AGR 315: INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER AND ITS

APPLICATION IN AGRICULTURE

First Semester
 AGR 315: INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER AND ITS APLLICATION IN

AGRICULTURE

Introduction

Our lifestyles have undergone a tremendous change with the advancement in technology

especially in the field of Computer. Computer is an integral part of our lifestyles today and it is

found in offices, homes, schools, hotels, supermarkets, hospitals etc. This advance in technology

has made our lives easy and comfortable. For example, we can perform a number of activities

using computer based systems;

- write a draft (documents) on word processor and email it,

- make calculations using an electronic spreadsheet and incorporate graphics,

- create a database of friends with their phone numbers, addresses and e-mail addresses etc.

All these activities are difficult to perform using existing traditional methods. Computers

can also simplify other tasks such as word processing, web site development, database

management etc. Therefore, a Computer can be termed to as a ‘data processor’.

In the beginning of civilization people used fingers and pebbles (stones) for computing

purposes. In fact, the word 'digitus' in Latin actually means 'finger' and 'calculus' means

'pebbles'. This gives a clue into the origin of early computing concepts. With the growth of

civilization, the computing needs also grew. The need for a mechanism to perform lengthy

calculations led to the invention of the first calculator and then the computers.

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Introduction to Computer

The term 'Computer' is derived from the word 'compute' which means to calculate. A

Computer is an electronic machine, devised to perform calculations and control operations that

can be expressed either in logical or numerical terms. In simple words, a Computer is an

electronic device that performs mathematical and non-mathematical operations with the help of

instructions to process data to achieve desired results. Although the field of application of a

computer depends totally on human creativity and imagination, it covers a vast area of

application including; agriculture, education, industries, government, health, scientific research,

law and even music and arts.

The Computer comprised of technologically advanced hardware put together to work at

great speed. To accomplish its various tasks, the Computer is made up of different parts, each

serving a particular purpose in conjunction with other parts. In other words, a 'Computer' is an

assemblage of different machines that will be used to accomplish different task.

Computer is primarily made up of the Central Processing Unit (CPU), the monitor/visual

display unit (VDU), the keyboard and the mouse. Other pieces of hardware commonly referred

to as peripherals of a Computer like the speaker, printer, scanner, camera, e.t.c can enhance or

improve the workability of a Computer.

Computer is a machine that can receive and store, change or process information. A

Computer is an electronic device that can perform activities that involve mathematical, logical

and graphical manipulations. Generally, the term is used to describe a collection of devices that

function together as a system. A Computer performs the following operations in sequence;

- It receives data & instructions through the input devices,

- It store data,
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- It processes the data as per instructions (perform given operation which can be Mathematical or

Logical), and;

- Provides the result (output) in a desired form.

A computer is a programmable machine which allows it users to store all sorts of

information or data and then process that information or data and carry out actions with the

information or data such as calculations or organizing words.

Characteristics/Advantage(s) of Computer

Man develops a Computer so that it could perform different operations such as

calculation and data processing or even entertain him. Today, Computers are everywhere in our

offices, homes, hospitals and supermarkets and so on. Much of the world's infrastructure runs on

Computers and it have profoundly changed our lives mostly for the better. Below are some of the

characteristics of a Computer which make it an essential part of every emerging technology and

such a desirable tool in human development.

- High speed: Computer has the ability to perform routine tasks at a greater speed than human

beings. They can perform millions of calculations in seconds. The Computers process data at an

extremely fast rate i.e. it can perform millions or billions of instructions in seconds. In a few

seconds, a Computer can perform a huge task that a normal human being may take days or even

years to complete. The speed of a computer is measured in megahertz (MHz), that is, one

million instructions per second.

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- Accuracy: Computer is used to perform tasks in a way that ensures accuracy. Besides being

efficient, the computers are also very accurate. The level of accuracy depends on the instructions

and the type of machines being used. Since we know that the Computer is capable of doing only

what it is instructed to do, faulty instructions for processing the data automatically lead to faulty

results. The faulty results due to faulty instructions or incorrect input data are known as GIGO,

that is, garbage in garbage out.

- Reliability: Generally, reliability is the measurement of the performance of a Computer which

is measured against some predetermined standard for operation without any failure. The major

reason behind the reliability of a Computer is that, at hardware level it does not require any

human intervention between its processing operations. Moreover, Computers have built-in

diagnostic capabilities, which help in continuous monitoring of the system.

- Storage Capability: Computers can store large amount of information/data and it can recall the

required information/data almost instantaneously. The memory of the Computer is relatively

small and it can hold only certain amount of information (meaning the memory of a Computer

has limit). Therefore, the information/data can be stored on external storage devices such as

external hard drive, flash drive, magnetic tapes or disk. The data from these devices can be

accessed and brought into the main memory of the Computer when required for processing.

- Resource Sharing: In the initial stages of development, Computer used to be an isolated

machine. With the tremendous growth in Computer technologies, today's Computers have the

capability to connect with each other. This has made the sharing of costly resources like printers,

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scanners, cameras and so on possible. Apart from device sharing, data and information can also

be shared among group of Computers, thus creating a large information and knowledge base.

- Diligence: Computer can perform the same task repeatedly and with the same accuracy

without getting tired. Computer, being a machine, does not suffer from the human traits of

tiredness and lack of concentration. If four million calculations have to be performed, then the

computer will perform the last four-millionth calculation with the same accuracy and speed as the

first calculation.

- Versatility: Computer is flexible to perform both simple and complex tasks. Computers are

quite versatile in nature. They can perform multiple tasks simultaneously with equal ease. For

example, at one moment it can be used to prepare a letter, at the other moment it can be used to

play music and in between one can print a document as well. All this work is possible by

changing the program (sequence of instructions for computers).

- Automation: Computer can be instructed to perform complex tasks automatically (which

increases the productivity).

- Cost effectiveness: Computer reduce the amount of paper work and human effort, thereby

reducing costs.

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Limitations of a Computer

Computer has certain limitations also. As a machine, it can perform only what it is programmed

to do; nothing more and nothing less. In addition, it needs well-defined instructions to perform

any operation. Therefore, computers are unable to give any conclusion without going through

intermediate steps. Sometimes, a program in a Computer works properly for some period and

then suddenly produces incorrect output. This happens because of an error in the instruction

provided by the user. Therefore, Computer parts require regular checking and maintenance to

give correct results. Furthermore, Computers need to be installed in a dust-free place. Generally,

some parts of the Computers get heated up due to heavy processing. Therefore, an ambient

temperature of the Computer system should be maintained. Therefore, the limitation of a

Computer includes the following;

1. Computer need clear & complete instructions to perform a task accurately. If the

instructions are not clear & complete, the Computer will not produce the required result.

2. Computer cannot think.

3. Computer cannot learn by experience.

Application of Computer

In the last few decades, Computer technology has revolutionized the businesses and other aspects

of human life all over the world. Practically, every company, large or small, is now directly or

indirectly dependent on Computers for data processing. Computer systems also help in the

efficient operations of railways and airways reservation, hospital records, accounts, electronic

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banking and so on. Computers not only save time, but also save paper work. Some of the areas

where Computers are being used or applied are as follows:

Science: Scientists have been using Computers to develop theories and to analyze and test the

data. The high speed and accuracy of the Computer allow different scientific analyses to be

carried out. They can be used to generate detailed studies of how earthquakes affect buildings or

pollution affects weather pattern. Satellite-based applications have not been possible without the

use of Computers. Moreover, it would not be possible to get the information of the solar system

and the cosmos without Computers.

Education: Computers have also revolutionized the whole process of education. Currently, the

classrooms, libraries and museums are efficiently utilizing Computers to make the education

much more interesting. Computer is extensively used as a tool and as an aid for imparting

education. Educators use Computers to prepare notes and presentations of their lectures.

Computers are used to develop Computer-based training packages, to provide distance education

using the e-learning software, and to conduct online examinations. Researchers use Computers to

get easy access to conference and journal details and to get global access to the research

materials. Unlike recorded television shows, Computer-aided education (CAE) and Computer-

based training (CBT) packages are making learning much more interactive.

Medicine and Health Care: There has been an increasing use of Computers in the field of

medicine. Now, Doctors are using Computers right from diagnosing the illness to monitoring a

patient's status during complex surgery. By using automated imaging techniques, Doctors are

able to look inside a patient’s body and can study each organ in detail (e.g. CT scans or MRI

scans) which was not possible few years ago. There are several examples of special-purpose

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Computers that can operate within the human body such as cochlear implant, a special kind of

hearing aid that makes it possible for deaf people to hear. Medical researchers and practitioners

also use Computers to access information about the advances in medical research or to take

opinion of doctors globally. The medical history of patients is stored in the Computers.

Computers are also an integral part of various kinds of sophisticated medical equipments like

ultrasound machine, CT scan machine, MRI scan machine, etc. Computers also provide

assistance to the medical surgeons during critical surgery operations like laparoscopic operations,

etc.

Engineering/Architecture/Manufacturing: The architects and engineers are extensively using

Computers in designing and drawings. Computers can create objects that can be viewed from all

the three dimensions (3D). By using techniques like virtual reality, architects can explore houses

that have been designed but not built. The manufacturing factories are using computerized

robotic arms to perform hazardous jobs. Besides, Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) can be

used in designing the product, ordering the parts and planning production. Thus, Computers help

in coordinating the entire manufacturing process.

Entertainment: Computers are finding greater use in entertainment and is having a major

impact on the entertainment industry. The user can download and view movies, play games, chat,

book tickets for cinema halls, use multimedia for making movies, incorporate visual and sound

effects using computers, etc. The users can also listen to music, download and share music,

compose music using Computers, etc. They are used to control the images and sounds. The

special effects which mesmerize (excite) the audience would not have been possible without the

Computers. In addition, computerized animation and colourful graphics have modernized the

film industry.

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Communication: Electronic mail (E-mail) is one of the communication media in which

Computer is used. Through e-mail, messages and reports are passed from one person to one or

more persons with the aid of Computer and telephone line. The advantage of this service is that

while transferring the messages it saves time, avoids wastage of paper and so on. Moreover, the

person who is receiving the messages can read the messages whenever he is free and can save it,

reply it, forward it or delete it from the Computer.

Business Application: This is one of the important uses of the Computer. Initially, Computers

were used for batch-processing jobs, where one does not require the immediate response from

the Computer. Currently, Computers are mainly used for real-time applications (like at the sales

counter) that require immediate response from the Computer. There are various concerns where

Computers are used such as in business forecasting, to prepare pay bills and personal records, in

banking operations and data storage, in various types of life insurance business and as an aid to

management. Businesses are also using the networking of Computers where a number of

Computers are connected together to share the data and information. The use of e-mail and the

Internet has changed the ways of doing business.

Publishing: Computers have created a field known as desktop publishing (DTP). In DTP, with

the help of Computer and a lesser printer one can perform the publishing job all by oneself.

Many of the tasks requiring long manual hours such as making table of contents and index can

be automatically performed using the Computers and DTP software.

Banking: Computers are extensively used in the field of banking and finance. People can use the

ATM (automated teller machine) services 24 hours a day to withdraw cash. When different

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branches of the bank are connected through Computer networks, the inter branch transactions

such as cheque and draft can be performed without any delay.

Home: Computers have now become an integral part of home equipment. At home, people use

Computers to play games, to maintain the home accounts, for communicating with friends and

relatives via Internet, for paying bills, for education and learning, etc. Microprocessors are

embedded in house hold utilities like, washing machines, TVs, food processors, home theatres,

security devices, etc.

Sports: A Computer can be used to watch a game, view the scores, play games (like chess,

football, basketball, etc.) and create games. They are also used for the purposes of training

players.

Government: The government uses Computers to manage its own operations and also for e-

governance. The websites of the different government departments provide information to the

users. Computers are used for the filing of income tax return, paying taxes, online submission of

water and electricity bills, for the access of land record details, etc. The police department uses

Computers to search for criminals using fingerprint matching, etc.

Advertising: Computer is a powerful advertising media. Advertisement can be displayed on

different websites, different products can be sent through email and viewed by different

customers. Computers are also used to create an advertisement using the visual and the sound

effects. For the advertisers, Computer is a medium via which the advertisements can be viewed

globally. Web advertising has become a significant factor in the marketing plans of almost all

companies. In fact, the business model of Google is mainly dependent on web advertising for

generating revenues.

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In addition to the applications of the Computers discussed above, Computers have also

proliferate into areas like investments, stock trading, accounting, ticket reservation, military

operations, meteorological predictions, social networking, business organizations, police

department, video conferencing / telepresence, book publishing, web newspapers, information

sharing and agriculture.

Structure/Framework (Anatomy) of Computer

The anatomy of Computer is the detailed analysis of its structure. Basically, the

Computer system consists of three units and they include:

1. Input device

2. Central Processing Unit (CPU)

3. Output device

Block diagram of a Computer:

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 The various functions of the units in a Computer can be summarized as follow:

S/ UNIT FUNCTION

1 Input device Reads information from input media and enters to the

computer in a coded form

2 CPU

a. Memory unit Stores program and data

b. Arithmetic Logic Performs arithmetic and logical functions

unit

c. Control Unit Interprets program instructions and controls the input

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 and

output devices

3 Output device decodes information and presents it to the user

Central Processing Unit

The central processing unit is the part of the Computer that carries out the instructions of

a Computer program. It is the unit that reads and executes program instructions. Hence it is

known as the “brain” of the Computer. The CPU consists of storage or memory unit (MU),

arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and control unit (CU).

(a). Memory Unit:

It is also known as the primary storage or main memory. It stores data, program instructions,

internal results and final output temporarily before it is sent to an appropriate output device. It

consists of thousands of cells called “storage locations”. These cells activate with “off and on”

or binary digits (0,1) mechanism. Thus a character either a letter or numerical digit is stored as a

string of (0,1) Binary digits (BITS). These bits are used to store instructions and data by their

combinations.

(b). Arithmetic and Logical Unit (ALU):

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It is the unit where all Arithmetic operations (addition, subtraction etc.) and logical functions

such as true or false, male or female are performed. Once data are fed into the main memory

from input devices, they are held and transferred as needed to ALU where processing takes

place. No process occurs in primary storage. Intermediate generated results in ALU are

temporarily placed in memory until needed at later time. Data may move from primary memory

to ALU and back again to storage many times before the process is finalized.

(c). Control Unit:

It acts as a central nervous system and ensures that the information is stored correctly and the

program instructions are followed in proper sequence as well as the data are selected from the

memory as necessary. It also coordinates all the input and output devices of a system.

Input Devices

The devices that are used to provide data and instructions to the computer are called Input

devices. Some important input devices are: Key board, Mouse, Scanner, Web camera,

Microphone etc.

1. Keyboard

The Key board is used for typing text into the computer. It is also known as standard Input

device. A computer keyboard is similar to that of a type writer with additional keys. The most

commonly available computer keyboard has 104 keys.

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There are different types of keys on the keyboard. The keys are categorized as:

- Alphanumeric keys, including letters & numbers

- Punctuation keys, such as colon (:), semicolon (;) Question mark (?), Single & double

quotes (‘,”)

- Special keys such as arrow keys, control keys, function keys (F1 to F12), HOME, END

etc.

2. Mouse:

It is a device that controls the movement of the cursor on a monitor. A mouse will have 2 buttons

on its top. The left button is the most frequently used button. There will be a wheel between the

left and right buttons. This wheel enables us to smoothly scroll through screens of information.

As we move the mouse, the pointer on the monitor moves in the same direction. Optical mouse is

another advanced pointing device that uses a light emitting component instead of the mouse ball.

Mouse cannot be used for entering the data. It is only useful to select the options on the screen.

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3. Scanner:

It is an input device that can read text or illustrations printed on paper and translate into digital

form. The main advantage of these scanners is that the data need not be entered separately

resulting in saving lot of time.

Scanners are of two types:

i) Optical scanners

ii) Magnetic Ink Character Recognition scanners

i) Optical scanners: Optical scanners are divided into three and they include optical character

recognition scanner, optical mark recognition scanners and optical barcode recognition scanners.

a. Optical Character Recognition scanner (OCR): In this, characters are read with the help of

a light. This is used in office atomization, documentation in library etc.

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b. Optical Mark Recognition scanner (OMR): It is a technology where an OMR device senses

the presence or absence of a mark such as a pencil mark. OMR is used in tests such as aptitude

tests, JAMB, Objectives section of WAEC and NECO.

c. Optical Barcode Recognition scanner (OBCR): Barcode readers are photoelectric scanners

that read the bar codes or vertical zebra striped marks printed on product containers. This is used

in supermarkets, book shops etc.

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ii. Magnetic Ink Character Recognition scanner (MICR): This is widely used in banks to

process the cheques. This allows the computer to recognize characters printed using magnetic

ink.

Output devices

Any device that is capable of representing information on a Computer is called an Output

device. Output devices receive information from the CPU and present it to the user in the desired

form. Some important Output devices are : Monitor, Printer, speaker etc.

1. Terminal/Monitor: It is similar to TV screen- either a monochrome (black & white) or colour

– and it displays the output. It is also referred as Visual Display Unit (VDU). Several types of

monitors are in use. Some of them are Colour Graphic Adapter (CGA), Enhanced Graphics

Adaptor (EGA), Video Graphics Adapter (VGA) and Super Video Graphics Adapter (SVGA).

The screen sizes differ from system to system. The standard size is 24 lines by 80 characters.

Most systems have provision for scrolling which helps in moving the text vertically or

horizontally on the screen.

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2. Printer: A printer is used to transfer data from a computer onto paper. The paper copy

obtained from a printer is often referred as “printout”.

Types of Memory:

A Computer memory is of two types

1. Primary Memory (Internal storage)

2. Secondary Memory (External storage)

Primary Memory:

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 Primary memory is also called internal memory and is an important part of a Computer. It

is the main area in a Computer where the data is stored. The stored data can be recalled instantly

and correctly whenever desired. This memory can be quickly accessed by the CPU for reading or

storing information. Primary memory is further classified into two types: Random Access

Memory (RAM) and Read- Only Memory (ROM).

RAM

RAM is also known as read/write memory as information can be read from and written

onto it. RAM is a place in a Computer that holds instructions for the Computer, its programs and

the data. The CPU can directly access the data from RAM almost immediately. However, the

storage of data and instructions in RAM is temporary, till the time the Computer is running. It

disappears from RAM as soon as the power to the Computer is switched off. i.e it is volatile

memory.

ROM:

It is called Read-only memory as information can only be read from and not written or

changed onto ROM. ROM is the ‘built-in’ memory of a Computer. It stores some basic input –

output instructions put by the manufacturer to operate the Computer. The storage of data and

instructions in ROM is permanent. It does not depend on the power supply. i.e it is non-volatile

memory.

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Secondary memory:

The primary memory which is faster (and hence expensive) is generally not sufficient for

large storage of data. As a result, additional memory, called the “auxiliary” or “secondary

memory” is used. It is also referred as “backup storage” as it is used to store large volume of data

on a permanent basis which can be transferred to the primary memory whenever required for

processing. Data are stored in secondary storage in the same binary codes as in the main

(primary memory) storage. Some of the devices of secondary storages are Floppy Disk, Hard

Disk, CD-ROM, DVD and Flash drive.

1. Floppy Disk: It is also referred as “Diskette” and is made of flexible Vinyl material (plastic

material). It has a small hole on one side called “Right protect notch”, which protects accidental

writing/deleting the information from the disk. There is a hole in the centre through which the

spindle of drive unit rotates the disk. The disks are available in two sizes of 5.25 and 3.5 inches

and these could be either low density or high-density floppies. Storage capacity of floppies are

measured in kilobytes (KB) and megabytes (MB). The details about the storage capacities of the

floppies are presented below:

2. Hard Disk: The hard disk can hold more information than the floppy disk and the retrieval of

information from hard disk is faster when compared to floppies or tapes. A hard disk is fixed

inside the CPU and its capacity ranges from 20 MB onwards. The hard disk is made up of a

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collection of discs (one below the other) known as platters on which the data is recorded. These

platters are coated with magnetic material. It is less sensitive to external environmental disorders

and hence the storage in hard disk is safe. A small hard disk might be as much as 25 times larger

than a floppy disk. Storage Capacity of hard disks varies from 20 MB to several Gega bytes like

80GB, 160GB.

3. CD-ROM: CD-ROM stands for Compact Disk–Read Only Memory. It is used to store a wide

variety of information. Its main advantage is that it is portable and can hold a large amount of

data. The storage capacity of most CD-ROMs is approximately 650 MB or 700 MB. CD-ROMs

have the following variations:

(i) CD-R (Compact disc Recordable): Data can be written onto it just once. The stored data can

be read. Data once written onto it cannot be erased.

(ii) CD-RW (Compact disc Rewritable): It is also called erasable CD. Data once written onto it

can be erased to write or record new information many times. To use a CD-ROM, a device called

CD drive is needed.

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4. DVD: DVD stands for Digital Versatile Disc. It is similar to a CD-ROM, except that it can

store larger amounts of data. The storage capacity of a DVD is at least 4.7MB. DVDs that can

store up to 17GBs are also available. Because of their capacity, DVDs are generally used to store

a very large multimedia presentations and movies that combine high quality sound and graphics.

5. Flash Drive: It is a small, portable device that can be used to store, access and transfer data.

Due to its small size, it is commonly called Pen drive. It is also called USB drive. We can read,

write, copy, delete, and move data from computer to pen drive or pen drive to computer. It

comes in various storage capacities of 2GB, 4GB, 8GB etc. It is popular because it is easy to use

and small enough to be carried in a pocket. This device is plugged into the USB port of the

computer and the computer automatically detects this device.

HARDWARE and SOFTWARE

Hardware:

The physical components of the Computer are known as “Hardware”. It refers to the

objects that we can actually touch. Example: input and output devices, processors, circuits and

the cables.

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Software:

Software is a program or set of instructions that causes the Hardware to function in a

desired way. The basic difference between the Hardware and Software is just the same as that

exists between TV and TV studio. Without TV studio (software) from where the programs are

telecast, the TV (Hardware) is a dead machine.

There are five categories of software. They are:

1. Operating System

2. Translators

3. Utility programs

4. Application programs

5. General purpose programs

1. Operating System (OS):

The software that manages the resources of a computer system and schedules its

operation is called Operating system. The operating system acts as interface between the

hardware and the user programs and facilitates the execution of programs. Generally the OS acts

as an interface between the user and the Hardware of the computer. i.e It is a bridge between the

user and the Hardware.

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The User interface provided by the OS can be character based or graphical.

CUI -- Character user Interface

GUI -- Graphical user Interface

CUI: It is operated with keyboard only. Ex: MS-DOS, UNIX

GUI: The system can be operated with mouse and keyboard. Ex: Windows 95, Windows XP etc

- Disk Operating System (DOS): It was developed as early as 1980 by Bill Gates at the age of

19. It is suited for personal computers. DOS is a single user and single task operating system

- WINDOWS: It works with DOS and it supports single user and multitask system. It requires a

powerful PC with a minimum RAM of 8 MB.

- UNIX AND XENIX: It is suited for multi-user and multi-task system

2. Translators:

Computers can understand instructions only when they are written in their own language

“the machine language”. Therefore, a program written in any other language should be translated

into machine language. The software that “translates” the instructions of different languages is

known as translators. There are two types of translators. They are compilers and Interpreters

- A Compiler checks the entire user – written program (known as the source program) and if it is

error free, produces a complete program in machine language (known as object program). The

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source program is retained for possible modifications and corrections and the object program is

loaded into the computer for execution. If the source program contains errors, the compilers

produce a list of errors at the end of the execution of the program. i.e a compiler translates the

whole program before execution.

- An interpreter does a similar job but in a different style. The interpreter translates one statement

at a time and if it is error – free, executes. This continues till the last statement. Thus an

interpreter translates or executes the first instruction before it goes to the second, while a

compiler translates the whole program before execution. The major difference between compiler

and interpreter is:

1. Error correction is very much simpler in the case of interpreter as it translates the statements in

stages. The compiler produces an error list of the entire program at the end.

2. Interpreter takes more time for the execution of the program compared to compilers as it

translates one statement at a time

Programming Languages:

There are three types of programming languages.

1. Machine Languages: Computers respond only to machine language. This language is in terms

of binary codes (0,1). i.e. all programs should be written with these codes, which is difficult, time

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consuming and leading to errors while writing the programs. There is no unique standard

machine language. Rather there are many machine languages. These are machine dependent.

These are referred as the first generation languages.

2. Assembly Languages: It uses mnemonic codes rather than numeric codes (as in machine

languages). Ex. Add or A is used as a symbol for addition. It requires translators to convert into

machine language. Like machine language, writing program in assembly language is also time

consuming. These are also machine dependent.

3. High Level Languages (HLL): These are referred as problem oriented languages (POL). These

are referred as third generation languages. The advantages of these languages are

- The high level languages are convenient for writing programs as they can be written without

any codes. These languages follow rules like ―English‖ language.

- Because of their English like nature, less time is required to write a program.

- They are machine independent. A program written in any HLL can be run on computers of

different types without any modifications.

Several High Level Languages which are in common use:

FORTRAN: FORmula TRANslation

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COBOL: Common Business Oriented Language

BASIC: Beginner’s All purpose Symbolic Instruction Code

PROLOG: PROgramming in LOGic

ALGOL: ALGOrithmic Language

3. Utility Programs: These are pre-written programs supplied by the manufacturer for

maintaining day to day activities of computer system. Example: COPY, SORT, MAILING, virus

scanning software etc.,

4. Application Programs: These are user written programs to do a specific job which can be

changed to meet the individual needs. These programs are written in different languages such as

BASIC or C or by using database packages like dBASE, Oracle. Example: Payroll, Billing,

Railway Reservation etc.

5. General Purpose Packages: These packages are developed to suit the needs of research

workers / scientists in different fields. These packages are categorized as :

i) Data Analysis

ii) Word Processing

iii) Spread Sheet

iv) Graphics and

v) Databases

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Data Analysis

Example: SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Science), MSTAT, MICROSTAT, GENSTAT,

SAS, STATA etc.

Word Processing

Example: WORD PERFECT, WORDSTAR, MS-Word, CHIRATOR, NORTON EDITOR etc.

Spread Sheet

Example: LOTUS, Qpro, VP-PLANNER, SYMPHONY, MS-Excel etc.

Graphics

Example: LOTUS, STORY-BOARD, POWER-POINT etc.

Databases

Example: dBASE, FOX-BASE, FOX-PRO, ORACLE, MS-Access etc.

Functions of Operating System:

Today most operating systems perform the following important functions:

1. Processor management: It manages the assignment of processor to different tasks being

performed by the computer system.

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2. Memory management: It manages the allocation of main memory and other storage areas to

the system programmes as well as user programmes and data.

3. Input / Output management: It manages the co-ordination and assignment of different Input

and Output devices while one or more programmes are executed.

4. File management: It allows all files to be easily changed and modified through the use of text

editors or some other file manipulation routines.

5. Establishment and enforcement of a priority system: It determines and maintains the order in

which jobs are to be executed in the computer system.

6. Interpretation of commands and instructions.

7. Facilitates easy communication between the computer system and the computer operator.

Generation of Computer

S/N Generation Component Used

1 First Generation Vacuum tubes

(1946-1954 )

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 2 Second Generation Transistors

(1955-1965)
3 Third Generation Integrated Circuits (IC)

(1968-1975 )
4 Fourth Generation Very Large Scale Integrated Circuits

( 1976-1980) (VLSI)
5 Fifth Generation Ultra Scale Integrated Circuits (ULSI)

(1980 – to date ) Micro Processor (SILICON CHIP)

Classification of Computers

Computers are classified according to the storage capacity, speed and the purpose for

which they are developed. These can be classified into three types:

1. Analog Computes

2. Digital Computers

3. Hybrid Computers

1. Analog computers:

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 They operate by “measuring” instead of “counting”. They are special machine that

measure physical quantities used for controlling machine and processes that react directly to

change in physical situations.

Example:

- Thermometer

- Car speedometer

- Voltmeter

- Petrol Dispenser

2. Digital Computers:

These Computers operate by “counting”. All quantities are expressed as discrete digits or

numbers. These are useful for evaluating arithmetic expressions and manipulations of data. They

are faster and more flexible than analog Computers but may not be accurate.

3. Hybrid Computers:

Computers which combine the features of analog and digital Computers are known as

Hybrid Computers. They are special purpose computers and hence uncommon. Example is

programming a modern day television set which involves both analog and digital procedures.
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Channel selection is digital while processing the channel for clear reception is analog and

formally saving the channel for future use is also digital.

A majority of the Computers that are in use are digital. These Computers were essentially

developed for computations. Later, the developments in the Computers led to the use of digital

computers in variety of applications. Depending on the use of applications, the digital computers

are classified into:

1) Special Purpose Computers and

2) General Purpose Computers

1. Special Purpose Computers:

These are Computers developed for a specific purpose. Some of the areas where these

Computers are being used are – soil testing, drip irrigation, medical scanning, traffic signals,

spacecraft, rocket technology etc.

2. General Purpose Computers:

These are developed to meet the requirements of several areas such as simulation, solving

mathematical equations, payroll and personnel database. These computers are available in

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different sizes and capabilities and are further classified (based on memory, speed, storage) as

follows:

a) Super Computers

b) Mainframe Computers

c) Mini Computers

d) Micro Computers

a) Super Computers:

These have extremely large storage capacities and computing speeds which are atleast 10

times faster than other computers. These are used for large scale numerical problems in scientific

and engineering disciplines such as electronics, weather forecasting etc.,. The first super

computer was developed in U.S.A. by CRAY computers. In India the indigenous super computer

was developed under the name Param.

b) Mainframe Computers:

They also have large storage and high computing speed (but relatively lower than the

super computers). They are used in applications like weather forecasting, space applications etc.,

they support a large number of terminals for use by a variety of users simultaneously, but are

expensive

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c) Mini Computers:

It is a medium sized computer with moderate cost, available indigenously and used for

large volume applications. It can serve multi-users simultaneously

d) Micro Computers:

A micro computer is the smallest general purpose processing system. Micro Computers

are also referred as “Personal Computers” (PC). These are self contained units and usually

developed for use by one person at a time but can be linked to very large systems. They are

cheap, easy to use even at homes and can be read for variety of applications from small to

medium range. These are available in three models:

1. PC: Personal Computer

2. PC-XT: PC with Extended Technology

3. PC-AT: PC with Advanced Technology

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