fixing capabilities of
hemocysts undergo anaerobic cellular respiration, which cyanobacterial species are well-documented, and their use in
permits the oxygen-sensitive nitrogen fixation process to enhancing soil fertility for environmentally responsible rice
persist. Extensive research on the heterocyst system's farming is widely acknowledged. Despite the great potential
control of dinitrogen fixation has been conducted(Fig.1). of cyanobacteria as a biofertilizer for rice fields, its
application is now restricted owing to regional variations in
For diazotrophic cyanobacteria to fix carbon and inoculum quality, quantity, and physiological
nitrogen, sunlight is their only energy source. Thus, their characteristics. The efficiency with which rice plants use
usage will reduce the fuel need for fertilizer production, and fixed nitrogen is generally low, so researchers are trying to
they have significant potential as biofertilizers. It has long find cyanobacteria strains that are good at fixing nitrogen
been recognized that heterocystous cyanobacteria, whether from the air and also excreting it continuously, so that the
they live independently or form symbiotic associations with growing rice plants can use it.
water ferns, have agronomic promise.[8]. As a result,
biofertilizers made from paddy soils containing the right As an alternative to N-rich fertilizers, cyanobacteria
kinds of cyanobacteria were developed and used on a are used extensively in Asian rice fields to improve soil
smaller scale in rice fields. fertility via biological nitrogen fixation, also known as
algalization. However, their usefulness extends beyond this.
Researchers found that inoculating rice fields with the
cyano-bacterium Tolypothrix tenuis at a rate of around 250
g dry mass ha-1 increased yields by 19.5% compared to a
dressing of 25 kg ha-1 of ammonium sulfate, which
increased yields by 16.6%. Quickly multiplying water fern
Azolla in Japan includes the symbiotic blue-green algae
Anabaena, which fixes gaseous N2, and thereby fertilizes
rice fields[12,13]

 The Origin of Organic Matter

Algae play a significant role as a source of organic
matter in soil. The decomposition of algae may result in the
incorporation of organic matter into the soil. Mucilage,
which functions as a binding agent, enhances the soil
Fig 1 Enhancing Soil Fertility Cyanophyceae Algae
texture, leading to an increase in humus content. This, in

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Volume 9, Issue 3, March – 2024 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No:-2456-2165 https://doi.org/10.38124/ijisrt/IJISRT24MAR1139

turn, improves the suitability of the soil for other plants over in algal filtrate and other substances that promote the
time [14]. The significance of filamentous forms of the development of agricultural plants.
Cyanophyceae, particularly Oscillatoria, Schizothrix, and
Plectonema, in soil formation was seen in the U.S.S.R. The Microalgae are a varied collection of microorganisms
primary contributions of algae to the soil are the assimilation that may be easily formed and cultured in large quantities.
of organic carbon via photosynthesis and the fixing of Microalgae, which include cyanobacteria and other
organic nitrogen through nitrogen fixation. Additionally, eukaryotic groups, exhibit a diverse range of chemicals that
they function as a storage facility for inorganic nutrients. possess biological activity. In addition, cyanobacteria
possess the capability to release hormones that promote
 Fodder for Milk Cattle and Hens plant growth, such as auxins [18], cytokinin-like substances,
Livestock and hens can be fed algae. One significant gibberellins or gibberellic-like substances , antibiotics,
source of iodine is seaweed. The diet given to the cow that algicides, toxins, organic acids, and pharmaceutically active
produced the milk affects the amount of iodine in the milk. compounds. [19] have successfully isolated a gibberellin-
Seaweeds can be fed to milk cows to raise the iodine content like compound from the cyanobacterium Phormidium
of the milk. Algae feed additives also boost hens' egg-laying foveolarum, which has shown activity in GA-bioassays. In
rates. addition, the chromatographic analysis of a compound
secreted by Nostoc muscorum, which was isolated from
 Plant Growth Accelerators paddy fields in Argentina, showed that it had auxinic
In their study on the algae found in Indian rice fields, activity and shares comparable features with indole acetic
that cyanobacteria had a significant role in expediting seed acid.The presence of growth-promoting chemicals was
germination and facilitating the development of seedlings. observed via the impact of N. muscorum extracts on the
Furthermore, it was noted that there was an improvement in growth of Panicum miliaceum seedlings. All the extracts
both the production and quality of the grains in terms of resulted in an increase in both the height and dry weight of
protein content. It is very probable that the advantageous millet plants. There is a lack of information on the
impact of algae on rice cultivation extends beyond their incorporation of cyanobacterial biomass or their compounds
ability to only fix atmospheric nitrogen. These algae may into plants other than rice [20]
also possess other useful functions, such as the release of
bioactive compounds. Microbial organisms employ various Microalgae are a genetically heterogeneous collection
mechanisms to promote plant growth, such as of microorganisms that may be effectively cultivated and
biofertilization, which involves augmenting the availability cultivated on a large scale. In addition to cyanobacteria and
of essential mineral nutrients to the plant. Additionally, other eukaryotic groups, microalgae exhibit a diverse range
microbes employ biological control strategies to eliminate of chemicals that possess biological activity. The
plant enemies, including microbial pathogens, insects, and aforementioned substances include nitrogenous compounds
weeds. Furthermore, microbes facilitate direct plant growth amino acids, vitamin B12, and biotin [21]. In addition,
by delivering plant growth hormones, as documented cyanobacteria possess the capability to release plant growth
by[15].the use of cyanobacteria in biofertilization methods hormones such as auxins, cytokinin-like substances ,
is suggested as a means to enhance the rate of seed gibberellins or gibberellic-like substances, antibiotics,
germination and improve various growth characteristics in algicides, toxins, organic acids and pharmaceutically active
several plant species. compounds [22]. The researchers [23] successfully extracted
a compound like gibberellin from the cyanobacterium
Despite being the predominant microbial Phormidium foveolarum. This material has shown activity
photosynthetic agents of the soil, the ecological importance in GA-bioassays. Furthermore, the process of
of microalgae and cyanobacteria remains incompletely chromatography was used to identify a molecule that was
elucidated. Nevertheless, it is evident that some desirable secreted by Nostoc muscorum, which was isolated from
features and positive impacts of these substances have an paddy fields in Argentina. This material was shown to have
impact on plant and soil systems. Soil microalgae have two auxinic activity and had comparable properties to indole
significant potential applications in agricultural production: acetic acid. The impact of N. muscorum extracts on
as biofertilizers and as soil conditioners. Lately, there has Panicum miliaceum seedlings revealed the presence of
been a growing fascination in their antibacterial and PGR growth-promoting chemical extracts tested resulted in an
compounds. The impact of diverse extracellular compounds increase in both the height and dry weight of millet plants.
produced by algae, such as cyanobacteria, is significant in The available literature on the incorporation of
aquatic environments [16]. Additionally, these molecules cyanobacterial biomass or their components into plants other
have a crucial role in promoting the development and than rice is limited [24].
germination of higher plants. Due to the release of a
significant proportion of bioactive chemicals from their
nitrogen assimilation outside their cells, cyanobacteria algae
have been suggested as a viable biofertilizer [17].The
nitrogenase and nitrate reductase activities of cyanobacteria
have been previously linked to the influence of plant
surface, as well as the presence of amino acids and peptides

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Volume 9, Issue 3, March – 2024 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No:-2456-2165 https://doi.org/10.38124/ijisrt/IJISRT24MAR1139

accumulate in crops due to the inappropriate and risky use

of these pesticides, which may be an even more significant
indirect contributor to human illnesses.

 The Exopolysaccharide
In order to promote microbial development, which in
turn improves soil structure and exoenzyme activity,
cyanobacteria create extracellular polymers with a wide
range of chemical compositions. One such polymer is
exopolysaccharide. The precise composition of this
perishable organic material remains incompletely
understood, however a significant proportion of it may
consist of microbial bio[27]. The stability of soil aggregates
is influenced by the reduction of organic matter. The
introduction of organic materials into soil facilitates the
proliferation of microorganisms and enhances enzymatic
activity inside the soil. Certain species of cyanobacteria
secrete a substance known as slime or mucilage, which
disperses throughout the organism and, to a certain degree,
dissolves in the culture medium or soil solution. One
potential strategy for enhancing nutrient composition and
soil structure involves the introduction of cyanobacteria.
Reclaiming marginal soils, including saline-alkaline and
calcareous soils, is another promising use of algae
biofertilizers [28].

Soil aggregation is increased mostly by microorganism

Fig 2 Representation of Algal Biomass exopolysaccharide or by exopolysaccharide supplied to soil
after cell death and lysis; N. muscorum may enhance the
B. Biocontrol of Phytopathogens aggregate stability of salty soil. As an organic matter source
and an enzyme producer, cyanobacteria may infiltrate soil
 The use of Chemical Insecticides with their acid and alkaline extracellular phosphatases,
The soil is a complex system characterized by the which are either active in solution or found in the
existence of a balanced state of equilibrium among its periplasmatic region of the cell wall. Incorporating biomass
physical, chemical, and biological components. The use of and exopolysaccharides into soil helps other microbes
pesticides without taking into account the other components flourish and boosts the activity of soil enzymes that help
of the soil disrupts this balance, leading to a negative impact plants get the nutrients they need[29].
on soil production. The preservation of soil biota, in addition
to the control of detrimental pests, contributes to enhanced  Heavy Metal Treatment
crop nutrient management and the preservation of soil Cyanobacteria are only one of several microbes that
health. Insecticides often demonstrate inhibitory or may concentrate metal ions found in their natural habitat.
stimulatory properties on the development or other There are three parts to the process by which cyanobacteria
physiological processes of microorganisms, whether in and microalgae are able to withstand heavy metals: 1)
controlled laboratory settings or in natural field external causes; 2) cellular defence mechanisms that are not
environments. A limited number of studies were conducted species specific; and 3) defence mechanisms that are species
to examine and summarize the distributions, kinds, toxicity, specific and evolved in reaction to hazardous metal species.
mechanisms of action, degradations, tolerance of pesticides In cyanobacteria, mucilaginous sheaths serve as a "external
by organisms, and other physiological processes[25] . The vacuole" and, in addition to internal protective systems, ion
primary microorganisms that enhance soil fertility are blue- exchange in the outside cell wall is the primary mechanism
green algae, particularly the nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria. for biosorption of heavy metals. The capsular polymer likely
The aforementioned organisms have a significant impact on has its metal-binding characteristics from its high
this system as they provide a consistent supply of fixed concentration of anionic charges, particularly carboxyl.
nitrogen and perform other advantageous functions, as When grown in a contaminated environment or using dried
previously mentioned .The majority of soil and aquatic non-living biomass, this microbial community may be able
microscopic algae are susceptible to pesticides because they to remove heavy metals more effectively by biosorption.
are involved in photosynthesis, which is disrupted by several Also, some of them can fix nitrogen in the air. A more cost-
insecticides. Insecticides, fungicides, and carrionicides effective way to produce biomass for use as inoculum in
derived from a wide variety of synthetic and chemical environmental remediation operations is to use certain
sources have been in use for quite some time [26].Dispersal diazotrophic cyanobacteria that accumulate heavy
patterns of animals in their native habitats are altered by metals.[30] Lead polluted soils and water sources may be
these chemicals. Furthermore, other harmful compounds remediated by using M. tenera.

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 Treatment of Agricultural Wastewater Various strains of algae, including Chlorella and

The contamination of agricultural water drains is a Dunaliella, have been mass-produced and used for
result of human activities, which may occur due to either wastewater treatment for the last 55 years or more in
elevated levels of naturally occurring chemicals or the industrial settings. Some industrialised countries, like
introduction of non-natural manufactured compounds Mexico, Australia, the United States, Thailand, and Taiwan,
(xenobiotics) into the ecosystem. Domestic, agricultural, and are now showing a lot of interest [34].Factoring into the
industrial activities discharge organic compounds into the development and management of high-rate algal cultures for
environment, resulting in inorganic pollution [31]. Several the production of valuable goods like pharmaceuticals and
instances persist where municipal and rural home genetically modified items is the expertise of biologists in
wastewater is immediately released into rivers, often these countries regarding the ecology and biology of large-
without undergoing any kind of treatment. The annual scale algal cultures, as well as the engineering of such
increase in these discharges may be attributed to the systems and methods of algal harvesting. Many additional
implementation of water supply networks in several physiologically useful compounds fall under this category as
communities as part of the current strategy. Moreover, the well, including those with antibacterial, antiviral, antitumor,
current proliferation of water networks in several anti-cancer, antihistamine, and antihyperlipidemic
municipalities, without concurrent implementation of new properties. According to [35] many industrial and
sewage systems or restoration of the preexisting ones, agricultural wastewaters have nitrogen and phosphorus
exacerbates the issues and contributes to water body concentrations that are up to three orders of magnitude more
contamination and heightened public health risks. [32] the than those found in natural water bodies. The
components of residential and urban input to water implementation of primary and secondary treatment
resources include pathogens, nutrients, suspended particles, methods has become more prevalent in various locations.
salts, and oxygen-demanding compounds. These techniques aim to remove readily settling substances
(primary treatment) and oxidise the organic matter found in
The contaminated rivers, lakes, and oceans were wastewater. The ultimate outcome is a transparent and
visually unappealing to humans and posed a significant seemingly uncontaminated effluent that is released into
public health danger. They served as reservoirs for human natural aquatic environments. However, this secondary
infections and heightened the likelihood of transmitting effluent contains high levels of inorganic nitrogen and
illnesses associated to excrement via water. To mitigate such phosphorus, leading to eutrophication and long-term issues
issues, the design of sewage treatment systems was due to the release of persistent organic compounds and
undertaken. Throughout the majority of human history, heavy metals. An all-encompassing wastewater treatment
agriculture has served as a significant means of biological technique designed to eliminate ammonia, nitrate, and
water treatment by using the possible contaminants present phosphate from various sources. Microalgal cultures present
in human and animal waste to facilitate the development of a viable approach to tertiary and quinary treatments owing
plants. Municipal sewage, once treated, is sometimes used to their utilisation of inorganic nitrogen and phosphorus for
as a fertiliser supply for land that is inhabited by natural growth. Additionally, microalgae possess the capability to
vegetation or other crops[33]. These waste materials remain effectively eliminate heavy metals [36] and certain toxic
significant in global agriculture, particularly in regions organic compounds. Consequently, it does not result in the
where commercial fertilisers are not easily accessible.(Fig.3) occurrence of secondary contamination. One of the
advantageous attributes of these organisms is their ability to
generate oxygen and exhibit a disinfecting impact as a result
of the elevation in pH during the process of photosynthesis.

III. CONCLUSION

In this study, we looked at the connection between

crop plants and algae in an effort to shed light on the many
ways in which algae benefit agriculture. Ecosystems in dry
and semi-dry regions rely on algae. Additionally, their
dispersion can be a sign of environmental well-being. Many
people have been thinking about the idea of using algae as
biological conditioners instead of artificial or chemical
conditioners recently. This would be because algae not only
improve the properties of soil and plants, but they also
reduce the pollution that comes from using them. On every
continent, you may find some kind of algae, the most
common of which being microalgae and cyanobacteria.
Their ecological function is still up for debate, despite the
fact that they are the soil's principal microbial
photosynthetic agents. Soil fertility and reclamation are two
Fig 3 Algae Treatment in Agriculture & Urban Wastewater areas where algae, and microalgae in particular, play an
important role, and this research highlights a few ways in

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Volume 9, Issue 3, March – 2024 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No:-2456-2165 https://doi.org/10.38124/ijisrt/IJISRT24MAR1139

which these organisms benefit the plant-soil system: (1) The [8]. Rodrigo V, Eberto N (2007). Seasonal changes in
excretion of organic acids that improve P-availability and P- periphyton nitrogen fixation in a protected tropical
uptake (2) Nitrogen supplied by biological nitrogen fixation, wetland. Biol. Fertil. Soils, 43: 367-372.
(3) Soil organic matter increased, and (4) Bioactive [9]. Ladha JK, Reddy PM (2003). Nitrogen fixation in
extracellular chemicals produced and released that may rice systems: state of knowledge and future
affect plant development and growth. Vitamins, amino prospects. Plant Soil, 252: 151-167.
acids, polypeptides, antibacterial or antifungal compounds [10]. Tiwari DN, Kumar A, Mishra AK (1991). Use of
that perform phytopathogen biocontrol, and polymers, cyanobacterial diazotrophic technology in rice
particularly exopolysaccharides, that enhance soil structure agriculture. Appl. Biochem. Biotech., 28/29: 387-
and exoenzyme activity are among these purported 396.
substances.Soil aggregation stabilisation via extracellular [11]. Kulik MM (1995). The potential for using
polysaccharides (5), crust formation (6), and environmental Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) and algae in the
metal ion concentration (7). In addition, the assessment biological control of plant pathogenic bacteria and
reaffirmed algae's function in wastewater treatment and fungi. Eur. J. Plant Pathol., 101: 585-599.
agricultural recycling. The goal of a comprehensive [12]. Stewart WDP (1970). Algal fixation of atmospheric
wastewater treatment procedure is to eliminate ammonia, nitrogen. Pl. Soil, 32: 555-588.
nitrate, phosphate, and some heavy metals. [13]. El-Zeky MM, El-Shahat RM, Metwaly GS, Elham
MA (2005). Using Cyanobacteria or Azolla as
 Compliance with Ethical Standards: alternative nitrogen sources for rice production. J.
Agric. Mansoura Univ., 30(9): 5567-5577.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS [14]. Marathe KV, Chaudhari PR (1975). An example of
algae as pioneers in the lithosphere and their role in
We are grateful to Prof. Vidyavati, former Vice rock corrosion. J. Ecol., 63: 65-70.
Chancellor of Kakatiya University, Warangal for her [15]. Boesch, D.F., Anderson, D.M., Horner, R.A.,
valuable suggestions and constant encouragement. Shumway, S.E., Tester, P.A., Whitledge, T.E. (1997):
Harmful algal blooms in coastal waters; options for
 Disclosure of Conflict of Interest prevention, control and mitigation. NOAA Coastal
The authors declare no conflict of interest Ocean Program. Decision Analysis Series No. 10
[16]. Lugtenberg BJJ, Weger LA, de Bennett JW,
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