Computer Fundamentals & Operating System

What is a Computer
The term computer is derived from the Latin term ‘computare’, this means
to calculate.

A computer is an electronic device that manipulates information, or data. It

has the ability to store, retrieve, and process data. You may already know
that you can use a computer to type documents, send email, play games,
and browse the Web. You can also use it to edit or
create spreadsheets, presentations, and even videos.
Or
Computer is an electronic device that can receive data through the input
unit, store the data in memory unit, processes the data in Arithmetic and
 Logic Unit (ALU) with the help of computer software and finally give the
results through output unit.

Characteristics of a Computer
Spreading popularity of computers has proved that it is a very powerful and
useful device in our lives. The power and usefulness of this popular
electronic device are mainly because of its following characteristics:

1. Automatic: A computer is an automatic machine that works by itself without

human intervention. Once it started tasks, it carry out the task without human
help until it is finished.
2. Speed: A computer is a very fast electronic machine. It is able to perform the
difficult tasks in a few seconds. Today’s modern computer can do hard tasks in
microseconds, nanoseconds, and even picoseconds. A powerful computer is able
to perform several billion simple arithmetic calculations per second.
3. Accuracy: Computers generates the results with very high accuracy besides
being very fast. It performs calculation with accuracy. However, errors can occur
on a computer. These errors mainly occur because of human rather than
technological weaknesses. For example, errors may occur if the user enters
incorrect input data.
4. Diligence: Unlike human beings, a computer never tiredness and does not lose
its concentration. It can continuously work with a great accuracy for hours,
creating no error and without rumbling.
For example, if hundred million calculations have to be performed, a computer
machine will perform the last one with exactly the same accuracy and speed as it
did the first one.
5. Versatility: Versatility is one of the most marvellous characteristic about a
computer. It is capable of performing multitasks at a time simultaneously. For
example, we can use it to play music, as well as write a letter in the MS Office
simultaneously.
6. Power of Remembering: Computers have the power of storing any amount of
data or information. We can store any information for several years, and recalled
when we need it.
7. No Feeling: A computer is an electronic device that does not have any feelings,
emotions, taste, knowledge and experience. It does not get exhausted even after
long hours of work.
8. Storage Capability: A computer has huge storage capability to store the
information for a long time. It has two types of storages: primary storage and
secondary storage.
Primary storage is the main memory of a computer that stores the data
temporarily. While secondary storage is a permanent storage for storing data.

Basic Applications of Computer

Computers are used everywhere. The following topics show some of the areas of
computer applications.
1. ACCOUNTING: computers are used to maintain accounts efficiently. Computers
do inventory management, financial management, and cash management
easily.
2. BANKING: Nowadays all banks are computerized. Customer transactions are
maintained by computers. Computer controlled Automatic Teller Machine
(ATM) are used for cash withdrawals and deposits. In this way computer helps
to improve the services of banks.
3. MEDICAL: In hospitals, computers are used to maintain patient details, their
diseases, and treatments given by the doctors. Also, in hospitals, most of the
equipment’s are computer controlled.
4. EDUCATION: Computers can be used in education to teach students. It is used
to create ‘Virtual class rooms’ and “Virtual University”. Students can get most
of the details using various websites available in the internet.
5. DESIGNING: In textile business, it is used to draw new designs. By using
AutoCAD, software, engineers draw the blue prints of their proposed buildings.
6. TRASNPORT: In railways, it is used for reservation and cancellation of tickets in
an easy manner. By this method people can book their tickets from anywhere
in the country.
7. COMMUNICATION: E-mail, voice mail, and video conferencing are possible by
using computers. Computer control telephone communications also.
8. ENTERTAINMENT: Computers are used to play movies and to play games.
9. PUBLISHING: Publishers use computers to prepare and format the contents of
books.
10. SPACE TECHNOLOGY: Computers control space research stations. Computing
efficiency of computer is used in space technology.
11. INSURANCE: Insurance companies use computer to maintain their
policyholder details .

Advantages and Disadvantages of a Computer

Advantages Following list demonstrates the advantages of computers in today's
arena.
1) High Speed
• Computer is a very fast device.
• It is capable of performing calculation of very large amount of data.
• The computer has units of speed in microsecond, nanosecond, and even the
picosecond.
• It can perform millions of calculations in a few seconds as compared to man
who will spend many months for doing the same task.
2)Accuracy
• In addition to being very fast, computers are very accurate.
• The calculations are 100% error free.
• Computers perform all jobs with 100% accuracy provided that correct input has
been given.
3)Storage Capability
• Memory is a very important characteristic of computers. • A computer has
much more storage capacity than human beings.
• It can store large amount of data.
• It can store any type of data such as images, videos, text, audio and many
others.
4)Diligence
• Unlike human beings, a computer is free from monotony, tiredness and lack of
concentration.
• It can work continuously without any error and boredom.
• It can do repeated work with same speed and accuracy.
5)Versatility
• A computer is a very versatile machine.
• A computer is very flexible in performing the jobs to be done.
• This machine can be used to solve the problems related to various fields.
• At one instance, it may be solving a complex scientific problem and the very
next moment it may be playing a card game.
6)Reliability
• A computer is a reliable machine.
• Modern electronic components have long lives.
• Computers are designed to make maintenance easy.
7)Automation
• Computer is an automatic machine.
• Automation means ability to perform the given task automatically.
• Once a program is given to computer i.e., stored in computer memory, the
program and instruction can control the program execution without human
interaction.
8)Reduction in Paper Work
• The use of computers for data processing in an organization leads to reduction
in paper work and results in speeding up a process.
• As data in electronic files can be retrieved as and when required, the problem of
maintenance of large number of paper files gets reduced.
9)Reduction in Cost
• Though the initial investment for installing a computer is high but it
substantially reduces the cost of each of its transaction.
Disadvantages
Following list demonstrates the disadvantages of computers in today's arena
1)No I.Q
A computer is a machine that has no intelligence to perform any task.
• Each instruction has to be given to computer.
• A computer cannot take any decision on its own.
2)Dependency
• It functions as per a user’s instruction, so it is fully dependent on human being
3)Environment
• The operating environment of computer should be dust free and suitable.
4)No Feeling
• Computers have no feelings or emotions.
• It cannot make judgement based on feeling, taste, experience, and knowledge
unlike a human being.

History of Computer
Abacus (c. 2500 BCE)

 One of the earliest tools used for arithmetic.

 Invented by the Sumerians and later used by Chinese, Greeks, and Romans.
 Still in use in parts of the world for basic calculations.

🔹2. Mechanical Era (1600s–1800s)

John Napier’s Logarithms (1614)

 Introduced logarithms, simplifying multiplication and division.

Napier’s Bones (1617)

 A manually-operated calculating device that used rods for multiplication.

Wilhelm Schickard (1623)

 Built the “Calculating Clock,” a machine that could add and subtract.

Blaise Pascal – Pascaline (1642)

 A mechanical calculator using gears and wheels.

 Performed addition and subtraction.

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1673)

 Developed the Stepped Reckoner that could multiply and divide.

 Introduced the binary number system—essential to modern computing.

Joseph-Marie Jacquard (1801)

 Invented the Jacquard loom, controlled by punched cards.

 First example of programming through hardware.

🔹2. Mechanical Era (1600s–1800s)

John Napier’s Logarithms (1614)

 Introduced logarithms, simplifying multiplication and division.

Napier’s Bones (1617)

 A manually-operated calculating device that used rods for multiplication.

Wilhelm Schickard (1623)

 Built the “Calculating Clock,” a machine that could add and subtract.

Blaise Pascal – Pascaline (1642)

 A mechanical calculator using gears and wheels.

 Performed addition and subtraction.

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1673)

 Developed the Stepped Reckoner that could multiply and divide.

 Introduced the binary number system—essential to modern computing.

Joseph-Marie Jacquard (1801)

 Invented the Jacquard loom, controlled by punched cards.

 First example of programming through hardware.

🔹4. Electromechanical Era (1930s–1940s)

Harvard Mark I (1944)

 An electromechanical computer built by Howard Aiken and IBM.

 Used relays and punched tape.
 Could perform long sequences of calculations automatically.

Konrad Zuse – Z3 (1941)

 First working programmable, fully automatic digital computer.

 Used electromechanical relays.

Alan Turing (1936–1950s)

 Proposed the concept of a Universal Turing Machine.

  Worked at Bletchley Park during WWII, contributing to breaking German
codes using Colossus—the first programmable electronic digital computer.

Generations of Computers

First Generation (1940s–1950s) – Vacuum Tubes

 ENIAC (1945):
o First general-purpose electronic computer.
o Used 18,000 vacuum tubes; filled a large room.
o Designed for military calculations.
 EDVAC (1949): First stored-program computer based on the von Neumann
architecture.
 UNIVAC I (1951):
o First commercial computer in the U.S.
o Used for business and government data processing.

Second Generation (1956–1963) – Transistors

 Replaced vacuum tubes with transistors, making machines smaller, faster,

and more reliable.
 Programming languages like COBOL and FORTRAN were developed.
 Computers like IBM 1401 became common in offices.

Third Generation (1964–1971) – Integrated Circuits

 Integrated circuits (ICs) replaced transistors.

 Operating systems emerged to manage hardware/software.
 Key computers: IBM System/360, PDP-8.

Fourth Generation (1971–Present) – Microprocessors

 Intel 4004 (1971): First commercially available microprocessor.

 Apple I & II (1976–1977): Made computers accessible to the public.
 IBM PC (1981): Sparked the era of personal computers.
 Rise of GUIs (Graphical User Interfaces): Xerox PARC, Apple Macintosh
(1984), Microsoft Windows (1985+).
Fifth Generation (1980s–Present) – Artificial Intelligence and Beyond

 Focus on AI, machine learning, natural language processing, and expert

systems.
 Development of quantum computing, cloud computing, and ubiquitous
mobile devices.
 Computers became exponentially more powerful and compact
(smartphones, tablets, IoT).

Year Breakthrough Description

First electronic general-purpose
1945 ENIAC
computer
1951 UNIVAC I First commercial computer
1971 Intel 4004 First microprocessor
1981 IBM PC Standardized personal computing
1989 World Wide Web Invented by Tim Berners-Lee
2007 Apple iPhone Revolutionized mobile computing
AI, Quantum Computers, Edge
2020+ Emerging technologies of the present
Computing

Generation of Computer
 Basic Terms

Vacuum tube – an electronic device that controls the flow of electrons in a

vacuum. It used as a switch, amplifier, or display screen in many older model
radios, televisions, computers, etc.
Transistor – an electronic component that can be used as an amplifier or as a
switch. It is used to control the flow of electricity in radios, televisions, computers,
etc.

Integrated circuit (IC) – a small electronic circuit printed on a chip (usually made
of silicon) that contains many its own circuit elements (e.g. transistors, diodes,
resistors, etc.).

Microprocessor – an electronic component held on an integrated circuit that

contains a computer’s central processing unit (CPU) and other associated circuits.

CPU (central processing unit) – It is often referred to as the brain or engine of a

computer where most of the processing and operations take place (CPU is part of
a microprocessor).
Magnetic drum – a cylinder coated with magnetic material, on which data and
programs can be stored.

Magnetic core – uses arrays of small rings of magnetized material called cores to
store information.

Machine language – a low-level programming language comprised of a collection

of binary digits (ones and zeros) that the computer can read and understand.

Assembly language is like the machine language that a computer can understand,
except that assembly language uses abbreviated words (e.g. ADD, SUB, DIV…) in
place of numbers (0s and 1s).

Memory – a physical device that is used to store data, information and program
in a computer.
 Artificial intelligence (AI) – an area of computer science that deals with the
simulation and creation of intelligent machines or intelligent behave in computers
(they think, learn, work, and react like humans).

The evolution of computer technology is often divided into five generations.

Five Generations of Computers

Generations of computers Generations timeline Evolving hardware

First generation 1940s-1956s Vacuum tube based

Second generation 1957s-1963s Transistor based

Third generation 1964s-1970s Integrated circuit based

Fourth generation 1971s-present Microprocessor based

Fifth generation The present and the future Artificial intelligence based

The main characteristics of first generation of computers (1940s-1956s)

 Main electronic component – vacuum tube

 Main memory – magnetic drums and magnetic tapes
 Programming language – machine language
 Power – consume a lot of electricity and generate a lot of heat.

 Speed and size – very slow and very large in size (often taking up entire room).
 Input/output devices – punched cards and paper tape.
 Examples – ENIAC, UNIVAC1, IBM 650, IBM 701, etc.
 Quantity – there were about 100 different vacuum tube computers produced
between 1942 and1963.

Second Generation of Computers

The main characteristics of second generation of computers (1957s-1963s)

Main electronic component – transistor

 Memory – magnetic core and magnetic tape / disk

 Programming language – assembly language

 Power and size – low power consumption, generated less heat, and smaller in size
(in comparison with the first generation computers).
 Speed – improvement of speed and reliability (in comparison with the first
generation computers).
 Input/output devices – punched cards and magnetic tape.
 Examples – IBM 1401, IBM 7090 and 7094, UNIVAC 1107, etc.

Third Generation of Computers

The main characteristics of third generation of computers (1964s-1970s)

 Main electronic component – integrated circuits (ICs)

 Memory – large magnetic core, magnetic tape / disk
 Programming language – high level language (FORTRAN, BASIC, Pascal, COBOL, C,

etc.)
 Size – smaller, cheaper, and more efficient than second generation computers
(they were called minicomputers).
 Speed – improvement of speed and reliability (in comparison with the second
generation computers).
 Input / output devices – magnetic tape, keyboard, monitor, printer, etc.

 Examples – IBM 360, IBM 370, PDP-11, UNIVAC 1108, etc.

Fourth Generation of Computers

 The main characteristics of fourth generation of computers (1971s-present)


 Main electronic component – very large-scale integration (VLSI) and
microprocessor.
 VLSI– thousands of transistors on a single microchip.
 Memory – semiconductor memory (such as RAM, ROM, etc.)
o RAM (random-access memory) – a type of data storage (memory element) used
in computers that temporary stores of programs and data (volatile: its contents
are lost when the computer is turned off).

o
o ROM (read-only memory) – a type of data storage used in computers that
permanently stores data and programs (non-volatile: its contents are retained
even when the computer is turned off).
 Programming language – high level language (Python, C#, Java, JavaScript, Rust,
Kotlin, etc.).
o A mix of both third- and fourth-generation languages
 Size – smaller, cheaper and more efficient than third generation computers.
 Speed – improvement of speed, accuracy, and reliability (in comparison with the
third generation computers).
 Input / output devices – keyboard, pointing devices, optical scanning, monitor,
printer, etc.

 Network – a group of two or more computer systems linked together.

 Examples – IBM PC, STAR 1000, APPLE II, Apple Macintosh, etc.
 Fifth Generation of Computers

The main characteristics of fifth generation of computers (the present and the
future)

 Main electronic component: based on artificial

intelligence, uses the Ultra Large-Scale Integration (ULSI) technology and parallel
processing method.
o ULSI – millions of transistors on a single microchip
o Parallel processing method – use two or more microprocessors to run tasks
simultaneously.
 Language – understand natural language (human language).
 Power – consume less power and generate less heat.
 Speed – remarkable improvement of speed, accuracy and reliability (in
comparison with the fourth generation computers).
 Size – portable and small in size, and have a huge storage capacity.

 Input / output device – keyboard, monitor, mouse, trackpad (or touchpad),

touchscreen, pen, speech input (recognise voice / speech), light scanner, printer,
etc.
 Example – desktops, laptops, tablets, smartphones, etc.

Classification of Computers

A computer can be classified based on its size, capacity, and purpose. The
following diagram illustrates different types of computers as per their size,
capacity, and purpose.
 Computer's classification based on Size

As per the size, a computer can be broadly classified as follows −

 Micro Computer
 Mini Computer
 Mainframe Computer
 Super Computer
Micro Computer

Microcomputers, also known as personal computers (PCs), are a type of computer

designed for individual use. They are distinguished by their compact dimensions,
small size, processing power, compatibility, internet connectivity, portability, low
price, and versatility. In the 1970s and 1980s, microcomputers gained popularity
and became more popular in the modern computing era.
 Fig: Micro Computer

 Size − Microcomputers are small in size. These are portable.

 Example − Some of the popular microcomputers are laptops and desktops,
standard PCs, mobile phones, and notebooks.
 Why microcomputer ?
Microcomputers have become an important part of modern life. They have had a
big impact on society, companies, education, and related areas.
 Uses of Microcomputers − Microcomputers are most widely used in education
and learning, entertainment and media, innovation and creativity, research and
science, healthcare and medicine, home automation, remote work, and e-
commerce and online shopping.
Minicomputer

A minicomputer is a type of computer that is smaller in size than large computers.

It possesses all the capabilities of a large computer. Hence, it is a midsize multi-
processing system capable of supporting up to 250 users simultaneously.

Fig: Mini Computer

 Size − Its size falls between mainframes and microcomputers. It is larger than
mainframe computers and smaller than microcomputers.
 Example − Some of the popular minicomputers are the PDP-11, IBM's AS/400e,
Honeywell 200, and TI-990.
 Why a Mini Computer? Mini computers are also known as mini PCs or small-
form-factor (SFF) computers. These have impressive computing capabilities, high
performance, connectivity options, portability, and versatility features.
 Uses of Minicomputers − Minicomputers are most widely used in scientific
computations, engineering, business transaction processing, file handling, and
database management.
Mainframe computer

The mainframe is very large and is an expensive computer capable of supporting

hundreds or even thousands of users simultaneously. The mainframe executes
many programmes concurrently and supports simultaneous execution of
programmes.

Fig: Mainframe Computer

 Size − Mainframe computers can vary in size; their size generally depends on their
specifications and the specific model being considered.
 Example − Some of the popular mainframe computers are IBM zSeries
mainframes (BM z14 and IBM z15), Unisys ClearPath, Fujitsu GS21 Series, and
Hitachi VOS3.
 Why a mainframe computer?
The processing capacity of mainframes is frequently measured in MIPS (million
instructions per second) or other units. This enables them to process a large
volume of transactions and perform extensive data processing.
 Uses of the Mainframe − Mainframe computers are most widely used in finance,
government, healthcare, and more.
Supercomputer

A supercomputer is a special type of computer that is more powerful and capable

of high-performance computing. It is specifically designed to compute complex
and intensive tasks that regular computers cannot do efficiently.

 Size − Supercomputers can vary in size, from small clusters of computers to

massive installations. A supercomputer may contain 10, 100, 1000, or more
computers that all work together.

Fig: Super Computer

 Example − Some of the popular supercomputers are Fugaku, Google Sycamore,

Baidu's quantum supercomputer, and Sierra.
 Why Supercomputer?
o A supercomputer's processing speed is exceptional and can perform billions
of calculations per second. Multiple processors work in parallel mode to
execute tasks, which makes processing powerful.
o Supercomputers are specially built using specialised hardware like GPUs
(Graphics Processing Units) or TPUs (Tensor Processing Units), which are
used in graphics rendering or machine learning tasks.
o Supercomputers represent the pinnacle of computing power, and these are
very expensive and are employed for specialised applications.
 Uses of the Supercomputer − Supercomputers are most widely used in scientific
research, data analysis, weather forecasting, scientific simulations, graphics, fluid
 dynamic calculations, nuclear energy research, electronic design, and the analysis
of geological data.

Computer's classification based on Capacity

As per the capacity, a computer can be broadly classified as follows −

 Analog Computer
 Digital computer
 Hybrid computer
Analog Computer
Analog Computers are particularly designed to process analog data. Continuous
data that changes continuously and cannot have discrete values are called
analog data. So, an analog computer is used where we don’t need exact values
or need approximate values such as speed, temperature, pressure, etc. It can
directly accept the data from the measuring device without first converting it
into numbers and codes. It measures the continuous changes in physical
quantity. It gives output as a reading on a dial or scale. For example
speedometer, mercury thermometer, etc

Fig: Analog computer

Digital Computer

A digital computer are designed in such a way that they can easily perform
calculations and logical operations at high speed. It takes raw data as input
and processes it with programs stored in its memory to produce the final
output. It only understands the binary input 0 and 1, so the raw input data is
converted to 0 and 1 by the computer and then it is processed by the
computer to produce the result or final output. All modern computers, like
laptops, desktops including smartphones are digital computers

Fig: Digital computer

Hybrid Computer

A hybrid computer is a type of computer system that integrates the features and
capabilities of both analogue and digital computers. This integration allows the
hybrid computer to perform various tasks efficiently by using the strengths of
both digital and analogue technologies.

A processor which is used in petrol pumps that converts the measurements of

fuel flow into quantity and price is an example of a hybrid computer.

Fig: Hybrid computer

The main components of a hybrid computer are the analogue and digital
components −
 Analog Component − Analogue components in a hybrid computer can process
real-world data like voltage, current, temperature, pressure, etc. using analogue
circuits and components.
 Digital Component − Digital computers work with discrete data and are based on
binary numbers (0s and 1s). Digital components in a hybrid computer provide the
computational power to perform complex calculations and control the overall
operation of the system.
Computer's classification based on Purpose

As per the capacity, a computer can be broadly classified as follows −

 Special Purpose
 General Purpose
Special Purpose Computer

A computer that is designed and optimised for a specific task or set of tasks is
called a special purpose computer (SPC). SPCs are designed to excel at a single or
limited set of functions, frequently with a high degree of efficiency, speed, and
accuracy.

Fig: Special Purpose Computer

Some of the following popular SPCs are:

 Embedded Systems − These systems are integrated with devices to control

specific functions. For example, a car's engine control unit and microwave ovens
 Digital Signal Processors − These are commonly used in applications like audio
processing, image compression, and telecommunications.
 Automated Teller Machines − ATMs are special-purpose computers designed
specifically for banking transactions and interactions with customers.
 Medical Equipment − Machines like MRI and CT scanners are specialised
computers used for capturing and processing medical images.
 Spacecraft Computers − Computers used in spacecraft have to operate in
extreme conditions and are optimised for the demands of space missions.
General Purpose Computer

A computer that is designed to perform a wide range of tasks and functions is

called A General Purpose Computer (GPC). A GPC is versatile and can be used for
various purposes by running different software and applications.

Fig: General Purpose Computer

 General-Purpose Operating System − GPCs like Windows, macOS, or Linux that

provide an interactive user interface and manage hardware resources, enabling
the execution of various application programmes.
 Input and Output Capabilities − GPCs have input and output devices (keyboard,
mouse, monitor, etc.) that permit users to interact with the system and receive
feedback.
Components of computer
Computer systems consist of three components: Central Processing Unit, Input
devices and Output devices. Input devices provide data to the processor (processing
unit), which processes it and generates useful information that’s displayed to the
user through output devices. Output devices are used to show the processed data to
the user on computer screen or in print form. Below figure depicts the major
components of computer systems −
 Fig: Components of computer systems

The main components of the computer:

1. Input Unit:
The input unit consists of input devices that are attached to the computer.
These devices take input and convert it into binary language that the computer
understands. Some of the common input devices are keyboard, mouse, joystick,
scanner etc.
 The Input Unit is formed by attaching one or more input devices to a
computer.
 A user input data and instructions through input devices such as a keyboard,
mouse, etc.
 The input unit is used to provide data to the processor for further processing.
2. Central Processing Unit:
The CPU (Central Processing Unit) is the brain of the computer because it
controls everything the computer does. When you enter information using an
input device, the CPU processes it. First, it fetches instructions from memory,
then decodes them to understand what needs to be done. If needed, it retrieves
data from memory or an input device. After that, the CPU executes the task and
either stores the result or displays it on an output device. The CPU has three
main parts: the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), which handles calculations and
logic; the Control Unit (CU), which directs operations; and Memory Registers,
which store temporary data.

A CPU itself has three components which are as follows –

 Control Unit (CU)

 ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)
 Memory or Storage Unit

Fig: Central Processing Unit

A. Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU): The ALU, as its name suggests performs
mathematical calculations and takes logical decisions. Arithmetic calculations
include addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. Logical decisions
involve the comparison of two data items to see which one is larger or smaller
or equal.
 Arithmetic Logical Unit is the main component of the CPU
 It is the fundamental building block of the CPU.
 Arithmetic and Logical Unit is a digital circuit that is used to perform
arithmetic and logical operations.
B. Control Unit: The Control unit coordinates and controls the data flow in and
out of the CPU, and also controls all the operations of ALU, memory registers
and also input/output units. It is also responsible for carrying out all the
instructions stored in the program. It decodes the fetched instruction, interprets
it and sends control signals to input/output devices until the required operation
is done properly by ALU and memory.
 The Control Unit is a component of the central processing unit of a computer
that directs the operation of the processor.
 It instructs the computer’s memory, arithmetic and logic unit, and input and
output devices on how to respond to the processor’s instructions.
 In order to execute the instructions, the components of a computer receive
signals from the control unit.
 It is also called the central nervous system or brain of the computer.
C. Memory Registers: A register is a small, temporary memory inside the CPU.
The processor uses it to store data that it is currently working on. Registers
come in different sizes, such as 16-bit, 32-bit, and 64-bit, and each has a specific
role. Some store data, some store instructions, and others hold memory
addresses.
For example, the Accumulator (ACC) is an important register in the CPU. It holds
one of the values used in calculations inside the Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU).
Apart from registers, the internal memory (also called primary memory or main
memory) is where data and instructions are stored temporarily while a program
runs. This memory is called RAM (Random Access Memory). Every piece of data
in RAM is stored at a unique location with an address, so the processor can
access it quickly without searching the entire memory. Since RAM provides
direct access to any data location, it is called Random Access Memory.
 Memory Unit is the primary storage of the computer.
 It stores both data and instructions.
 Data and instructions are stored permanently in this unit so that they are
available whenever required.
3. Output Unit :
The output unit consists of output devices that are attached to the computer. It
converts the binary data coming from the CPU to human understandable form. The
common output devices are monitor, printer, plotter, etc.
 The output unit displays or prints the processed data in a user-friendly format.
 The output unit is formed by attaching the output devices of a computer.
 The output unit accepts the information from the CPU and displays it in a user-
readable form.
Computer Memory
Computer memory is just like the human brain. It is used to store data/information
and instructions. It is a data storage unit or a data storage device where data is to
be processed and instructions required for processing are stored. It can store both
the input and output can be stored here.
 It’s faster than secondary memory (e.g., hard drives).
 It is usually volatile, meaning it loses data when power is turned off.
 A computer needs to run; a computer can’t operate without primary memory.
Types of Computer Memory
In general, computer memory is divided into three types:
 Primary memory
 Secondary memory
 Cache memory

1. Primary Memory
Primary storage or memory is also known as the main memory, which is the part of
the computer that stores current data, programs, and instructions. Primary storage
is stored in the motherboard which results in the data from and to primary storage
can be read and written at a very good pace.
What is Primary Memory
Primary memory is a segment of computer memory that can be accessed directly
by the processor. In a hierarchy of memory, primary memory has access time less
than secondary memory and greater than cache memory. Generally, primary
memory has a storage capacity lesser than secondary memory and greater than
cache memory.
Need of primary memory
In order to enhance the efficiency of the system, memory is organized in such a
way that access time for the ready process is minimized. The following approach is
followed to minimize access time for the ready process.
 All programs, files, and data are stored in secondary storage that is larger and
hence has greater access time.
 Secondary memory can not be accessed directly by a CPU or processor.
 In order, to execute any process operating system loads the process in primary
memory which is smaller and can be accessed directly by the CPU.
 Since only those processes are loaded in primary memory which is ready to be
executed, the CPU can access those processes efficiently and this optimizes the
performance of the system.
Primary memory is of two types:
 RAM (Random Access Memory): It is a volatile memory. Volatile memory stores
information based on the power supply. If the power supply fails/
interrupted/stopped, all the data and information on this memory will be
lost. RAM is used for booting up or starting the computer. It temporarily
stores programs/data which has to be executed by the processor.

RAM is of two types:

o S RAM (Static RAM): S RAM uses transistors and the circuits of this
memory are capable of retaining their state as long as the power is
applied. This memory consists of the number of flip flops with each flip
flop storing 1 bit. It has less access time and hence, it is faster.
o D RAM (Dynamic RAM): D RAM uses capacitors and transistors and
stores the data as a charge on the capacitors. They contain thousands
of memory cells. It needs refreshing of charge on capacitor after a few
milliseconds. This memory is slower than S RAM.
 ROM (Read Only Memory): It is a non-volatile memory. Non-volatile memory
stores information even when there is a power supply failed/
interrupted/stopped. ROM is used to store information that is used to operate
the system. As its name refers to read-only memory, we can only read the
 programs and data that are stored on it. It contains some electronic fuses that
can be programmed for a piece of specific information. The information is
stored in the ROM in binary format. It is also known as permanent memory.
ROM is of four types:
o MROM(Masked ROM): Hard-wired devices with a pre-programmed
collection of data or instructions were the first ROMs. Masked ROMs
are a type of low-cost ROM that works in this way.
o PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory): This read-only memory is
modifiable once by the user. The user purchases a blank PROM and
uses a PROM program to put the required contents into the PROM. Its
content can’t be erased once written.
o EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory): EPROM is an
extension to PROM where you can erase the content of ROM by
exposing it to Ultraviolet rays for nearly 40 minutes.
o EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only
Memory): Here the written contents can be erased electrically. You
can delete and reprogram EEPROM up to 10,000 times. Erasing and
programming take very little time, i.e., nearly 4 -10 ms(milliseconds).
Any area in an EEPROM can be wiped and programmed selectively.
2. Secondary Memory
It is also known as auxiliary memory and backup memory. It is a non-volatile
memory and used to store a large amount of data or information. The data or
information stored in secondary memory is permanent, and it is slower than
primary memory. A CPU cannot access secondary memory directly. The
data/information from the auxiliary memory is first transferred to the main
memory, and then the CPU can access it.
Characteristics of Secondary Memory
 It is a slow memory but reusable.
 It is a reliable and non-volatile memory.
 It is cheaper than primary memory.
 The storage capacity of secondary memory is large.
 A computer system can run without secondary memory.
 In secondary memory, data is stored permanently even when the power is off.
Some Examples of secondary memory include hard disk drives (HDDS), solid-state
drives (SSDS), optical disks (CDS/DVDS), and external storage devices like USB
drives.
Hard Disk Drive (HDD)
 A Hard Disk Drive (HDD) is a traditional storage device that stores data on
spinning magnetic disks. It’s commonly used because it offers large storage
space at a low cost. However, it’s slower than newer storage technologies.
Solid-State Drive (SSD)
 A Solid-State Drive (SSD) is a faster and newer type of storage. It uses flash
memory instead of spinning disks, so it has no moving parts. This makes it more
reliable and much faster for reading and writing data compared to an HDD.
Optical Discs (CD, DVD, Blu-ray)
 CD (Compact Disc): Holds up to 700 MB of data, often used for music, software,
or small files.
 DVD (Digital Versatile Disc): Can store more data than a CD, typically 4.7 GB or
more, and is commonly used for videos or larger data files.
 Blu-ray Disc: Designed for high-definition video, Blu-ray discs can hold from 25
GB (single layer) to 50 GB (dual layer), making them great for movies and large
file

3. Cache Memory
It is a type of high-speed semiconductor memory that can help the CPU run faster.
Between the CPU and the main memory, it serves as a buffer. It is used to store the
data and programs that the CPU uses the most frequently.
Advantages of Cache Memory
 It is faster than the main memory.
 When compared to the main memory, it takes less time to access it.
 It keeps the programs that can be run in a short amount of time.
 It stores data for temporary use.
Disadvantages of Cache Memory
 Because of the semiconductors used, it is very expensive.
 The size of the cache (amount of data it can store) is usually small.

Difference Between DRAM and SRAM

DRAM SRAM

1. Tiny capacitors are used in its construction 1. Construction of its circuits is similar
that leak electricity. to D flip-flops.

2. It needs a recharge after a few 2. It holds its information as long as

milliseconds to maintain its data. power is available.

3. Less costly 3. More costly

4. Slower than SRAM. 4. Faster than DRAM.

5. Many bits per chip can be stored 5. Many bits per chip cannot be
stored

6. Power-efficient 6. Power Hungry

7. Generates less heat. 7. Generates more heat.

8. Used as the main memory. 8. Used as cache memory.

Difference Between PROM and EPROM and EEPROM

PROM EPROM EEPROM

A Read-Only Memory A programmable ROM A user-modifiable ROM that

(ROM) that can be modified that can be crushed and can be erased and
only reused
reprogrammed repeatedly
once by users through a normal electrical
voltage
Stands for Programmable Stands for Erasable Stands for Electrically
Read-Only Memory Programmable Read-Only
Erasable Programmable
 Memory Read-Only Memory

Developed by Wen Tsing Developed by Dov Developed by George

Chow in 1956 Frohman in 1971
Perlegos in 1978
Reprogrammable Can be reprogrammed Can be reprogrammed using
using ultraviolet light electrical charge
only once
Difference Between RAM and ROM
RAM ROM

1. It is referred to as volatile 1. It is referred to as non-volatile memory.

memory.

2. It is considered temporary 2. It is considered permanent storage.

storage.

3. Writing data in this type of 3. Writing data in this type of memory is slow.
memory is fast.

4. This memory is used in normal 4. This memory is used for the startup process
operations. of the computer.

5. In this, data is stored in MBs. 5. In this, data is stored in GBs.

The Computer Memory System consists of small bits (0 or 1).

Some units to measure memory are;
 Bits: 1 or 0

 Nibble: 1 Nibble = 4 bits

 Bytes; 1 Byte = 8 bits
 KiloByte: 1KB = 1024 bits
 MegaBytes: 1MB=1024 KB
 GigaByte: 1 GB=1024MB
 TeraByte: 1 TB=1024GB
  PetaByte: 1 PB=1024 TB

Difference between Primary and Secondary Memory:

Comparison
Primary Memory Secondary Memory
Parameters
Primary memory is the Secondary memory is the
Storage
main memory and stores external memory and stores
Validity
data temporarily. data permanently.
The CPU can directly The CPU cannot directly
Access access the data from the access the data from
Primary Memory Secondary Memory.
Primary memory is Secondary memory is non-
Volatility volatile. It loses data in volatile; data is stored even
case of a power outage. during a power failure.
Data is stored inside Data is stored on external
Storage costly semiconductor hardware devices like hard
chips. drives, floppy disks, etc.
Secondary memory does not
Primary memory can be have such classification.
Division divided into RAM and Secondary memories are
ROM. permanent storage devices
like CDs, DVDs, etc.
HDD (Hard Disk Drive), SSD
RAM (Random Access
(Solid State Drive), USB drives,
Examples Memory), ROM (Read-
CDs, DVDs, Blu-ray, and cloud
Only Memory).
storage.
Speed Faster Slower
Saves the data that the It can save various types of
Stored data computer is currently data in various formats and
using. huge sizes.
More expensive per GB More affordable per GB due
Cost due to high-speed and to the availability of diverse
advanced semiconductor storage technologies like
 technology. HDDs and SSDs.

Operates only when the

Functions independently of
Power computer is powered on.
power status. Data remains
Dependency Data is wiped off in case
saved in the storage device.
of power loss.
Essential for the
Primarily used for long-term
execution of programs
Usage data storage and archival
and real-time processing
purposes.
by the CPU.

Hardware and Software

Computer Hardware Components- All physical and visible components of the

computer and other internal components that are connected to them. Some
examples of hardware devices are monitors, keyboards, chips, video cards,
memory management/ memory device drivers, the mouse, the central
processing unit, network card, etc.

Computer Software- This refers to the collection of instructions/ procedures that

tell computers what to do, when, and how to do it. In other words, the software
is the execution form of code, which can be machine-language code or code
written on an operating system. Some examples of application software are MS
Office (like Excel, Word, etc), web browsers (like Chrome), photo editors, video
games, etc.

Types of Software:

(a) System software:

A set of programs to control the internal operations such as reading data from input devices,
giving results to output devices and ensuring proper functioning of components is called
system software. Examples-Windows, Linux etc.
(b) Applicationsoftware:
Programs designed by the user to perform a specific function, such as accounting software,
payroll software etc. Examples – Microsoft Word, Adobe, Whatsapp, Facebook etc.
Differences Between Hardware and Software
Now that we have some basic idea about what is hardware and software, let's
have a look at the table below where we highlight the key difference between
software and hardware..

Basis Hardware Software

It consists of physical It refers to any sequence of

Basic devices that make up instructions to hardware
Definition computers and other that directs them to
electronic devices. perform various tasks.

There are four primary

categories of
There are two primary types
hardware- output
of software- system
Types devices, input devices,
software and application
secondary and primary
software.
storage devices, and
internal components.

It is manufactured with It is developed, designed,

Development
electronics and other and engineered with help of
process
physical components. programming codes.

Hardware is made of Software is made of codes in

electronic components programming languages,
Components like ICs, crystals, alphabets, numbers/
registers, diodes, alphanumeric symbols,
insulators, boards, etc. identifiers, etc.
 It must be integrated
It starts functioning as soon
with other physical
Functioning as it is installed on the
components to
computer.
function.

When damaged,
When damaged, software
Damage hardware must be
needs to be reinstalled, not
recovery replaced with a new
replaced.
component.

It is tangible since it It is intangible since it does

Tangible can be seen and not have a physical
touched. presence.

They are vulnerable to

They are not
Vulnerability viruses, hence the need for
vulnerable to viruses.
antivirus programs.

Software is not prone to

Hardware is prone to wear and tear, however, it
Durability wear and tear with may contain flaws and also
use. become outdated over
time.

It accepts all common

programming languages,
It only understands
including both low and high-
Language low-level language or
level languages. That is, it
machine language.
takes human-readable input
in programming languages
and converts it to machine
 languages for hardware to
execute.

Needs to be physically It can be digital transfer

Transferability transferred from one from one place to another
place to another. via network connections.

Hardware can function The software cannot be

Dependency
without software. executed without hardware.

What is an Input Device?

Input Device Definition: An input device is a type of hardware that allows a user
to send data, instructions, commands, or information to a computer.

In short, input devices are used to input data or commands into the computer.
Here are some examples of input devices along with their function:
 Microphone: This input device allows you to record audio.
 Camera: This input device allows you to capture images and videos.
 Scanner: This input device allows you to digitize documents or images.
 Keyboard: This input device allows you to type letters, numbers, and symbols.
 Mouse: This input device allows you to move a cursor on the screen and make
selections.

Input Devices of Computer

A piece of hardware/equipment that enables the user to enter data into a
computer is called an input device. Some of the Commonly used input units used
in a computer system are as follows:

1. Keyboard
2. Mouse
3. JoyStick
4. Light pen
 5. Track Ball
6. Scanner
7. Graphic Tablet
8. Microphone
9. Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR)
10.Optical Character Reader (OCR)
11.Barcode Reader
12.Optical Mark Reader (OMR)

Keyboard

The keyboard is the most basic and very commonly used input device which helps
to input data to the computer. The layout of the buttons in a normally used
keyboard is similar to the traditional typewriter, but there are a few additional
keys provided by different manufacturers for performing additional functions.

Normally available keyboards in the market were of two sizes 84 keys and
101/102 keys, but now keyboards with 104 keys or 108 keys are also possible for
Windows and Internet.
Mouse

It is the most commonly used pointing device. It is a very famous cursor-control

device and the earlier versions of it were built over a small palm-size box with a
round ball at its base, which tracks the movement of the mouse and feeds digital
signals to the CPU when the mouse buttons are pressed. Currently, the mouse has
a sensor at the bottom to detect cursor position.

Basic versions if it has two buttons called the left and the right-click button and a
wheel is present between the buttons to provide a scroll function. The movement
of the mouse on a flat surface is used to control the position of the cursor on the
display, but it cannot be used to feed text into the system directly.

Advantages

1. Easy to use
2. Not very expensive
3. The cursor movement is faster than the arrow keys of the keyboard.

Joystick

Just like a mouse, a Joystick is also a pointing device, which is used to travel the
cursor position on a display. It is a perpendicular stick having a spherical ball at
both lower and upper ends. The spherical ball connected at the circuit having
sensors moves in a socket. The joystick controller can be traversed in all
directions.

The functionality of the joystick is just like a mouse. Its applications are generally
in Computer-Aided Designing (CAD) and playing computer games.

Light Pen

Just like a pen, a light pen is a digital pointing device. This device is used to select
an item displayed in the menu or to draw anything on the display. It contains a
photocell and an optical sensor placed in a small tube at the tip.

When the light pen tip is traveled on the display, its photocell sensing element
calculates the screen location and sends the digital signal to the CPU.
Track Ball

The trackball is another type of input device similar to the mouse. It is most
helpful with a notebook or laptop computer, instead of a mouse. It consists of a
ball on the top which is half inserted and connected to the sensors. By moving
fingers on the ball, the cursor can be moved.

Because the whole device is not moved to move the cursor, a trackball requires
less space as compared to the mouse. This device comes in different shapes like a
ball, a square, or a button.

Scanner

A scanner is another input device, which works very much like a photocopy
machine. It can be used when some information on paper is to be transferred to
the hard disk of the computer in digital format for further manipulation.

The scanner captures high-resolution images from the source which are then
converted into a digital format that can be saved on the disk and shared digitally.
These digital images can be edited before they are printed.

Digitizer

A digitizer is also an input device that is used to convert analog information into
digital form. Using a digitizer, the signal from the television or camera can be
transformed into a series of numbers that could be saved in a computer hard
drive. They can be helpful with the computer to create a picture of whatever the
camera has been pointed at.

Digitizer is also called Tablet or Graphics Tablet because it transforms graphics

and pictorial data into binary inputs to the system. A special kind of graphic tablet
as a digitizer is used for fine works of drawing and image-related applications.

Microphone

A microphone or mic is a very common input device used to input sound that is
then stored in a digital form. Nowadays microphones are used in almost every
industry and devices related to sound recording or transmission.
The microphone is used for different applications like adding sound to a
multimedia presentation or for mixing music, voice calling and recording, video
conferencing, and more.

Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR)

The MICR input device is commonly seen in banks as there are a huge amount of
cheques to be processed every day. The important details like the bank’s code
number and cheque number are printed on the cheques with specially designed
ink based on the particles of magnetic material that is readable by the sensors of
the machine.

This method of reading is recognized as Magnetic Ink Character Recognition

(MICR). The main benefits of using MICR are that it is comparatively fast and less
prone to errors.

Optical Character Reader (OCR)

It is an input device that is used to read a printed text similar to the scanner, but
the method of reading and the type of output generated is different. The format
to be fed to the OCR is predefined and can’t be used as an ordinary scanner.

OCR, unlike a scanner, scans the text optically, character by character, converts
them into a machine-readable digital code instead of creating high-resolution
images, and stores the text on the system memory.

Bar Code Readers

Bar Code Reader is an input device used to read special format barcoded data
(data in the form of light and dark lines). Barcoded data is commonly used to
create price tags, in labeling goods, numbering the books, etc. It can be a
handheld scanner or can be embedded in a stationary scanner on the tabletop.

A flash of light from the device strikes the surface of the object and reflects the
sensors present behind the source of light to collect the input. Bar Code Reader
can only scan a bar code image, converts it into an alphanumeric value, which is
then transferred to the computer that the bar code reader is connected to.
Optical Mark Readers (OMR)

OMR is a special type of input machine. This sort of optical scanner is used to
identify the type of mark made by pen or pencil. It is used where one out of a
predefined alternative is to be selected and marked.

The format to be fed to the OMR is predefined and can’t be used as an ordinary
scanner.

It is specially used for automation of the answer sheet analysis of examinations

having multiple-choice questions.

Webcam

A Webcam is a camera that is combined with a computer. Unlike a digital camera,

they cannot function independently and should be connected to the
computer/laptop for operation. It functions as an input device that can take
pictures and is mostly used for video streaming and video conferencing or
chatting.

Biometric Devices
Biometrics relates to a method in which a person is identified through his/her
biological features such as fingerprints, facial structure, eye cornea, etc. It is done
by using biometric devices, which can be of different types based on their
scanning features and abilities, such as Face Scanner, Hand Scanner, Fingerprint
Scanner, Retina or Iris Scanner, Voice Scanner, etc.
Output Devices
A piece of hardware/equipment that presents the result of the entered input,
once it is processed, is called an output device. Several output devices display
output in various ways such as images, text, hard copies, and audio/video.

Some of the Commonly used input units used in a computer system are as
follows:

1. Monitor/Display Screen
2. Printer
3. Speakers/Headphones
4. Projector
5. Plotter
6. Braille Reader

Monitors

Monitors or Visual Display Unit (VDU), are the primary output devices of a
computer system. It generates images from tiny dots, termed pixels that are
arranged in a well-defined rectangular form. The depth and sharpness of the
image depend upon the number and size of the pixels.

Printers

A printer is a very commonly practiced output device, which is used to print

information on paper. There are two types of printers:

1. Impact Printers
2. Non-Impact Printers

Projector

A projector is an optical output device that can take images produced by a

computer and project or present them onto a screen or surface called a projector.
In the older version of projectors, images were created by shining the light
through a small transparent lens on the projector; however, the new version of
projectors uses laser technology for the same. Projectors are most commonly
used in offices, classrooms, auditoriums, theatres to watch presentations, videos,
or pictures generated from a computer or laptop.

Speakers

Computer speakers are the most popular output devices used with a computer to
listen to sound. These speakers receive audio as input either in analog or digital
form and generate sound as an output. With the advancement of technology,
speakers are now available with wireless and BlueTooth facilities as well.

Headphones

The headphones or earphones or headsets are hardware output tools that are
either plugged into the computer or can be wireless. They offer the same function
as a speaker, the only difference is the frequency of sound. With speakers, the
sound can be detected over a larger distance while utilizing headphones, the
sound is only audible to the individual using them. Headphones are available in
multiple shapes and sizes.

Plotters

A plotter is a computer output device that is primarily used to produce high-

quality drawings, designs, and graphics. It is different from other printers as it
uses one or more pens or markers to draw continuous lines on paper or other
suitable materials, rather than using dots or pixels to create images.

Braille reader
A Braille reader is a computer output device designed for individuals with visual
impairments, specifically those who read Braille. It enables them to access digital
information by converting text into Braille characters that can be read by touch.
Difference between Input and Output Devices
Criteria Input Devices Output Devices

Function Input devices are used to Output devices are used to extract
provide data and control or retrieve data from the computer,
signals to an information usually after some processing.
processing system like a
 computer.

Data Flow Data flows from the device to Data flows from the computer to the
the computer. device.

Types Keyboard, Mouse, Scanner, Monitor, Printer, Speakers,

Microphone, Webcam, etc. Headphones, Projector, etc.

Use Example A keyboard is used to input A printer is used to output text or

text into a computer. images from a computer onto paper.

Interaction They allow users to input data They allow the computer to present
into the computer for the result of this processing to the
processing. user.

Processing They usually do not need to They usually process data to some
Requirement process data themselves; they extent before presenting it; for
simply capture user input and example, a printer processes text
send it to the computer. and graphics data to produce
physical prints.

User Input devices require active Some output devices can operate
Involvement user involvement; without without continuous user
user input, they do not involvement; for example, a printer
generally send data to the can complete a print job while the
computer. user does other tasks.

What Is a Motherboard?

The motherboard is the heart of any computer. It’s like the foundation that
holds all the important parts of the computer together, helping them
communicate and work as a single system. Every component, from
the processor (CPU) to the memory (RAM), connects to the motherboard,
making it essential for the computer to function properly. Without a
motherboard, your computer wouldn’t be able to run.
 A motherboard is a circuit board which is fixed inside the Central Processing
Unit (CPU) of a computer. It can be considered as a computing system which
integrates most of the essential components of a computer.

Components of a Motherboard

A motherboard is made up of different components; some of the primary

elements are as follows −

 CPU Socket − Its a major component which determines the processor connected
to the system.
 Memory Slots − These slots allow connecting memory devices into it.
 Storage Connectors − These slots include Serial ATA ports to connect hard drives
like hard drives and SSDs.
 ROM Slots − These slots allow ROM BIOS to connect.
 Chipset − It connects CPU, memory, storage and peripheral devices.
 Cooling fans − Cooling fans that maintain a suitable internal operating
temperature.
 Peripheral connector − these include USB ports to connect peripheral devices.
 Audio Connectors − These allow audio input and output devices to work with
analogue and digital audio signals.
 Network Connectors − These ports are used for wired network connections, or Wi-
Fi to access the internet.
 Power connector − power connectors are used to connect external power sources.
There are two basic types: the 24-pin ATX power connector and the 4 or 8-pin
CPU power connector.
 BIOS/UEFI − The Basic Input / Output System (BIOS), also known as the Unified
Extensible Firmware Interface (UEFI), is a type of firmware that initializes and
tests hardware during the boot process; it also provides runtime services to
operating systems and programs.
Key Components of a Motherboard :

Power Supply

In simple terms, a power supply is a device that receives power from a power source through a
power cord and converts it into the type and voltage required by electronic components for
effective operation. It regulates electric current and voltage, protecting components from
power fluctuations and ensuring reliable performance. Some key characteristics that define a
power supply include:

o It accepts power from either an AC or DC source like a wall outlet,

battery, generator etc.
o Performs operations like rectification, filtering, and regulation to convert the input
power suitably.
o Has connectors or terminals to deliver regulated power to various components
internally or externally.
o Includes safety features to prevent overloading or electric shocks.

Machine level language

computer only understand digital numbers i.e. in the form of 0 and 1. So,
instruction given to the computer is in the form binary digit, which is difficult to
implement instruction in binary code. This type of program is not portable,
difficult to maintain and also error prone.

Assembly language
It is on other hand modified version of machine level language. Where
instructions are given in English like word as ADD, SUM, MOV etc. It is easy to
write and understand but not understand by the machine. So the translator used
here is assembler to translate into machine level. Although language is bit easier,
programmer has to know low level details related to low level language.

In the assembly level language the data are stored in the computer register,
which varies for different computer. Hence it is not portable.
High level language:
These languages are machine independent, means it is portable. The language in
this category is Pascal, Cobol, Fortran etc. High level languages are understood by
the machine. So it need to translate by the translator into machine level.

DATA AND INFORMATION

Data are raw facts, events, numbers and transactions, which have been collected,
recorded, stored but are not yet processed. Data consist of numbers and
characters (i.e. alphabets and special symbols) which are used to record facts and
events about activities occurring in an environment.

Information is processed data. It is obtained after subjecting data to a series of

processing operations which convert related groups of data (raw facts) into a
meaningful and coherent form. Processing could be in the form of addition,
subtracting, comparison, sorting, rearrangement etc. This makes information
useful and meaningful. In other words, information could be defined as the
desired form to which data is finally transformed after undergoing a series of
processing.

Number Systems
A number system is a positional number system that has some symbols called
digits. It provides a complete set of digits, operators, and rules to perform
operations.

Number systems are the technique to represent numbers in the

computer system architecture, every value that you are saving or
getting into/from computer memory has a defined number system.

In a digital number system, the number of digits used determines the base of the
number system. For example, the binary number system has two digits (0 and 1),
hence, the base of the binary number system is 2.

Digital number systems form the foundation of the modern computing

technologies and digital electronics. They are used to represent, process, and
manipulate the information using a digital system.
Types of Digital Number Systems

1. Binary Number Systems.

2. Decimal Number Systems.
3. Octal Number Systems.
4. Hexadecimal Number Systems.

BINARY NUMBER SYSTEM

A Binary number system has only two digits that are 0 and 1. Every number (value)
represents with 0 and 1 in this number system. The base of binary number system is
2, because it has only two digits.

OCTALNUMBERSYSTEM

Octal number system has only eight (8) digits from 0 to 7. Everynumber (value)
represents with 0,1,2,3,4,5,6 and 7 in this number system. The base of octal number
system is 8, because it has only 8 digits.

DECIMALNUMBER SYSTEM

Decimal number system has only ten (10) digits from 0 to 9. Every number (value)
represents with 0,1,2,3,4,5,6, 7,8 and 9 in this number system. The base of decimal
number system is 10, because it has only 10 digits.

HEXADECIMALNUMBERSYSTEM

A Hexadecimal number system has sixteen (16) alphanumeric values from 0 to 9 and
A to F. Every number (value) represents with 0,1,2,3,4,5,6, 7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E and F in
this number system. The base of hexadecimal number system is 16, because it has
16 alphanumeric values. Here A is 10, B is 11, C is 12, D is 13, E is 14 and F is 15.

Numbersystem Base(Radix) Useddigits Example

Binary 2 0,1 (11110000)2
Octal 8 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7 (360)8
Decimal 10 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9 (240)10
0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,
Hexadecimal 16 (F0)16
A,B,C,D,E,F
Binary to Decimal Conversion

We can convert a binary number into its equivalent decimal number by using the
positional weights method.

In this method of binary to decimal conversion, each digit of the given binary
number is multiplied by its positional weight. Then, all the products are added to
obtain the equivalent decimal number.

The step-by-step process of converting a binary number to its equivalent decimal

number by using positional weights method is explained below −

Step 1 − Write the positional weights for each binary digit.

Step 2 − Multiply each binary digit with its positional weight.

Step 3 − Add the product terms to obtain the equivalent decimal number.

Let us consider some examples to understand the binary to decimal conversion.

Example 1

Convert (101101)2 into decimal equivalent.

Solution

The given binary number is (101101)2

Step 1 − Defining positional weights for the given binary number −

Bits 1 0 1 1 0 1

Weights 25 24 23 22 21 20

Step 2 − Calculating product of bits and positional weights −

Bits Weights Multiply Product

1 25 1 × 32 32

0 24 0 × 16 0

1 23 1×8 8

1 22 1×4 4

0 21 0×2 0

1 20 1×1 1

Step 3 − Add all the product terms to obtain the equivalent decimal number −

Decimal Number = 32 + 0 + 8 + 4 + 0 + 1 = (45)10

Hence, the decimal equivalent of (101101)2 is (45)10.

Example 2

Convert (1111011)2 into decimal equivalent.

Solution

Multiplying Bits with positional weights, we get,

Decimal Number = 1 × 26 + 1 × 25 + 1 × 24 + 1 × 23 + 0 × 22 + 1 × 21 + 1 × 20

Decimal Number = 64 + 32 + 16 + 8 + 0 + 2 + 1 = (123)10

Hence, the decimal equivalent of (1111011)2 is (123)10.

Octal to Decimal Conversion

Example 1

Convert (345)8 into decimal

Solution:
Decimal Number = 3× 82 + 4 × 81+ 5 × 80

Decimal Number =192+32+5=(229)10

Hence, the decimal equivalent of (345)8 is (229)10.

Hexadecimal to Decimal Conversion

Example 1

Convert (1AF)8 into decimal

Solution:
Decimal Number = 1× 162 + A × 161+ F × 160
Decimal Number = 1× 162 + 10 × 161+ 15 × 160

Decimal Number =256+160+15=(431)10

Hence, the decimal equivalent of (1AF)16 is (431)10.

Decimal to Binary Conversion

A decimal number can be converted to their equivalent binary number by using
the double-dabble method. In this method, the integer part of the given decimal
number is successively divided by 2 and the fractional part is successively
multiplied by 2.

In the integer part, the remainders read from bottom to top give the integer part
of the binary equivalent. In the fractional part, the carries read from top to
bottom give the fractional part of the binary equivalent.

The following steps are followed to convert a decimal number to the binary
equivalent −

Step 1 − Divide the integer part of the given decimal number successively by 2
and read the remainders from bottom to top.

Step 2 − Multiply the fractional part of the given decimal number successively by
2 and read the carries from top to bottom.

Let us see some examples to understand the conversion of a decimal number into
its equivalent binary number.

Example 1

Convert (28)10 to binary equivalent.

Solution

The given decimal number is an integer. Thus, we divide the decimal number
successively by 2 and read the remainders upwards to obtain the equivalent
binary number.
 Decimal Remainders

2 28

2 14 0

2 7 0

2 3 1

2 1 1

0 1

Reading the remainders from bottom to top, the result will be (11100)2. It is the
binary equivalent of (28)10.

Decimal to Octal Conversion

Decimal to Octal Conversion Result

Decimal Number is:(12345)10

Octal Number is
(30071)8
Decimal to Hexadecimal conversion

Decimal to Hexa decimal Conversion Result

Example 1
Decimal Number is:(12345)10

Hexadecimal Number is
(3039)16

Conversion from Binary to Octal number system

Example − Convert binary number 10010110 into octal number.

First convert this into decimal number
= (10010110)2
= 1x27+0x26+0x25+1x24+0x23+1x22+1x21+0x20
= 128+0+0+16+0+4+2+0
= (150)10
Then, convert it into octal number
= (150)10
= 2x82+2x81+6x80
= (226)8 which is answer.

However, there is also a direct method to convert a binary number into octal
number − grouping which is explained as following below.

Using Grouping
Since, there are only 8 digits (from 0 to 7) in octal number system, so we can
represent any digit of octal number system using only 3 bit as following below.
Octal Digit Value Binary Equivalent

0 000

1 001
 Octal Digit Value Binary Equivalent

2 010

3 011

4 100

5 101

6 110

7 111

Example-1 − Convert binary number 1010111100 into octal number. Since there
is no binary point here and no fractional part. So,

Therefore, Binary to octal is.

= (1010111100)2
= (001 010 111 100)2
= (1 2 7 4)8
= (1274)8

Conversion from Binary to Hexadecimal number system

Example − Convert binary number 1101010 into hexadecimal number.

First convert this into decimal number:
= (1101010)2
= 1x26+1x25+0x24+1x23+0x22+1x21+0x20
= 64+32+0+8+0+2+0
= (106)10
Then, convert it into hexadecimal number
= (106)10
= 6x161+10x160
= (6A)16 which is answer.
However, there is also a direct method to convert a binary number into
hexadecimal number − grouping which is explained as following below.

Using Grouping
Since, there are only 16 digits (from 0 to 7 and A to F) in hexadecimal number
system, so we can represent any digit of hexadecimal number system using only 4
bit as following below.
Hexa 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Binary 0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111

Hexa 8 9 A B C D E F

Binary 1000 1001 1010 1011 1100 1101 1110 1111

So, if you make each group of 4 bit of binary input number, then replace each
group of binary number from its equivalent hexadecimal digits.

Example-1 − Convert binary number 1010101101001 into hexadecimal number.

Since there is no binary point here and no fractional part. So,
Therefore, Binary to hexadecimal is,
= (1010101101001)2
= (1 0101 0110 1001)2
= (0001 0101 0110 1001)2
= (1 5 6 9)16
= (1569)16
Binary Arithmetic
Binary arithmetic is one of the fundamental concepts in the field of digital electronics and computer
engineering. It is basically the mathematics of binary numbers allow to perform various arithmetic
operations on binary numbers. We know that the binary number system has two digits, i.e., 0 and 1
which are used to represent the ON or OFF states of the digital systems. Hence, binary arithmetic
forms the foundation of the digital computing.

Binary Addition

In binary arithmetic, the process of adding two binary numbers is called binary addition. Where, the
binary numbers consist of only 0 and 1. In the binary addition, a carry is generated when the sum is
greater than 1.

Rules of Binary Addition

The addition of two binary numbers is performed according to these rules of binary arithmetic −

A B A+B Carry
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 1 1

Let us consider some examples to understand the binary addition.

Example 1
Add two binary numbers, 1101 and 1110.

Solution
The binary addition of the given binary numbers is described below −
Binary Subtraction

In binary arithmetic, binary subtraction is a mathematical operation used to find the difference
between two binary numbers.

In binary subtraction, each bit of the binary numbers is subtracted, starting from the rightmost bit.

Also, a borrow bit can be taken from higher bits if require.

Rules of Binary Subtraction

The binary subtraction is performed as per the following rules of binary arithmetic −

A B A-B Borrow
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0

Let us see some examples to understand the binary subtraction.

Example 1
Subtract 1100 from 1101.

Solution
The subtraction of given binary numbers is given below −

1101 1100 = 0001

Binary Multiplication

In binary arithmetic, binary multiplication is the process of multiplying two binary numbers and
obtain their product.
In binary multiplication, we multiply each bit of one binary number by each bit of another binary
number and then add the partial products to obtain the final product.

Rules of Binary Multiplication

The multiplication of two binary numbers is performed as per the following rules of binary
arithmetic −

A B A*B
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

It is clear that the binary multiplication is similar to the decimal multiplication. Let us understand
the binary multiplication with the help of solved examples.

Example 1
Multiply 1101 and 11.

Solution
The binary multiplication of given numbers is described below −

IECT
IECT stands for Information, Electronics, and Communication Technology. It refers to the
integrated use and study of computers, electronics, and communication technologies for
storing, transmitting, and managing information effectively.
IECT combines the domains of:

 Information Technology (IT) – software, data management, computer applications

 Electronics – circuits, hardware components, embedded systems
 Communication Technology – networking, wireless systems, internet, and telecom

IECT is essential in modern digital infrastructure, and is widely applied in sectors like education,
healthcare, e-governance, manufacturing, defense, and finance.

or
IECT stands for Information Electronics and Communication Technology. IECT is a broader term for
Information Technology (IT), which includes information, data processing, information life cycle and
its importance in a day to day life, communication technologies, internet, advanced wired or
wireless networks, internet, data transformation, cell phones, computers, application and
softwares, middleware, social networking, audio and video conferencing and related different
application areas where multimedia highly utilises to access, retrieve, store, transmit, and
manipulate data/information in a digital form.

Applications of IECT:
IECT stands for Information Electronics and Communication Technology.

The applications of IECT are as follows –

 E-governance

 Multimedia and Entertainment

E-governance
E-Governance (or electronic governance) refers to the use of Information and Communication
Technology (ICT) by government agencies to deliver services, exchange information, and facilitate
interactions between:

 Government to Citizen (G2C)

 Government to Business (G2B)
 Government to Government (G2G)
 Government to Employees (G2E)

It aims to make government services more efficient, transparent, accessible, and accountable.
📌Objectives of E-Governance

 Provide faster and convenient public services

 Promote transparency and accountability
 Improve internal efficiency of government operations
 Reduce corruption and eliminate middlemen
 Promote citizen participation in governance
 Improve inter-departmental coordination

🏛 Types of E-Governance Interactions

1. G2C (Government to Citizen)

 Services offered directly to citizens

 Examples:
o Online bill payments (electricity, water)
o Birth/death certificate issuance
o Passport, voter ID services
o Online tax filing (e.g., income tax)

2. G2B (Government to Business)

 Services between government and business community

 Examples:
o Online business registrations
o Filing of taxes (GST, excise duty)
o e-Tendering, licensing, procurement

3. G2G (Government to Government)

 Inter-departmental data sharing and collaboration

 Examples:
o Crime data sharing between police departments
o Centralized budget planning across departments

4. G2E (Government to Employee)

 Services to manage government employees

 Examples:
o Payroll, pension, leave, and performance systems
o Online HR and benefits portals

🔧Components of E-Governance

1. Infrastructure: Broadband internet, data centers, cloud, biometric devices, etc.

2. Software Platforms: e-Gov portals, mobile apps, management systems.
3. Legal Framework: IT Act 2000 (India), privacy and data protection laws.
 4. Human Resources: Skilled IT staff, project managers, trainers.
5. Citizen Interface: Websites, mobile apps, call centers, CSCs (Common Service Centers).

Electronic governance or E-governance is an application of Information Electronics and

Communication Technology which is especially designed for the governance system. Nowadays,
different E-governance applications in India like Aadhaar, MyGov, Governance & Administration
(www.india.gov.in), JeevanPramaan, etc are available and most widely used by Indian citizens to
access, upload, and update their information. The main goal of Information and communication
technology (ICT) tools and digital platforms is to improve government operations, service delivery,
effective communication with citizens, transparency and efficiency in government institutions.
Communication refers to the sharing of information between parties like common people,
government, business, etc. Almost every government sector has changed to IECT like rail
reservation system, gas subsidy disbursal, etc.

Multimedia and Entertainment

Multimedia is a combination of text, audio, images, video, and animation used to convey
information in an interactive and engaging manner. It integrates multiple forms of media to
communicate messages more effectively than traditional methods.

The term "multimedia" means "multiple media."

It is one of the applications of IECT. Multimedia is used to improve the quality of presentation by
incorporating information sharing, usage of graphics and animation, motion capture, etc.
📦Components of Multimedia

Multimedia typically includes the following five key elements:

Element Description

Text Written content or typography used for labeling, instructions, or info

Audio Spoken words, music, sound effects

Image Still pictures, photographs, illustrations

Video Moving visuals including film, TV clips, or recorded video

Animation Moving graphics, 2D/3D illustrations, motion graphics

�Types of Multimedia

1. Linear Multimedia
o Does not require user interaction
o Examples: movies, presentations that run automatically
2. Non-linear Multimedia (Interactive)
o User controls the content flow
o Examples: video games, e-learning modules, websites

💻Multimedia Formats

 Text: TXT, DOC, PDF

 Audio: MP3, WAV, AAC
 Image: JPG, PNG, GIF, BMP
 Video: MP4, AVI, MOV, FLV
  Animation: SWF, GIF, HTML5 animation, 3D formats

🖥 Multimedia Tools & Software

Media Type Tools/Software Examples

Text MS Word, Notepad, Google Docs

Audio Audacity, Adobe Audition, GarageBand

Images Adobe Photoshop, GIMP, Canva

Video Adobe Premiere Pro, Final Cut Pro, DaVinci Resolve

Animation Adobe After Effects, Blender, Toon Boom

Presentation Microsoft PowerPoint, Prezi, Google Slides

Operating System
An Operating System (OS) is a software that acts as an interface between computer hardware
components and the user. Every computer system must have at least one operating system to
run other programs.

Or

A program that acts as an intermediary between a user of a computer and the computer
hardware. An operating System is a collection of system programs that together control the
operations of a computer system. Some examples of operating systems are UNIX, Mach, MS-
DOS, MS-Windows, Windows/NT, Chicago, OS/2, MacOS, VMS, MVS, and VM.

Operating system goals:

 To make the computer system convenient to use.

 To hide technical specifications from users.
 To provide an interface for the users to easily interact with the system.
 To act as a mediator between the hardware and its users.
 To manage the resources of a computer system.
 To provide efficient and fair sharing of resources among users and programs.
History Of OS
• Operating systems were first developed in the late 1950s to manage tape
storage

• The General Motors Research Lab implemented the first OS in the early 1950s
for their IBM 701

• In the mid-1960s, operating systems started to use disks

• In the late 1960s, the first version of the Unix OS was developed • The first OS
built by Microsoft was DOS. It was built in 1981 by purchasing the 86-DOS
software from a Seattle company

• The present-day popular OS Windows first came to existence in 1985 when a

GUI was created and paired with MS-DOS.
Types of Operating System (OS)

1. Batch Operating System

This type of operating system does not interact with the computer directly. There is
an operator which takes similar jobs having the same requirements and groups
them into batches. It is the responsibility of the operator to sort jobs with similar
needs. Batch Operating System is designed to manage and execute a large number
of jobs efficiently by processing them in groups.
Advantages of Batch Operating System
 Multiple users can share the batch systems.
 The idle time for the batch system is very little.
 It is easy to manage large work repeatedly in batch systems.
Disadvantages of Batch Operating System
 CPU is not used efficiently. When the current process is doing IO, the CPU is free
and could be utilized by other processes waiting.
 The other jobs will have to wait for an unknown time if any job fails.
 In a batch operating system, average response time increases as all processes
are processed one by one.
Examples of Batch Operating Systems: Payroll Systems, Bank Statements, etc.

2. Multi-Programming Operating System

Multiprogramming Operating Systems can be simply illustrated as more than one
program is present in the main memory and any one of them can be kept in
execution. This is used for better utilization of resources.

Advantages of, Multi-Programming Operating System

 CPU is better utilized, and the overall performance of the system
improves.
 It helps in reducing the response time.
Real-World Examples:

1. Web Servers: Consider the bustling environment of a web server handling many incoming
requests. A Multi-Programming System allows the server to efficiently switch between
processing these requests, optimizing responsiveness, and ensuring no request goes
unanswered.
2. Database Management: In the realm of databases, the Multi-Programming System comes into
play when multiple users are querying the database simultaneously. The system's adept
multitasking ensures that these queries are handled concurrently, dramatically enhancing data
retrieval efficiency.
3. Video Editing: Envision a video editing software running several processes concurrently –
rendering, applying effects, and exporting files. The Multi-Programming System orchestrates
these tasks, drastically reducing the time required to finalize projects.

3. Multi-Processing Operating System

A Multi-Processing Operating Systemis a type of Operating System in which more
than one CPU is used for the execution of resources. It betters the throughput of
the System.

What is Multiprocessing?
Multiprocessing is a system that has two or more processors. In this, CPUs are
added to increase the computing speed of the system. Because of Multiprocessing,
many processes are executed simultaneously. This approach enhances
performance by leveraging parallelism to handle more tasks at once.
Multiprocessing is further classified into two categories: Symmetric
Multiprocessing and Asymmetric Multiprocessing.
 Asymmetric multiprocessing: a specific task is allocated to a particular
processor, not every processor can perform all the tasks. Typically, there are
slave processors present that execute tasks based on the Master processor (who
controls the system) assigning the tasks to the slave processors.
 Symmetric multiprocessing: all the processors have equal access to all
resources and are capable of executing any task allocated to them. They share a
common memory space which helps to communicate processors and data
sharing between them.
Advantages of Multi-Processing System:
 It increases the throughput of the system as processes can be parallelized.
 As it has several processors, so, if one processor fails, we can proceed with
another processor.
Real-World Examples:

1. Scientific Simulations: Complex simulations in physics, weather forecasting, and molecular

modeling require immense computational power. A Multi-Processing System divides these
simulations into smaller tasks that can be processed concurrently, dramatically reducing the
time needed for results.
2. Video Rendering: Video rendering can be a time-intensive task in digital content creation. Multi-
processing allows various video segments to be rendered simultaneously, expediting the final
output.

Multi-tasking/Time-sharing Operating systems

It is a type of Multiprogramming system with every process running in round robin
manner. Each task is given some time to execute so that all the tasks work
smoothly. Each user gets the time of the CPU as they use a single system. These
systems are also known as Multitasking Systems. The task can be from a single user
or different users. The time that each task gets to execute is called quantum. After
this time interval is over, the OS switches over to the next task.
Advantages of Time-Sharing OS
 Each task gets an equal opportunity.
 Fewer chances of duplication of software.
 CPU idle time can be reduced.
Real-World Examples:

1. Gaming and Communication: Gamers often have various applications

running in the background while immersing themselves in a game. From
voice chat apps to streaming software, a Multitasking Operating System
lets them manage these applications without exiting the gaming
environment.
2. Content Creation: The realm of content creation demands juggling multiple
tools. Content creators may need to edit videos or images while
researching online. A Multitasking Operating System allows them to run
editing software, web browsers, and media players simultaneously,
streamlining their creative process.

4. Multi-User Operating Systems

These systems allow multiple users to be active at the same time. This system can
be either a multiprocessor or a single processor with interleaving.

Time-Sharing OS
5. Distributed Operating System
These types of operating systems are a recent advancement in the world of
computer technology and are being widely accepted all over the world and, that
too, at a great pace. Various autonomous interconnected computers communicate
with each other using a shared communication network. Independent systems
possess their own memory unit and CPU. Systems. These systems’ processors differ
in size and function. The major benefit of working with these types of operating
systems is that it is always possible that one user can access the files or software
which are not present on his system but on some other system connected within
this network, i.e., remote access is enabled within the devices connected to that
network.

Advantages of Distributed Operating System

 Failure of one will not affect the other network communication, as all systems
are independent of each other.
 Electronic mail increases the data exchange speed.
 Since resources are being shared, computation is highly fast and durable.
 Load on host computer reduces.
 These systems are easily scalable as many systems can be easily added to the
network.
Disadvantages of Distributed Operating System
 Failure of the main network will stop the entire communication.
 To establish distributed systems, the language is not yet well-defined.
 These types of systems are not readily available as they are very expensive. Not
only that the underlying software is highly complex and not understood well
yet.
Examples of Distributed Operating Systems are LOCUS
6. Network Operating System
These systems run on a server and provide the capability to manage data, users,
groups, security, applications, and other networking functions. These types of
operating systems allow shared access to files, printers, security, applications, and
other networking functions over a small private network. One more important
aspect of Network Operating Systems is that all the users are well aware of the
underlying configuration, of all other users within the network, their connections,
etc., and that’s why these computers are popularly known a tightly coupled
systems.

Network Operating System

Advantages of Network Operating System
 Highly stable, centralized servers.
 Security concerns are handled through servers.
 New technologies and hardware upgrades are easily integrated into the system.
 Server access is possible remotely from different locations and types of systems.
Disadvantages of Network Operating System
 Servers are costly.
 The user has to depend on a central location for most operations.
 Maintenance and updates are required regularly.
Examples of Network Operating Systems are Microsoft Windows Server 2003,
Microsoft Windows Server 2008, UNIX, Linux, Mac OS X, Novell NetWare, BSD, etc.
7. Real-Time Operating System
These types of OSs serve real-time systems. The time interval required to process
and respond to inputs is very small. This time interval is called response time. Real-
time systems are used when there are time requirements that are very strict like
missile systems, air traffic control systems, robots, etc.
Types of Real-Time Operating Systems
 Hard Real-Time Systems: Hard Real-Time OSs are meant for applications where
time constraints are very strict, and even the shortest possible delay is not
acceptable. These systems are built for saving lives like automatic parachutes or
airbags which are required to be readily available in case of an accident. Virtual
memory is rarely found in these systems.
 Soft Real-Time Systems: These OSs are for applications where time is less strict.

Real-Time Operating System

Advantages of RTOS
 Maximum Consumption
 Task Shifting
 Error-Free
 Memory Allocation
Examples of Real-Time Operating Systems are Scientific experiments, medical
imaging systems, industrial control systems, weapon systems, robots, air traffic
control systems, etc.
8. Mobile Operating Systems
Mobile operating systems are designed specifically for mobile devices such as
smartphones and tablets. Examples of such operating systems are Android and iOS.
These operating systems manage the hardware and software resources of the
device, providing a platform for running applications and ensuring a seamless user
experience.
Difference between Multiprocessing and Multiprogramming
Multiprocessing Multiprogramming

The availability of more than one

The concurrent application of more
processor per system, that can execute
than one program in the main memory
several sets of instructions in parallel is
is known as multiprogramming.
known as multiprocessing.

The number of CPUs is more than one. The number of CPUs is one.

It takes less time for job processing. It takes more time to process the jobs.

In this, more than one process can be In this, one process can be executed
executed at a time. at a time.

It is tightly coupled. Synchronization is

No Synchronization is there.
there in multiprocessing.

The number of users can be one or more

The number of users is one at a time.
than one.

Throughput is maximum. Throughput is less.

Efficiency is maximum. Less efficient.

Difference between Single User and Multiuser OS

Single User Operating System Multiuser Operating System

Single User Operating System provides a platform for one Multiuser Operating System provides
user at a time. platform for multiple users at a time.

Single User Operating System may be a single user, single Multiuser Operating System may be time
task or a single user, multitasking operating system. sharing or multiprocessor system.

Single User Operating System is suitable for personal Multiuser Operating System is suitable for
computers. servers and mainframes.

For example, MS DOS. For example, LINUX,Window

Functions of the Operating System

 Resource Management: The operating system manages and allocates
memory, CPU time, and other hardware resources among the various
programs and processes running on the computer.
 Process Management: The operating system is responsible for starting,
stopping, and managing processes and programs. It also controls the
scheduling of processes and allocates resources to them.
 Memory Management: The operating system manages the computer’s
primary memory and provides mechanisms for optimizing memory usage.
 Security: The operating system provides a secure environment for the user,
applications, and data by implementing security policies and mechanisms
such as access controls and encryption.
 Job Accounting: It keeps track of time and resources used by various jobs or
users.
 File Management: The operating system is responsible for organizing and
managing the file system, including the creation, deletion, and manipulation
of files and directories.
 Device Management: The operating system manages input/output devices
such as printers, keyboards, mice, and displays. It provides the necessary
drivers and interfaces to enable communication between the devices and the
computer.
 Networking: The operating system provides networking capabilities such as
establishing and managing network connections, handling network protocols,
and sharing resources such as printers and files over a network.
 User Interface: The operating system provides a user interface that enables
users to interact with the computer system. This can be a Graphical User
Interface (GUI), a Command-Line Interface (CLI), or a combination of both.
 Backup and Recovery: The operating system provides mechanisms for
backing up data and recovering it in case of system failures, errors, or
disasters.
 Performance Monitoring: The operating system provides tools for
monitoring and optimizing system performance, including identifying
bottlenecks, optimizing resource usage, and analyzing system logs and
metrics.
 Time-Sharing: The operating system enables multiple users to share a
computer system and its resources simultaneously by providing time-sharing
mechanisms that allocate resources fairly and efficiently.

GUI Operating System

A GUI Operating System (Graphical User Interface Operating System) is a type of

operating system that provides a visual interface for users to interact with the
computer using graphical elements such as windows, icons, buttons, and menus.,
rather than relying solely on text-based commands (as in CLI, or Command-Line
Interface systems). GUIs make software more user-friendly and intuitive,
especially for non-technical users.

In a GUI environment, users interact with the system by clicking on graphical

elements using a mouse or touchpad, or by using touch gestures on touch screen
devices. GUIs offer a visually rich and interactive interface, enabling users to
navigate the system, launch applications, manage files, and perform various tasks
with ease.
Key Features of GUI Operating Systems:

1. User-Friendly Interface: Easy to navigate with minimal technical knowledge.

2. Multitasking: Supports running multiple programs simultaneously.
3. Mouse and Touch Support: Allows point-and-click or touch-based navigation.
4. Visual Representation: Files, folders, and apps are represented graphically.
5. Drag-and-Drop Functionality: Simplifies file management and operations.
6. Accessibility Options: Built-in support for users with disabilities.

Examples of GUI Operating Systems:

 Microsoft Windows (e.g., Windows 10, 11)

 macOS (by Apple)
 Linux Distributions with GUI (e.g., Ubuntu, Fedora with GNOME or KDE)
 Android (for mobile devices)
 iOS (for iPhones and iPads)

Types of GUI Operating System

1.Window:

Windows is a GUI operating system first developed by Microsoft in 1985. It is

the most widely used GUI operating system. A window is a graphical control
element . It consists of a visual area containing some of the graphical user
interface of the program it belongs to and is framed by a window Decoration.
It usually has a Rectangular shape that can overlap with the area of other
windows. It displays the output of and may allow input to one or more
processes. Windows 11 is the most recent form of Microsoft Windows. It also
has older versions, like Windows XP, Windows 8, Windows 7, etc. When you
install a newer version of your operating system, you “upgrade” to the more
recent version.
🐧 2. Linux (GUI-Based Distributions)
Linux is a popular OS. It was created in 1991 by Linus Torvalds. It is free of any
specific business or group and is open-source. LINUX is currently used by various
companies, individuals, and even on mobile devices and the internet. As a result,
it is one of the most widely used GUI operating systems.

Key Features:

Free, customizable, secure, and supports multiple GUI options.

It has additional functionality on top of the nearly complete UNIX OS features. It
includes many user interfaces, such as
 GNOME
 KDE
 Mate
 Cinnamon etc

It also has a variety of distributions, such as

� UBUNTU
� DEBIAN
� SOLAS
� LINUX MINT and others
� 3. Android

Definition:
Android is a mobile operating system developed by Google, designed for touch-
screen devices like smartphones and tablets. It uses a GUI with icons, apps, and
widgets for easy user interaction.

Key Features: App-based interface, touch gestures, customizable home screens,

notification panel.
🍎 4. Apple iOS

Definition:
iOS is Apple’s mobile operating system used on devices like iPhones and iPads. It
provides a secure, fast, and smooth GUI where users interact with apps and
settings through touch and gestures.

Key Features: App grid, smooth animations, Control Center, integrated with Apple
services.

💻 5. macOS

Definition:
macOS is a graphical operating system developed by Apple Inc. for Mac
computers. It combines a UNIX-based core with a sleek GUI that includes the
Dock, Finder, and Mission Control.

Key Features: Clean design, high performance, multi-touch gestures, strong

integration with iCloud and other Apple devices.
GUI Operating System Developer Platform Main Interface Style
Windows Microsoft Desktop/Laptop Start menu, taskbar, windows
Linux Open Source Desktop/Server Varies: GNOME, KDE, Xfce
Android Google Mobile/Tablet Touch-based, icons, widgets
iOS Apple Mobile/Tablet Touch-based, app grid
macOS Apple Desktop/Laptop Dock, Finder, multi-window GUI

Elements of GUI Operating System

1.Desktop:
The desktop is the main screen area that appears after the operating system loads. It acts like a
virtual workspace where icons, shortcuts, and files are placed. Users can interact with these
elements or open applications directly from the desktop.

A desktop is the primary user interface of a computer's operating system, where users can
access files, folders, applications, and system components. It is displayed on the screen when
the computer is turned on and the operating system loads. The desktop typically includes icons,
a taskbar or dock, and a background wallpaper.

Example of a Desktop:

For example, in Windows OS, the desktop might include:

 Icons like “This PC,” “Recycle Bin,” or shortcuts to applications like Microsoft Word.
 A taskbar at the bottom with the Start Menu, quick-launch apps, and system tray.
 A wallpaper as the background image
2. Windows

A window is a rectangular section of the screen that displays an application,

folder, or document. Windows can be moved, resized, minimized, or maximized.
Each application typically runs in its own window, allowing multitasking. A
window includes elements like the title bar, scroll bars, and borders.

or

A window is a fundamental graphical element in a GUI-based operating system. It

is a rectangular area on the screen used to display the contents of an
application, file, folder, or dialog. Each open program typically runs inside its own
window, allowing users to work with multiple applications simultaneously.

Key Characteristics of a Window:

1. Rectangular Frame:
The window provides a framed view of the program or content, clearly
separated from other parts of the screen.
2. Movable and Resizable:
Users can click and drag the window to reposition it, or drag its
edges/corners to change its size.
3. Contains Multiple Elements:
A standard window may include:
o Title Bar: Displays the window’s name (usually the file or application
name) and control buttons.
o Window Controls: Minimize, maximize/restore, and close buttons,
typically in the top-right corner.
o Scroll Bars: Appear if the content exceeds the visible area.
o Borders: Allow resizing and separate the window from the
background.
o Content Area: The main space inside the window where information
is displayed or user input is accepted.
4. Interactive:
Windows can receive user input through the mouse, keyboard, or
touchscreen. The active window is the one currently in focus and accepting
input.
 5. Supports Multitasking:
Multiple windows can be open at the same time, allowing users to switch
between programs, compare documents, or drag and drop files between
locations.

Types of Windows:

 Application Window: The main window of a program (e.g., Microsoft

Word, web browser).
 Document Window: Displays the content being edited or viewed (e.g., a
Word document).
 Dialog Box (Sub-window): A smaller, temporary window asking for user
input or confirmation.
 Child Window: A window that exists within a parent window (e.g., multiple
tabs or documents inside one application).

Functions of a Window:

 Enables users to interact visually with software.

 Allows multiple tasks and applications to run concurrently.
 Provides organization and control over content.
 Supports drag-and-drop operations and other user-friendly features.
 3. Title Bar

The title bar is located at the top of a window and shows the name of the
application or file open in that window. It also usually contains buttons to
minimize, maximize/restore, and close the window. Clicking and dragging the title
bar allows users to move the window around the screen.

The Title Bar is the horizontal bar located at the top of a window in a graphical
user interface. It serves as a key visual and functional component, providing
information about the window and offering basic window management controls.

Main Functions and Features of the Title Bar:

1. Displays the Window Title:

o The title bar shows the name of the application, document, or file
currently open in the window.
o For example, if you're editing a file called “Report.docx” in Microsoft
Word, the title bar might display:
“Report.docx - Microsoft Word”.
2. Contains Window Control Buttons: Usually on the right side (or left in
some operating systems like macOS), the title bar includes:
o Minimize Button ( _ ): Hides the window from view but keeps it
running in the background.
o Maximize/Restore Button (□ / 🗗): Enlarges the window to full
screen or restores it to its previous size.
o Close Button (X): Closes the window or exits the application.
3. Window Dragging (Move Feature):
o The user can click and drag the title bar to move the window around
the screen.
o This allows for better window organization and multitasking.
4. Visual Cue for Active Window:
o The title bar often changes color or appearance to indicate whether
a window is active (currently in use) or inactive (in the background).
o This helps users easily identify which window is receiving input.
5. May Include App-Specific Elements:
o Some applications add additional elements to the title bar, such as:
 A program icon on the left (used for system menus).
 A search bar, account info, or settings shortcuts.
 4. Task Bar

The task bar is a horizontal (or sometimes vertical) bar, typically located at the
bottom of the screen. It displays currently running applications, pinned programs,
and background tasks. The task bar may also include the system tray (for clock,
notifications, network, and volume icons) and access to the start menu or
launcher.

The task bar is a horizontal or vertical bar typically located at the bottom of the
screen (though its position can be changed) in most GUI operating systems like
Windows, Linux (with desktop environments like GNOME, KDE), and even
macOS (similar functionality via the Dock). It serves as a central hub for managing
open applications, quick launching programs, and accessing system functions.

Main Functions and Features of the Task Bar:

1. Displays Running Applications and Windows

o The task bar shows a button or icon for each open application or
window.
o Users can switch between tasks by clicking these icons.
o Preview thumbnails may appear when hovering over open programs
(in modern OS versions).
 2. Start Menu / Launcher Access
o Typically located at the far-left corner of the task bar is the Start
Menu (Windows) or Launcher (Linux).
o It gives users access to installed programs, system settings, power
options, and search functionality.
3. Quick Launch Toolbar / Pinned Applications
o A section where users can pin frequently used programs for fast
access.
o Clicking these icons instantly launches the associated application.
4. System Tray / Notification Area
o Found on the right side of the task bar (in Windows), the system tray
contains:
 Clock and date
 Volume control
 Network status
 Battery indicator (on laptops)
 Background application icons (e.g., antivirus, cloud sync,
updates)
 Notifications about system events or messages
5. Search Box / Cortana (Windows)
o Some operating systems include a search box directly on the task bar
for quick searching of files, apps, or web content.
o Voice assistants (like Cortana in Windows) may also be integrated
here.
6. Task View / Virtual Desktops
o A button (like the "Task View" icon in Windows) allows users to view
all open windows at once and manage multiple desktops, improving
multitasking.
7. Window Grouping and Jump Lists
o When multiple windows of the same application are open, they may
be grouped under a single icon.
o Right-clicking these icons opens a Jump List — a menu showing
recent files, pinned items, or quick actions.

Task Bar in Other Operating Systems:

 macOS: Uses the Dock (similar to a task bar), placed at the bottom or side
of the screen, showing running apps and shortcuts.
  Linux: Depending on the desktop environment (e.g., GNOME, KDE Plasma,
XFCE), the task bar may be called a panel, dock, or bar, but serves similar
functions.

5. Start Menu / Launcher

The start menu (or launcher in some OSs like Linux or Android) provides access to
applications, system settings, files, and power options. It typically opens when the
user clicks the "Start" button on the task bar. It is a central hub for accessing and
searching programs and features on the computer.

The Start Menu (in Windows) or Launcher (in systems like Linux, macOS, or
Android) is a centralized access point for applications, settings, files, and power
options. It is typically accessed from the bottom-left corner of the screen (on
desktops and laptops) or from a gesture or icon (on mobile devices).

This feature enhances usability by organizing important system functions in a

single, easily navigable interface.

Main Functions and Features:

1. Access to Installed Applications

 Displays a list or grid of all applications installed on the computer.

 Users can browse or search for apps to open them.
 Frequently used or recently opened apps may be highlighted.

2. Search Functionality

 Includes a search bar that allows users to find:

o Applications
o Files and documents
o System settings
o Web results (in systems like Windows 10/11, if connected to the
internet)
3. Pinned / Favorite Apps

 Users can pin apps to the Start Menu or Launcher for quick access.
 Pinned items often appear as tiles (Windows) or icons (Linux/macOS).

4. User Account Options

 Displays the current user’s name or profile.

 Provides access to account settings, lock screen, or sign out options.

5. System Settings Access

 Offers shortcuts to Control Panel, Settings, or System Preferences

depending on the OS.
 Enables users to quickly change network settings, display options, etc.

6. File Explorer / File Manager Shortcut

 Provides access to file management tools where users can browse and
organize files and folders.

7. Power Options

 Includes commands such as:

o Shut Down
o Restart
o Sleep
o Hibernate
 Allows users to turn off or manage the computer’s power state.

8. Customization

 In modern systems (e.g., Windows 10/11 or KDE Plasma on Linux), the Start
Menu or Launcher can be customized:
o Change themes or colors
o Resize or rearrange tiles/icons
o Add or remove categories
 5. Icon

An icon is a small graphical representation of a file, folder, program, or command.

Icons help users recognize and quickly access the items they represent. They are
usually displayed on the desktop or within windows like file explorers.

or

An icon is a small graphical symbol or image used to represent a program, file,

folder, command, or function in a graphical user interface (GUI). Icons provide a
visual and intuitive way for users to interact with the operating system and
software applications.

Icons are an essential part of modern computing interfaces, designed to enhance

usability, recognition, and efficiency.

Main Features and Characteristics:

1. Graphical Representation

 Icons are usually small images or symbols that visually represent a specific
item or function.
 For example:
o A trash can icon represents deleted files or the recycle bin.
o A folder icon represents a storage directory.
o A gear icon may represent settings.

2. Clickable Interface Elements

 Icons are interactive; clicking or tapping an icon launches the associated

action, such as opening a file or starting an application.

3. Label or Name

 Most icons are displayed with a text label below or beside them to indicate
what they represent (e.g., "My Computer", "Photos", "Documents").

4. Types of Icons

Icons serve different purposes and are categorized as follows:

 Application Icons: Represent software programs (e.g., Microsoft Word,

Chrome).
 File Icons: Represent individual files (e.g., a Word document, a PDF).
 Folder Icons: Represent directories used to organize files.
 Shortcut Icons: Represent links to files, folders, or applications. These often
have a small arrow overlay indicating they are shortcuts.
 System Icons: Represent core system tools (e.g., Control Panel, This PC,
Recycle Bin).
  Notification Icons: Appear in the taskbar/system tray to indicate system
events or background processes.

5. Visual Feedback and State Indicators

 Some icons can change appearance based on state or activity:

o A battery icon may show different levels of charge.
o A network icon might indicate connectivity status.
o A file icon might display a lock or sync symbol to reflect permissions
or cloud status.

6. Customization

 Many operating systems allow users to:

o Change icon images (for personalization or accessibility).
o Rearrange icons on the desktop or in folders.
o Group icons into folders or categories.

7. Button

A button is an interactive element in the GUI that performs an action when

clicked. Examples include "OK", "Cancel", "Apply", or "Submit". Buttons are used
in dialogue boxes, toolbars, and applications to perform specific commands.

8. Menu

A menu is a list of commands or options that a user can select. Menus are often
found in the menu bar of applications (e.g., File, Edit, View). They may expand
into submenus and can appear as drop-downs or pop-ups depending on the
action (e.g., right-click context menu).
9. Dialogue Box

A dialogue box is a pop-up window that appears to prompt the user for input or
to display important information. Dialogue boxes often require user interaction
before proceeding (e.g., saving a file, confirming a deletion, or choosing options).

10. Tab

Tabs are interface elements that allow users to switch between different views or
pages within a single window. Tabs are common in web browsers (e.g., separate
websites) and in applications like settings or file managers to organize related
options in one interface.

11. Toolbar

A toolbar is a row or column of icons or buttons that provide quick access to

frequently used functions or commands. Toolbars are typically located near the
top of an application window and allow users to perform tasks without navigating
through menus.

12. Ribbon

A ribbon is an advanced interface element that combines toolbars and menus

into a single unified interface. It groups related commands into tabs (such as
"Home", "Insert", "View") for better organization. The ribbon interface is most
notably used in Microsoft Office applications.

How Graphical User Interface (GUI) Works

A Graphical User Interface (GUI) allows users to interact with a computer using
visual elements like windows, icons, menus, buttons, and pointer devices (mouse,
touch). It transforms complex command-based operations into a visual and
intuitive experience.
⚙ 1. Basic Concept

In a GUI-based system, the user doesn't need to type commands (as in Command
Line Interfaces). Instead, the user interacts with graphical elements using devices
like a mouse, keyboard, or touchscreen.

These interactions are interpreted by the operating system and application

software to perform specific tasks.

🔁 2. Step-by-Step Workflow
🔹Step 1: User Input

 The user clicks a button, moves a mouse, presses a key, or taps a screen.
 These actions are collected by input devices (mouse, keyboard,
touchscreen).

🔹Step 2: Event Detection

 The Operating System or Window Manager detects the input and

identifies which window or element was interacted with.
 This generates an event (e.g., mouse click, key press, window resize).

🔹Step 3: Event Handling

 Each GUI element (e.g., a button) is programmed to respond to specific

events.
 When an event occurs, it’s sent to the event handler – a piece of code that
tells the system what to do.
o Example: Clicking “Print” triggers the event handler to open the print
dialog.

🔹Step 4: Application Logic Execution

 After the event is handled, the application may perform an action:

o Save a file
o Open a window
o Change a setting
 This is part of the application's logic layer.
🔹Step 5: Screen Update (Rendering)

 If the result of the action changes what the user sees, the GUI toolkit
redraws the screen.
 The graphics system renders updated windows, icons, buttons, or images.
 The frame buffer sends final pixel data to the monitor to display it.

Advantages of GUI (Graphical User Interface)

Advantage Description

GUIs are intuitive and easy to use, especially for beginners.

1. User-Friendly Users can interact with software through buttons, icons, and
menus without needing to remember commands.

Actions provide immediate visual responses (e.g., a button

2. Visual
changes color when clicked), helping users understand the
Feedback
system’s behavior.

3. Multitasking GUI environments allow users to open and manage multiple

Support windows and applications simultaneously.

GUIs can support assistive technologies like screen readers,

4. Accessibility voice control, and magnifiers, making computers usable for
people with disabilities.

5. Reduced Users can perform tasks with minimal training thanks to the
Learning Curve intuitive layout and graphical elements.

6. Easy Elements like toolbars, icons, scroll bars, and tabs simplify
Navigation navigation through the software or file system.

7. Error GUI interfaces often prevent invalid actions (e.g., grayed-out

Prevention buttons), reducing user errors.

❌Disadvantages of GUI
Disadvantage Description

1. High Resource GUIs require more system resources (RAM, CPU, graphics)
 Disadvantage Description

Usage compared to text-based interfaces.

Experienced users may find GUIs slower than command-

2. Slower for
line interfaces (CLI) for performing repetitive or complex
Advanced Users
tasks.

Some advanced functions may not be accessible through

3. Less Flexibility
the GUI and require CLI access.

4. Development Designing and developing a GUI is more time-consuming

Complexity and complex than a text-based interface.

Poorly designed GUIs can become visually cluttered or

5. Screen Clutter
confusing, especially with too many elements.

GUI systems are harder to automate for batch tasks unless

6. Limited Automation
supported by special tools (like scripts or macros).

7. Dependency on Users with visual impairments may find it difficult without

Visual Elements proper accessibility tools.

Difference between GUI and CUI

GUI (Graphical User CUI (Character/Command User

Feature
Interface) Interface)
Uses graphics: icons,
Interface Type Uses text commands only
windows, buttons, menus
Very user-friendly; suitable Requires learning commands; more
Ease of Use
for beginners complex
Mouse, keyboard,
Input Devices Only keyboard
touchscreen
Point-and-click, drag-and-
User Interaction Typing commands
drop
 GUI (Graphical User CUI (Character/Command User
Feature
Interface) Interface)
Speed for
Slower for advanced tasks Faster for experts and scripting
Experts
High (requires more
System
memory and processing Low (lightweight and efficient)
Resource Usage
power)
Learning Curve Easy to learn Steep learning curve
Rich visual feedback (colors,
Visual Feedback Minimal (text-only feedback)
animations, icons)
Easier with multiple More difficult, often limited to one
Multitasking
windows and apps command line session
Limited unless tools/macros
Automation Easy via shell scripting
used
Better support for visually
Accessibility More difficult without special tools
impaired users

Window Operating System

The Windows Operating System is a series of graphical operating systems

developed, marketed, and sold by Microsoft Corporation. It serves as an interface
between computer hardware and users, enabling them to execute tasks and
manage files with ease through a graphical user interface (GUI). Windows is one
of the most widely used operating systems in the world for personal computers,
business machines, and servers.

Major Versions of Windows

 Windows 1.0 – 3.1: Early GUI-based systems, laid the foundation.

 Windows 95/98/ME: Introduced Plug and Play, better GUI, and Internet
integration.
 Windows 2000/XP: Enhanced stability and security, widely adopted in
business and personal use.
 Windows Vista/7: Improved graphics, performance, and user interface.
 Windows 8/8.1: Introduced touch-screen support and modern UI.
  Windows 10: Unified platform for all devices, introduced Cortana, virtual
desktops.
 Windows 11 (latest): Redesigned UI, better performance, integrated
Android app support.

Common Uses of Windows OS

 Personal computing: Web browsing, gaming, media consumption.

 Business: Productivity tools (Microsoft Office), enterprise applications.
 Education: Learning platforms, coding, and software development.
 Servers and IT: Windows Server variants are used in data centers and
enterprise environments.

Managing Files and Folders in Windows Operating System

Managing files and folders in the Windows Operating System is essential for
keeping data organized and accessible. Windows offers a variety of tools and
features through File Explorer, the default file management interface, to perform
operations like creating, renaming, copying, moving, and deleting files and
folders.

1. File Explorer

File Explorer (formerly known as Windows Explorer) is the main interface used for
browsing, managing, and organizing files and folders.

 Access: Press Windows Key + E or click on the File Explorer icon on the
taskbar or Start menu.
 Navigation Pane: Shows the file structure (e.g., This PC, Documents,
Downloads).
 Address Bar: Displays the current folder location and allows direct
navigation.
 Ribbon Toolbar: Provides commands for managing files and folders (e.g.,
New Folder, Copy, Paste, Rename, Properties).
2. File and Folder Operations
Creating Files and Folders

 Steps:
1. Open File Explorer.
2. Navigate to the desired location.
3. Right-click and select New > Folder (or New > specific file type like
Text Document).
4. Enter a name and press Enter.

Renaming

 Select the file or folder → Right-click → Choose Rename → Type new name
→ Press Enter.

Copying and Moving

 Copy: Ctrl + C → Paste at new location with Ctrl + V.

 Cut (Move): Ctrl + X → Paste with Ctrl + V.
 You can also drag and drop items between folders.

Deleting

 Right-click on a file/folder → Select Delete or press Delete key.

 Deleted items go to the Recycle Bin, from where they can be restored or
permanently removed.

Searching

 Use the Search box in File Explorer to quickly find files and folders by name,
date, type, or content.

3. Folder Organization
Libraries

 Windows groups user folders like Documents, Pictures, Music, and Videos
into Libraries.
 These help users access similar types of content from different locations in
one place.
Sorting and Grouping

 Use View Options to sort files by name, date modified, size, type, etc.
 Grouping helps categorize files for easier navigation.

Tags and Properties

 Files (especially documents and images) can be tagged with keywords.

 Right-click → Properties → Add tags or details.

4. File Compression (ZIP)

 Windows allows compressing files into a ZIP folder.

 Select files/folders → Right-click → Send to > Compressed (zipped) folder.

5. Permissions and Security

 Windows supports setting file and folder permissions to control access.

 Right-click → Properties > Security tab → Set access for users or groups.

6. Backup and Recovery

 Use File History or Backup and Restore to back up important files.

 Restore previous versions of files if changes need to be undone.

7. Cloud Integration

 OneDrive integration allows automatic syncing of files to the cloud.

 Access files from other devices and share them via links.

Difference Between File and Folder

Here is a simple and clear comparison between a file and a folder:

Aspect File Folder

A file is a collection of data or A folder is a container used to

Definition
information. organize files and folders.
 Aspect File Folder

Stores content such as text, Organizes and groups related files

Purpose
images, or programs. and subfolders.

Contains data (e.g., document,

Content Contains files or other folders.
image, video).

Has a file extension (e.g., .docx,

Extension No file extension.
.jpg, .exe).

Opens Opened using an application Opened using File Explorer to view

With (e.g., Word, Paint). contents.

Resume.pdf, Photo.jpg,
Examples Documents, Downloads, Projects
Song.mp3

Control Panel in Windows

The Control Panel is a crucial component of the Microsoft Windows operating

system. It provides a centralized interface where users can view and modify
system settings and controls. From adjusting hardware configurations to
managing user accounts and installing software, the Control Panel helps manage
almost all aspects of the system.
✅Definition
Control Panel is a system utility in Windows that acts as a dashboard to access
various tools and options to control the behavior and appearance of the
operating system. It includes features for managing hardware, installing and
uninstalling software, adjusting accessibility options, configuring networks, and
more.

Control Panel is a system management utility in Windows that allows users to

configure and control system settings through a series of categorized icons and
tools.
✅How to Access Control Panel

 Method 1:
Click Start> Type "Control Panel"> Press Enter.
 Method 2:
Press Windows Key + R, type control, and press Enter.
 Method 3 (Windows 10/11):
Right-click the Start button> Select Control Panel (or Settings if Control
Panel is not listed, then search inside it).

✅Categories of Control Panel

The Control Panel organizes tools into different categories, especially in Category
View. These include:

1. System and Security

 View system info (processor, RAM, OS type)

 Manage Windows updates
 Backup and Restore
 Windows Defender Firewall
 Power Options
 Administrative Tools (e.g., Disk Cleanup, Event Viewer)

2. Network and Internet

 Set up wireless or wired networks

 View network status
 Change adapter settings
 Manage Internet Options (like homepage, privacy settings)

3. Hardware and Sound

 Add/remove printers and scanners

 Adjust sound settings
 Configure power settings
 Access Device Manager
4. Programs

 Install or uninstall software

Installation Steps

Now you can easily install and uninstall Softaken Software on Windows
platforms!

After downloading installer file, execute the following steps to install the
software:

1. Double Click the Softaken software icon from desktop or start menu

2. Follow the screen instructions

3. When the installation process completes message appears on the

software installation screen.

4. Click the finish button and use for your Software.

Uninstall program:

You can easily uninstall Softaken Software from your computer or Laptop.
Follow these simple steps to Uninstall Softaken Software

1. Click Start ->Control Panel. The Control Panel window appears.

2. Double-click the Add or Remove Programs icon. A list of the programs

installed on your computer appears.

3. Select Softaken Software And click the Remove button. A warning

message before uninstalling the software will be displayed on the screen.

4. Click the Yes button to un-install the software

5. Click OK button.
  View installed updates
 Set default programs for file types
 Turn Windows features on/off

5. User Accounts

 Create/remove user accounts

 Change account types
 Manage passwords and credentials
 Configure parental controls

6. Appearance and Personalization

 Change desktop background or themes

 Customize the taskbar and Start menu
 Adjust screen resolution
 Manage fonts

7. Clock and Region

 Set time and date

 Change time zones
 Adjust regional settings (e.g., language, formats)

8. Ease of Access

 Adjust settings for vision, hearing, and mobility

 Use tools like Narrator, Magnifier, and On-Screen Keyboard

✅View Modes in Control Panel

You can change how Control Panel displays items:

 Category View: Groups items into logical categories.

 Large Icons View: Shows all tools as large icons.
 Small Icons View: Shows all tools as small icons in a list.
To switch:
Go to the top-right of Control Panel > Click the “View by” dropdown.

Connecting keyboard, mouse, monitor, printer and projector to CPU

Connecting a keyboard, mouse, monitor, printer, and projector to a CPU

involves using various ports and cables. Keyboards and mice generally connect via
USB, while monitors use HDMI or VGA. Printers typically connect via USB or a
network, and projectors connect similarly to monitors, often via HDMI or VGA.

1.Keyboard and Mouse

These devices usually connect to the computer's USB ports. You can connect
them either with a wired USB connection or using a wireless dongle.

 Connection Type: USB (most common), PS/2 (older models), or Bluetooth

(wireless).
 How to Connect:
o USB Keyboard: Plug the USB connector into one of the USB ports on
the back or front of the CPU.
o Wireless Keyboard: Plug the wireless USB receiver into a USB port.
Ensure the keyboard has batteries and is turned on.
o PS/2 Keyboard: Plug into the purple PS/2 port on the back of the CPU
(used only for legacy systems).

2. Mouse

 Connection Type: USB, PS/2, or Bluetooth.

 How to Connect:
o USB Mouse: Insert into any available USB port on the CPU.
 o Wireless Mouse: Plug the receiver into a USB port. Power on the
mouse.
o PS/2 Mouse: Plug into the green PS/2 port on the back of the CPU
(older computers).

3. Monitor
Monitors connect to the CPU using either HDMI or VGA cables.The specific cable
type depends on the ports available on both the CPU and monitor.

 Connection Type: HDMI(High-Definition Multimedia Interface), VGA(Video

Graphics Array), DVI(Digital Visual Interface), or DisplayPort.
 How to Connect:
o Identify the port on both the monitor and the CPU (e.g., HDMI).
o Connect one end of the cable to the monitor and the other to the
CPU’s corresponding video output port.
o Plug in the monitor’s power cable and turn it on.
o Ti p: HDMI and Display Port support both video and audio. VGA and
DVI support video only.

4. Printer
Printers can be connected to the CPU via USB cable, or they can be connected to a
network.If connecting via USB, choose the appropriate cable (usually USB A to B).
 Connection Type: USB, Wi-Fi (wireless), or network (Ethernet).
 How to Connect:
o USB Printer: Plug the USB cable from the printer into a USB port on
the CPU.
o Wi-Fi Printer: Connect the printer to the same Wi-Fi network as your
computer, then install the drivers.
o Ethernet Printer: Connect the printer to the router or network switch
using an Ethernet cable. Then install it as a network printer on your
PC.

5. Projector
Projectors typically connect to the CPU via HDMI or VGA cables, similar to
monitors.You may also need to connect a USB cable for audio or other features.

 Connection Type: HDMI, VGA, or DisplayPort.

 How to Connect:
o Plug the video cable into the projector and the CPU’s video output
port.
 o Turn on the projector and select the correct input source (HDMI or
VGA).
o On Windows, press Windows + P to choose display options:
Duplicate, Extend, or Second screen only.

Connecting Steps (General):

1. Identify Ports: Locate the USB ports, HDMI ports, and VGA ports on the back of the
CPU and the corresponding ports on the monitor, printer, and projector.
2. Connect Cables: Plug in the appropriate cables to connect the devices to their
corresponding ports on the CPU.
3. Power On: Turn on the CPU, monitor, printer, and projector.
4. Install Drivers: If necessary, install the necessary drivers for the printer and projector to
ensure proper functionality.
5. Test Devices: Verify that all devices are functioning correctly.
Basic Troubleshooting for common computer issues

Trobleshooting:

Troubleshooting is a systematic problem-solving process used to identify and

resolve issues with a system, device, or process. It involves a logical approach,
often starting with gathering information about the problem, then testing,
diagnosing, and implementing solutions to restore functionality. Troubleshooting
is used in various contexts, from fixing a malfunctioning appliance to diagnosing
software issues.

❖Problem: Computer Won’t Power On

Causes:

 Faulty power cable or plug

 Loose or damaged connections
 Faulty Power Supply Unit (PSU)
 Motherboard issues

Troubleshooting Steps:

1. Check Power Source:

o Ensure the power outlet is working by plugging in another device.
 2. Inspect Power Cable:
o Check for visible damage.
o Ensure it's firmly connected to the PSU and wall outlet.
3. Power Button Test:
o Ensure the power button isn’t stuck or broken.
4. Try a Different Outlet or Power Strip:
o Eliminate a faulty surge protector or outlet.
5. Check PSU Switch and Voltage Selector (if any):
o Ensure it’s turned on.
o Make sure the voltage is set correctly (usually 110V/220V depending
on region).
6. Test with a Known Good PSU:
o Swap with a working power supply to confirm if the original is faulty.
7. Motherboard LED/Beep Code:
o Listen for beep codes or observe LEDs on the motherboard for
diagnostics.

Solution: If PSU is faulty, replace it. If no power despite working PSU, the issue
may lie in the motherboard or other internal components.

🖨 Handling Printer Issues

❖1. Paper Jam

Causes:

 Misaligned or wrinkled paper

 Using incorrect paper type
 Dirty rollers

Troubleshooting Steps:
 1. Turn Off Printer:
o Always power off before removing jammed paper.
2. Open All Accessible Panels:
o Check input and output trays, rear door, and cartridge area.
3. Gently Remove Jammed Paper:
o Pull in the direction of paper movement to avoid tearing.
4. Check for Leftover Paper Bits:
o Even small scraps can cause future jams.
5. Inspect and Clean Rollers:
o Use a lint-free cloth and rubbing alcohol.

Prevention: Use recommended paper types, store paper properly, and don’t
overload trays.

❖2. Printer Isn’t Printing

Causes:

 No connection (USB/Wi-Fi)
 Outdated or corrupted drivers
 Spooler service issues
 Empty ink/toner

Troubleshooting Steps:

1. Check Cable or Wi-Fi Connection:

o Ensure it's connected to the PC/network properly.
 2. Restart Printer and Computer:
o A reboot can reset minor software bugs.
3. Check Print Queue:
o Clear stuck print jobs.
4. Verify Default Printer Settings:
o Ensure the right printer is selected.
5. Check Ink/Toner Levels:
o Replace or refill if low.
6. Reinstall Printer Drivers:
o Download latest drivers from manufacturer’s website.
7. Restart Print Spooler:
o Go to Services > Print Spooler > Restart.

❖3. Paper Size Mismatch

Causes:

 Printer settings don’t match the paper loaded

 Wrong tray selection

Troubleshooting Steps:

1. Check Paper Settings in Software and Printer:

o Ensure software page size (A4, Letter, etc.) matches the loaded
paper.
2. Set Correct Paper Size on Printer Display (if available).
3. Adjust Tray Guides:
o Make sure paper fits snugly in the tray.
4. Clear Print Queue and Retry.
 🖨 Handling Scanner Issues
1. Paper Jams:
 Remove Jams: If the scanner indicates a paper jam, open the scanner and remove
any jammed pages, following the manufacturer's instructions.
 Check Feeder: Ensure the document feeder is properly aligned and not
overloaded with paper.
 Clean Rollers: Dirty or worn rollers can cause jams. Clean or replace them as
needed.
2. Poor Image Quality:
 Clean Scanner Glass: Use a soft, lint-free cloth and gentle glass cleaner to remove
dust and smudges from the scanner glass.
 Adjust Scanning Settings:
o DPI: Increase the DPI (dots per inch) for higher resolution scans, especially for
images.
o Brightness and Contrast: Adjust these settings in the scanner software to improve
image clarity.
 File Format: Save scanned images in high-quality formats like TIFF or PNG.
 Document Condition: Ensure documents are free of creases, tears, or wrinkles for
better scanning results.
 Check Paper Type: Use appropriate paper weight and type for the scanner and
intended use.
3. Other Issues:
 Check Connections:
Ensure the scanner is properly connected to the computer and the power
outlet.
 Update Drivers:
Outdated or corrupted drivers can cause scanner issues. Update the scanner
driver if necessary.
 Scan in Another Application:
Test scanning in another application to see if the issue is specific to one
program.