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 CORMS
- Change: Independent Variable, different masses/volume (don’t use amount)
- Organism: What are we going to keep same about the organism (same age)
- Repeat: Repeat with several groups… take average
- Measurement 1: Dependent variable- measurement (mass/length of …)
- Measurement 2: How long are we going to measure it for (time)
- Same 1: Control variables about environment (light intensity, temperature)
- Same 2: Specific control variables (same area, same container, …)
1. The nature and variety of
living organisms
Lesson 1 - Is it Alive?
What makes an organism considered alive?
Life Process Definition

An action by an organism or part of an organism causing a change of Quizlet

Movement position or place.

The chemical reactions in cells that break down nutrient molecules and
Respiration release energy for metabolism. H-
The ability to detect or sense stimuli in the internal or external homeostasis-
Sensitivity environment and to make appropriate responses. the
A permanent increase in size and dry mass by an increase in cell number maintenance
Growth or cell size or both.
of a constant
Reproduction The processes that make more of the same kind of organism internal
environment
Removal from organisms of the waste products of metabolism (chemical
Excretion reactions in cells including respiration), toxic
materials, and substances in excess of requirements.
Taking in of materials for energy, growth and development; plants require
Nutrition light, carbon dioxide, water and ions; animals need organic compounds
and ions and usually need water.
Lesson 2 - Variety of Organisms
Eukaryotic has a nucleus. Prokaryotic Eukaryotic
Lack nucleus Contain nucleus
● Plants
● Animals
● Fungi Small and simple Larger and more
● Protoctists complex

Prokaryotic has no nucleus. Oldest cell type Evolved from

prokaryotes
● Bacteria
Lack organelles Contain organelles

Pathogens cause harm

Single-celled Single or multicellular
● Viruses
● Bacteria
● Fungi Single circular Multiple linear
● Protoctists chromosome chromosomes
 Feature

Cell
Cell wall Cytoplasm Mitochondria Ribosomes Nucleus Chloroplasts Vacuole

Yes (cellulose) Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

Plants
No Yes Yes Yes Yes No No

Animals
Yes (chitin) Yes Yes Yes Yes No No

Fungi
No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes (some) No

Protoctists
Yes Yes No No No Yes (some) No
(peptidoglycan)
Bacteria
Plants
● Multicellular
Eukaryotic ● Cells contain chloroplasts
● Carry out photosynthesis
(autotrophic)
● Cellulose cell walls
● Store sugar as starch or
sucrose.

Flowering / non-flowering
 ● Multicellular
Animals ● Feeds on other organisms
(heterotrophic).
● Move from one place to
Eukaryotic another.
● Nervous coordination.
● No cell wall, no chloroplasts,
no photosynthesis.
● Store carbohydrates as
glycogen.

Vertebrates / invertebrates
Fungi ●

●
Multicellular or unicellular.
Cell call made of chitin.
Eukaryotic ● Network of fibers called
mycelium of hyphae which
have many nuclei.
● Saprophytic using
extracellular enzymes.
● Store carbohydrates as
glycogen.

Single-celled / multicellular
 Protoctists
Eukaryotic ● Most are single celled.
● Doesn’t fit in with anything
else “dustbin” kingdom
● Some are more like animal
and others are like plants

More animal like / more plant-like

 Small single celled
Bacteria
●
organisms.
● Cell wall of peptidoglycan.
● Some have capsule or slime
Prokaryotic layer.
● No nucleus.
● Flagella for movement.
● Small loops of DNA called
plasmids.
● Has one circular
chromosome.
● Some can do photosynthesis.

Rod-shaped / spherical-shaped
Virus ● Very small particles
● Parasitic- hack the host cell
Non-living to make copies of itself
● Able to infect every type of
cell.
● Envelope is used to gain
entry to host cell
● Protein coat to protect
DNA/RNA

Rod-shaped / spherical-shaped
2. Structure and functions
in living organisms
Level Definition Animal example Plant example
Organelle The structures within a cell Mitochondria, Nucleus Chloroplasts, Vacuole
that perform a specific
function. Found within the
cytoplasm of eukaryotic and
prokaryotic cells.

Cell Building blocks of life. May Neurons in animals, red blood Palisade cells in plants
be specialised. cells in animals.

Tissue A group of similar cells which Muscular tissue is specialised Phloem tissue, root tissue,
work together to perform a for movement leaf tissue
specific function

Organ Structures formed from Lungs, kidneys Leaves and roots

different tissues that work
together to perform a specific
function
Lesson 3 - Cells and Organisation
 Bacterial Cell
ell wall- peptidoglycan, maintains shape legella- controls moveme
lime capsule-
protection against
drying out ell membrane- semi permeable
membrane
lasmid- small circular strends of DNA
NA nucleoid-
where DNA
is located

ytoplasm-
fluid in
which
everything
is contained
 Ribosomes
ribosome
Site of protein
synthesis
Cell wall Cell membrane
Provides Semi permeable
rigidity membrane
Vacuoles Nucleus
Fluid- maintains Stores
rigidity DNA

Chloroplasts
Site of Cytoplasm
photosynthesis Thick liquid containing
organelles

Mitochondria
Site of aerobic
Cell membrane
Keeps cell shape

Nucleus
Contains DNA
Ribosomes
Site of protein
synthesis

Cytoplasm
Jelly like fluid
containing organelles
Mitochondria
Site of aerobic
Lesson 4 - Stem cells

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Lesson 5 - Biological molecule
All organic
(carbon-containing)
 Starch: plants

Glycogen: animals
Carbohydrates
Broken down (dissolves in water) to
create energy for ATP/respiration
Food tests
 Enzymes

Enzymes are proteins

each enzyme only works with a single type of
substrate. Due to active site.

enzyme-substrate complex (ESC): Enzymes

joined with substrates.
Products will then be released
 Suffix of -ase
Lock and key: =
Name of enzyme eg:
Door: enzyme Carbohydrase
Lock: active-site
Key: substrate
Key in lock: enzyme-substrate complex
If temp is too high: enzyme denatures (irreversible)

An enzyme can join two small substrates (molecules) and

form a large product.
● In a similar way to temperature, enzymes have an optimum pH and this will change
between enzymes.
● However, the shape of an enzyme curve is quite different to that seen with temperature
● It takes on the form of a normal distribution curve as shown below.
● The optimum pH for this enzyme is between 5 and 6.
● Either side of the optimum, the rate of reaction decreases.
● If the pH is lower than 3 or higher than 8, the rate of reaction is very slow and this is
because the enzyme has been denatured.
• Lipase – enzyme which breaks
Pepsin (stomach)
down fats in the small intestine Amylase (mouth)

Lipase (small
• Pepsin – a protease enzyme that intestine)
breaks down proteins in the
stomach

• Amylase – enzyme found in saliva

in the mouth
Too many enzymes where all substrates Too many substrates where there are too
already have an active site not enough enzymes.
Lesson 6 - Movement in cells
 Diffusion
Movement of molecules Doesn’t require energy
from an area of higher (moves along the
concentration to an area concentration gradient)
of lower concentration Passive process
 Osmosis
Movement of water Water potential:
molecules from an area of
Ability of water molecules
higher water potential to
to move freely within a
an area of lower water
solution.
potential, across a
partially permeable
More solutes = less water
membrane.
potential
 Active transport
Movement of molecules Concentration gradient:
move from a lower
concentration to a higher The different of
concentration against the concentration between
concentration gradient. two areas.
Requires energy.
Hypotonic
Isotonic
Hypo = low

Tonic = solutes Iso = mid

Hypotonic: water moves from outside Tonic = solutes

to inside
Isotonic: Water doesn’t move.

Hypertonic
Hyper = high

Tonic = solutes

Hypertonic: water moves from inside to

outside
Solution in which Water potential of Direction of Final appearance Final appearance
cell is suspended solution vs cell movement by if suspended cell if suspended cell
osmosis is a plant cell is an animal cell

Hypotonic Solution has higher Water moves from Turgid Lysis

water potential solution into the cell

Isotonic Solution and cell No net movement No change No change

have equal water of water
potential

Hypertonic The solution has Water moves from Plasmolysis Crenated

lower water the cell into the
potential solution
Exam questions be
like Marks

- Which has higher water potential

“Describe and explain what - Water moves due to osmosis from
happens to a plant cell when ___ to ___
it is suspended in a hypotonic - From higher water potential to lower
solution water potential
(4 marks)” - Result of osmosis
 Examples of active transport
Active transport in animals
Glucose in
During digestion, glucose moves through
low
the gut wall and into our blood vessels
concentration Active transport in plants
through intestinal cells. After a sugary
in the gut Soil ni
meal high in glucose, the concentration of Plants require mineral ions such as
must move l
glucose will be higher in the gut than in the nitrates, phosphates and many more.
through the conce
intestinal cells. Glucose will therefore Minerals assist in the growth, repair and Active
intestinal cells
move from an area of high to low health of the plant. Mineral ions must
via active
concentration. move from the soil to the root hair cells in
transport
plant roots. The minerals are moving from
using energy
There will be times when the glucose a low concentration in the soil to a high
concentration is higher in the intestinal concentration in the root hair cell. This Nitrate
cells (where glucose must pass through to process requires energy. Active transport conce
the blood) than in the gut. As all glucose in is therefore occurring in the roots of plants.
Glucose moves
through the intestinal the gut must be absorbed, this process
cells (blue) to the requires active transport. Using energy
blood vessel (red) from respiration, glucose molecules move
from an area of low to high concentration.
 Factors affecting movement

Temperature Distance
The higher the
If the distance is smaller
temperature, the faster the
the diffusion is faster
rate of diffusion because
because the particles don’t
there’s more kinetic energy
have to travel as far
and therefore the particles
move and mix quicker.

Surface area:volume ratio

Difference in concentration gradient
The larger the surface area the faster the rate of
transport because there is more space for diffusion The greater the difference in concentration, the
to happen. As the size of the organism increases, its quicker the rate of diffusion and osmosis
surface area to volume ratio decreases. The higher
the ratio, the faster the rate of movement.
Surface area to volume ratio practical (diffusion)

The smaller the cube, the higher the surface area to volume ratio.

The higher the surface area to volume ratio, the faster the rate of
diffusion.

This is why our bodies are made up of many small cells instead of
few large cells.
Lesson 7 - Nutrition in plants
 Photosynthesis is the chemical reaction that occurs in green plants,
algae and phytoplankton. In plants, the reaction occurs in the leaf
and specifically in a group of cells called the palisade cells which are
located in the mesophyll layer. These cells are adapted to their
function of carrying out photosynthesis by having lots of the
organelles called chloroplasts. Inside these chloroplasts, there is the
green pigment called chlorophyll which is able to absorb light energy,
an essential catalyst for the reaction.
The two reactants of photosynthesis are carbon dioxide and water.
Carbon dioxide diffuses into the leaf through the stomata and then
moves through the air spaces between the spongy mesophyll cells to
get to the palisade cells. Water is absorbed from the soil by osmosis
by the root hair cells and travels to the leaves in the xylem vessel.
The products of the reaction are glucose and oxygen. The latter
diffuses out of the leaf via the stomata and is used by other
organisms for aerobic respiration. Glucose is used for a range of
purposes…….
 Glucose usage and storage in plants
Glucose is joined together to form the polysaccharide starch to be stored.

Fats/oils

Starch
GLUCOSE
Proteins

Cellulose Sucrose
● Light intensity
● CO2 concentration Photosynthesis Limiting Factors
● Temperature

(Enzymes denaturing)
Describing a graph
“Stacking” limiting factors
Lesson 8 - Nutrition in humans
Component of balanced diet Sources Required for

Protein Meat, beans, milk Growth and repair of cells

Carbohydrate Rice, potato, pasta High energy source

Lipid (fat and oil) Butter, avocado, nuts Energy store, insulation, cell membranes

Minerals: iron Liver, meat, beans Haemoglobin- blood production

Minerals: calcium Milk, squash, almonds Bone growth and stability

Vitamin A Fish oils, liver, eggs Vision, healthy teeth and skin

Vitamin C Bell peppers, strawberries, Helps absorb iron

potatoes

Vitamin D Salmon, swordfish Helps absorb calcium

Dietary fibre Fruits, vegetables Keep food moving through gut

Water Coca-cola, beer, vodka Needed for cell reactions to take place
 Deficiency symptoms

Deficiency Condition Symptoms

Vitamin C Scurvy Weakness, tiredness, loss of

teeth.
Vitamin D Rickets Softening of bones, which
leads to ineffective growth
and reduced mobility
Iron Anaemia (low hemoglobin and
therefore less ability to carry
oxygen around)

Eyes yellowing, skin

paleness.
Human alimentary canal
Organ Function

Mouth Mechanical digestion

Oesophagus Peristalsis

Liver Produces bile

(emulsifies fats)

Gallbladder Stores bile

Stomach Mixes food with acid

Pancreas Produces enzymes

Small intestine Carbohydrates and

(duodenum + ileum) proteins digest

Large intestine Water absorbed

Rectum + anus egestion

Bile (added in duodenum)
- Neutralises acid
- Emulsifies fat

Villi (in ileum)

- Finger-like projections to
maximize SA
- Thin wall for short diffusion dist.
- Transports molecules away for
steep concentration gradient
- Made up of microvilli with many
blood capillaries.

Assimilation: digested food

becoming part of cells.
Lesson 9 - Respiration
Aerobic respiration: Chemical processes in which glucose is
completely broken down to form energy in the presence of oxygen
Anaerobic respiration: Glucose is incompletely broken down in
the presence of little oxygen, releasing a small amount of quick
energy

Animals:

Plants and fungi:

Practical - aerobic and anaerobic
respiration
Practical - changes in rate of anaerobic respiration

Investigate:
Temperature:
● Water baths
● Measure volume of gas over time
● Enzyme-controlled reaction: has
optimum temperature
Glucose concentration:
● Differ concentrations
Lesson 10 - Human gas exchange
Gas exchange: when we breathe in oxygen and give out carbon dioxide.
(due to respiration)

All enclosed within thorax

Trachea

Bronchiole

Bronchus
Rib cage
Alveoli Lungs

Diaphragm
Diaphragm and intercostal muscles in ventilation
During inhalation: During exhalation:

- Diaphragm contracts - Diaphragm relaxes

- External intercostal muscles - External intercostal muscles relax
contract - (Decrease volume of thorax
- (Increases volume of thorax - Increase in air pressure inside
- Decrease in air pressure inside lungs
lungs - Air is forced out)
- Air is drawn in)
Alveoli Adaptations

Adaptation Reason

1. Large surface area 1. More surface area for

2. 1 cell thick diffusion
3. Steep concentration 2. Short diffusion
gradient distance
4. Moist lining 3. Maintain high rate of
diffusion
4. Gases dissolve in the
moisture helping them
pass across the
surface
Smoking causes: Because of:
- Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease - Tar
(COPD) - Nicotine
- Coronary heart disease - Carbon monoxide
- Lung cancer
 Day vs. night
Day: Net movement of CO2 IN

Night: Net movement of CO2 OUT

Gas exchange in plants
Gas exchange is performed through diffusion
Adaptations:
● Thin- short diffusion distance
● Flat- large SA:VOL
● Air spaces to allow movement
● Stomata open in sunlight (by
osmosis)
● Guard cells & stomata control
movement of gases.
Lesson 11 - Transport in plants
 Unicellular organisms don’t Multicellular organisms require
need transport system transport system

- Can rely on - Can’t rely on movement of

diffusion/osmosis/active transport substances

Due to: Because:

- High SA:VOL ratio - Small SA:VOL ratio: movement of

- Short diffusion distance (0.01mm) substances too slow.
Xylem vs Phloem
- Transport system made up of a network
of veins (vascular bundles)
- 2 types of vessel within vascular
bundle: xylem and phloem

Xylem Phloem

Transports water + mineral ions Transports sugars + amino acids

Movement from roots to shoots (leaves) Movement in any direction

Inside on cross-diagram Outside on cross-diagram

 Transpiration
- Transpiration: The loss of water vapour
from parts of plant above ground.
- Water is lost when stomata opens for
gas exchange
- Flows in continuous transpiration stream
due to cohesion of water.

Water was absorbed

from the roots
through osmosis
(due to large SA)
Factors affecting rate of transpiration

Rate of Rate of
transpiration transpiration

Light intensity Temperature

- More light = more open stomata
- Eventually all stomata will be open. - More air particle movement

Rate of Rate of
transpiration transpiration

Wind speed Humidity

- Moves water particles around leaf away
- Humidity reduces
- Increases concentration gradient
concentration gradient
Lesson 12 - Transport in humans
Components of Blood Plasma

A straw-coloured liquid.

Transports:
- Carbon dioxide
- Digested food and mineral ions
- Urea (waste product from the
breakdown of proteins)
- Hormones
- Heat energy
Red blood cells

Adaptation Reason

1. Contains 1. A protein that binds

haemoglobin with oxygen
2. No nucleus 2. More space for
3. Biconcave disc haemoglobin
3. Larger SA:VOL ratio
to maximise diffusion
 Protect body against pathogens through
White Blood Cells phagocytosis and antibody production

70% phagocytes: Engulf and destroy 25% lymphocytes: Produces antibodies. Stick
pathogens through phagocytosis to antigens which are on pathogens.

- Digest with enzymes - Cause pathogens to burst or stick together

so phagocytes can engulf
- Neutralizes toxins produced

Clotting:
Platelets clot blood to stop
- Some turn into memory cells which remain
bleeding and prevent infection.
in blood for years to recognize pathogen
Fibrinogen (protein in plasma) is faster (secondary immune response)
changed into fibrin, which helps - Vaccines (dead/weakened pathogens)
blood clot. “trick” body into producing antibodies
- Memory cells from antibodies remain in
bloodstream for years.
Structure & function of the heart
Left: oxygenated
- Made from cardiac muscle which never
Right: deoxygenated
gets tired
- Pumps blood by contracting and relaxing
- Valves ensure blood flows in one direction
- Blood towards the heart: Veins
- Away from heart: Arteries
- Capillaries: exchange material between
blood and cells

Tricuspid valve
Bicuspid valve Heart pumps faster during exercise:

- Muscles respire more

- Need more glucose + oxygen, has more
waste products
Coronary Heart Disease Circulation system
- Plaque buildup in walls of arteries and Closed network of blood vessels connected to the heart.
blocks blood supply to heart

Risk factors:

- High blood pressure

- High cholesterol
- Diabetes
- Obesity
 Arteries Veins Capillaries
Thinner muscular wall
Thick muscular wall As blood pressure is A capillary doesn’t
To withstand the high low, there isn’t a need have a muscular wall.
for a lot of muscle (and Surrounding the
blood pressure elastic fibres) lumen is an
endothelium, which
is just a single layer
of cells

A capillary has a very

small lumen which
Narrow lumen means that red blood
Wider lumen
To maintain the high cells have to travel
To ease the flow of through in single file
blood pressure blood
Lesson 12 - Excretion in Plants
Excretion is the removal of metabolic waste products from an organism
Metabolism is all the chemical reactions that take place in the cells of an organism.

Plants carry out:

Carbon Dioxide
Gases move by
Photosynthesis diffusion through
the stomata of the Respiration
leaves
During respiration,
During photosynthesis,
carbon dioxide enters
oxygen enters the leaf
the leaf and oxygen
exits the leaf.
Oxygen and carbon dioxide
exits the leaf.
Lesson 12 - Excretion in Humans
 3 organs of excretion

Kidneys - urine: Removes urea, Lungs - breaths:

water, and ions from blood. Skin - sweat: Removes Removes CO2 and
water and salt. water from the blood
Urea: Excess, toxic nitrogen
The Urinary System
Renal vein
- Blood enters kidney from
renal artery
Kidney
- It’s filtered and passes
through renal vein Renal artery
- Urine that’s made passes Ureter

out through ureters into

bladder
- Held by sphincters Bladder

Urethra
The Kidney
Cortex: Outer section

Medulla: Inner section

(pyramids)

Nephrons in cortex filter blood.

Urine collect in tubes and drain
into the pyramid & pelvis
The Nephron
Glomerulus: A bundle of
capillaries

Bowman’s capsule: Small

parts of blood are forced out
(ultrafiltration)

Glomerular filtrate: Glucose,

amino acids, water, fats, ions,
urea.
The Nephron -
Reabsorption
Proximal convoluted tubule: Selective
reabsorption of glucose

Loop of Henlé: Selective reabsorption

of water & salt

Distal convoluted tubule: More water

reabsorbed

Collecting duct: Body fine tunes how

much water to reabsorb using hormone
ADH
Osmoregulation: Controlling water in blood using kidney
Hypothalamus signals pituitary gland to release ADH, which controls permeability
of collecting duct

Negative feedback
loop to maintain
homeostasis
Describe the function of a nephron
Blood comes into the nephron through a bundle of capillaries called the glomerulus. This travels
into the bowman’s capsule, where ultrafiltration forces out small parts of the blood (salts,
glucose, water) into the nephron.
The filtrate travels through the proximal convoluted tubule, where glucose is selectively
reabsorbed into the capillaries through active transport.
Then, the filtrate travels into the loop of henle, where salts and water are reabsorbed into the
bloodstream through diffusion and osmosis respectively.
After that, the filtrate travels into the distal convoluted tubule where more water is reabsorbed
through osmosis.
Finally, the remaining filtrate travels through the collecting duct, where the body is able to find
tune how much water is reabsorbed through ADH (a hormone). The remaining fluid travels to the
ureter the is what is known as urine.
Lesson 13 - Coordination and response
 Responding to stimuli keeps us alive

Homeostasis: Maintenance of a constant internal environment

Water CO2 pH
Glucose Salts Temperature

Stimulus

Receptor cells

Effector cells
(muscles/gland)
Lesson 13b - Coordination and response
in humans
 2 systems connecting receptors to effectors

Nervous System Endocrine System

Communication is via electrical
Communication is via hormones
impulses that travel down
that travel in the blood.
neurons.

The response happens instantly. The response takes a long time.

The response is short-lived. The response lasts a long time.

Hormones can have a

The impulse acts on one or a few
widespread effect on many
cells only.
cells and organs.
Nervous System
Stimulus
● CNS: Brain and spinal cord
● PNS: All the nerves Receptors

Electrical impulses spread from the CNS to Electrical impulses in nerves

other parts of the body through the nerves.
CNS
The CNS is a central coordinating centre where
impulses come in and are sent out to any part of
the body. Electrical impulses in nerves

Effector

Rapid response
Synapses
● Connection between 2
neurons
● The impulse is transferred
from one neuron to another
using chemicals called
neurotransmitters
● These chemicals diffuse
across the synapse.
Reflex arc
● Reflexes are
automatic/subconscious.
Pathway taken by
electrical impulse along
neurons is the reflex arc.
● Awareness of response
only after response has
been carried out.
The eye - structure
The eye is a sense organ
containing receptor cells to detect
the stimulus of light.

The retina has 2 types of

receptors: rods (sensitive to light),
and cones (sensitive to colour)

Lens: Changes shape to focus light onto retina.

Ciliary muscle: Ring of muscles that changes the
shape of the lens.
Suspensory ligaments: Ligaments that connect
the ciliary muscle to the lens.
The eye - function
Focusing on near and far objects

The pupil reflex - dilation and constriction

Skin - temperature regulation (example of homeostasis)
Too hot - Cooling mechanism Too cold - Warming mechanism

1. Vasodilation of skin capillaries 1. Vasoconstriction of skin capillaries

a. Muscles in arteriole walls relax. a. Muscles in arteriole walls contract.
b. More blood flows in capillaries in skin. b. Less blood flows in capillaries in skin.
c. Increased heat loss through radiation. c. Less heat loss via radiation.
2. Sweating 2. Shivering
a. Sweat is secreted by sweat glands . a. A reflex action in response to decrease in
b. The liquid evaporates from skin, using heat core temperature
energy from the body and cooling the skin. b. Muscles contract rapidly and regularly.
3. Flattening of hairs c. Metabolic reactions powering the
a. Hair erector muscles relax, making hairs lie movement generate heat to warm blood.
flat. 3. Erection of hairs
b. Stops them from creating an insulating a. Hair erector muscles contract, making
layer, allows air to circulate over skin and hairs stand on end.
take away heat by radiation. b. Traps air between hairs
c. Forms insulating layer- stops heat loss by
radiation.
 Hormones

- A hormone is a chemical
messenger
- Hormones have long-term or
developmental effect
- Hormones are released by
endocrine glands (exocrine =
digestive glands)
- Transported by blood
- Produced by the source with one
or more targets
Lesson 13c - Coordination and response
in plants
Tropism Auxins
Tropism: Plant’s response to stimulus Auxins are plant regulators (hormones) that
make cells elongate. They’re produced on the
Geotropism (gravity):
tip of plants.
Positive: Roots grow towards gravity in
When experiencing light from one side, auxins
germinating seeds
diffuse to the opposite side, elongating those
Negative: Shoots grow away from gravity to cells faster.
absorb more sunlight
This unequal distribution of auxin leads to
Phototropism (light): unequal rates of cell elongation and causes the
plant to bend.
Positive: Leafs grow towards light to
photosynthesise more

Negative: Roots grow away from light for soil

nutrients and water
3. Reproduction and
inheritance
Lesson 14 - Reproduction
 Asexual reproduction Sexual reproduction
One parent Two parents

Produced by mitosis/binary fission Produced from the fusion of two haploid

gametes, which are produced by meiosis
Large numbers of offspring produced
Limited number of offspring, slowly produced
Produced very fast
Genetic variation
Little genetic variation (diseases spread)
● Each parent contributes 50% of DNA
● Meiotic cell division means different
combinations of alleles
● Chromosomes are randomly distributed
into gametes
DNA Cell division in eukaryotic cells
Mitosis
● ATCG (genetic code) ● Divide by mitosis or meiosis
● They’re the material of ● Mitosis = copy of cell (same
inheritance genetic information)
● They’re the code for protein ○ Asexual reproduction
synthesis ○ Growth & repair
○ Diploid (2n): “normal” cell
● Meiosis = gamete production,
Meiosis
sexual reproduction
○ 1 diploid -> 2 haploids
○ Haploid: 1 full half set of
chromosomes
Cell fusion
Fertilisation
● Specialised cells are used to
reproduce (gametes formed by ● Fertilisation: when the male and
meiosis). female gamete nuclei from the
● They contain ½ DNA of a sex cells join to make a zygote.
normal cell. ● Zygote: first cell of the new
● Sperm, pollen and egg cells. living thing produced.

2 types of fertilization

● External fertilization
○ 1. Female deposits eggs
○ 2. Male spreads sperm
● Internal fertilization
○ Combines inside female

Diploids
Haploids
(gametes)
Lesson 15 - Reproduction in Flowers
 Flower structure (general)

● Receptacle: Supports the flower. May contain

nectaries or ovaries
● Sepal: Protects the developing flower
● Petal: Attracts pollinators
● Stamen: male reproductive organ of the flower
○ Anther: The part of the stamen that contains the
pollen (male gametes)
○ Filament: Anchors the anther to the base of the
flower
● Carpel: Female reproductive organ
○ Stigma: Receives pollen
○ Style: Connects stigma to ovary (transports
pollen)
● Ovary: stores the ovule
○ Ovule: Forms the seeds of flowering plants
■ Ova: The eggs
 Insect-Pollinated
Features Wind-Pollinated Flowers
Wind vs. insect pollination Flowers

Flower Color Courless Colourful

Presence of
None Present
Nectar

Odour None Pleasant scent

Anther Hiddened in flower and

External and exposed
Position positioned carefully

Filament Long and slender Short and strong

Pollen Lightweight, abundant Sticky, less in number

Exposed, large SA and

Stigma Inside flower, small
feathery

Pollinating
Wind Insects and birds
Agents
 Pollination
Fertilisation in plants
1. Pollen tube begins to grow down the
style from the stigma into the ovary
wall and ovule.
2. Pollen nucleus moves down pollen
tube and into the ovary
3. Pollen nucleus (male gamete) fuses
with ovum nucleus (female gamete)
to fertilize and form a zygote.

4. A fruit is formed
a. Ovule turn into seeds
b. Ovary wall turns into the fruit Fertilisation
5. The seeds in the fruit are spread
and germinate to form a new plant.

● Fruits: Organs produced by

flowers containing seeds.
Germination
● Germination: the start of the
growth in a seed
○ Embryo uses food stores in
cotyledons to grow until it’s
capable of photosynthesis.

3 necessary conditions:

● Water
● Oxygen
● Temperature (warm)
Asexual reproduction in plants
Natural: Runners Artificial: Cuttings

● Side branches with plantlets grow out ● A section with a new bud is cut off
● The branch touches the soil ● The section is placed in water (with rooting
● Roots grow from the plantlets and become hormone) so roots grow
independent ● Planted into soil

Used to cheaply and quickly produce the

healthiest plants.

Both produce clones (genetically identical offspring)

Lesson 15 - Reproduction in Humans
Oestrogen Progesterone Testosterone
Source: Ovaries Source: Ovaries Source: Testes

Released by stimulus of FSH Maintains conditions for Causes production of sperm

pregnancy. cells
FSH: Follicle Stimulating
Hormone, secreted by the “Pregnancy-preparation”
pituitary gland → triggers
oestrogen production

LH: Luteinizing Hormone,

secreted by the pituitary gland
→ triggers ovulation

“Egg-generation”
Structure of male reproductive organ Structure Function
Seminal Vesicle,
Prostate gland Glands (prostate & Adds sugars and
seminal vesicle) liquids to sperm

Sperm passes
Sperm duct
through to urethra

Tube that carries

Urethra
semen or urine

Produces sperm
Testis
and testosterone

Sac to keep testes

Scrotum
cool

Epididymis Epididymis Stores sperm

Structure of female reproductive organ Structure Function

Carries egg by
ciliated cells to
Oviduct
uterus. Common
site of fertilisation.

Produces ova and

Ovary
hormones

Muscular bag
where zygote
Uterus
implants and
develops into foetus

Ring of muscle to
Cervix seal womb during
pregnancy.

Sexual intercourse
Vagina
and exit of baby.
The Menstrual Cycle
Oestrogen: Causes growth in uterus
lining. (peaks before ovulation)

Progesterone: Maintains thickness

of uterus lining (peaks after ovulation)

FSH: Causes egg to start maturing

(in ovary) (peaks low at ovulation)

LH: Causes ovulation to occur,

stimulates production of
progesterone. (peaks high at
ovulation)
Menstruation
Embryo development - placenta & amniotic fluid
Placenta: Amniotic fluid:

● Allows mother’s blood to come close to ● A fluid produced by the mother’s blood
fetus blood but never mix. plasma
○ Removes waste products (CO2 & ● Inside the amniotic sac (which is inside the
urea) and supply nutrients (O2 and placenta)
glucose)
● Substances move by diffusion / active
transport ● It protects the embryo by cushioning it
● Barrier to toxins and pathogens from bumps to the mother’s abdomen.
Secondary sexual characteristics
● Secondary sexual characteristics are caused by changes during puberty due
to the release of oestrogen and testosterone
Inheritance - Intro to genetics
 Structure
Genome - Entire genetic material of a specie
(present in each nuclei)

Chromosomes - Structures in nuclei that (appear in pairs)

supercoil DNA (46 in diploid, 23 in haploid)

Genes - Segments of DNA that codes for a (appear in paris

Alleles: Variations of a gene. called genotypes or
specific protein simply genes)

DNA - Double-helix shaped fundamental

structure that codes for proteins.

Bases - Building blocks of DNA (ATCG)

Inheritance - Mendelian genetics
 Monohybrid inheritance

P Pure black & pure white

TT x tt
Pure-bred black x Pure-bred white
Homozygous Homozygous
dominant recessive

F1 All black

Hetero black x Hetero black Tt x Tt

Heterozygous Heterozygous

F2 1 in 4 white

● Phenotype: The appearance of a genotype.

● Homozygous: When a genotype is made up of a pair of
● Genotype: The pair of alleles for a specific protein.
the same alleles.
● Dominant allele: Expresses its phenotype even when only
● Heterozygous: When a genotype is made up of two
one is present in a gene.
different alleles.
● Recessive allele: Only expressed when homozygous.
Inheritance - Sex and Pedigree
Sex chromosomes
● Sex is determined by an entire
chromosome pair
○ Not a number of genes

● Females: XX
● Males: XY

● We say that the father is responsible for

determining the sex of a child as only he
can pass on the Y chromosome.
● We usually put alleles in punnett squares, but
this time we’re using chromosomes.
Inheritance - DNA and RNA
DNA RNA
● Double-stranded (supercoiled → double helix) ● Single-stranded
● Deoxyribose sugar ● Ribose sugar
● Adenine - Thymine ● Adenine - Uracil
● Guanine - Cytosine ● Guanine - Cytosine
● Found in nucleus ● Found in nucleus and cytoplasm
● Polymer (polynucleotide) ● Polymer (polynucleotide)

Deoxyribonucleic acid Ribonucleic acid

Inheritance - Codominance & Polygenes
Codominance Polygenetics
Codominance: A genotype in which the Polygenetic: A phenotype controlled by one
phenotype of both alleles are expressed in the than one gene (this is true for most phenotypes)
heterozygote.
E.g. eye colour

P: Usually show up as continuous variation (normal

Purebred
distribution)

WW RR

F1:
Codominance

RW

F2:
50% Codominance
Inheritance - Protein Synthesis
 mRNA forms
mRNA leaves
through
DNA unwinds nucleus
complementary
through pores
base pairing

DNA is too large Transcription

to exit nucleus
(nucleus)

Ribosome reads the

Translation
codes and brings (cytoplasm) Ribosome moves
tRNA along from codon to
codon

Amino acids are tRNA with

attached to each anticodons
mRNA arrives
tRNA anticodon match codons
(3 bases) on at ribosome
and bonds to form
proteins mRNA
 mRNA leaves
nucleus

Transcription
(nucleus)

Translation
(cytoplasm)
Inheritance - Genetic mutations
Mutations Causes of mutations

● Rare, random changes in sequence of DNA ● Mutations are spontaneous and continuous
bases

Effects of mutations
● Mutation frequency can be increased by:
● Most mutations have no / a small effect on ○ Ionising radiation
phenotype ○ Chemical mutagens (e.g. tobacco)
● Mutations rarely have a significant effect
○ May alter ability of protein to perform
function
○ Development of new alleles: survival
advantage
Inheritance - Evolution by natural selection
 Variation: Difference in phenotype

Continuous Discontinuous/co
Discontinuous ntinuous

Entirely genetic Mix of genes & Entirely

E.g. Blood types environment environmental
E.g. Height E.g. Language
Darwin’s theory of evolution
Evolution: The change in frequency of a phenotype in a population over time

Evolution Natural selection

● Species show a range of variation ● Mutations cause variation within species

● Those with the characteristics most suited ● Some individuals have a phenotype that’s
to the environment survive and reproduce advantageous to survival
● These favorable traits are more likely to be ○ Survive (live longer)
passed onto offspring ○ Breed more
○ More likely to pass genes on
● These beneficial traits become more
● Repeated over generations, the new
common as time passes.
advantageous phenotype become more
(Natural selection is a process mechanism of common
evolution)
Only happens in heritable characteristics: When
traits are passed through generations via genes
5. Use of biological
resources
Food production - Microorganisms
Yeast - Bread
Yeast: Single-celled fungus

Will anaerobically respire in the

absence of oxygen

(will still respire anaerobically with lots of

sugar and oxygen)

Yeast releases enzymes to break

starch (from flour) into sugars

CO2 makes bread rise

Ethanol is evaporated in heat

Investigating yeast Bacteria - Yogurt
(Temperature & anaerobic respiration) 1. All Milk pasteurised (heated to 90ºC) to
remove unwanted bacteria
● Use oil layer to prevent O2 from entering
2. Lactobacillus added at 40ºC
● Count # of bubbles in limewater
3. Incubated
a. Lactobacillus digest milk proteins
This is an enzyme-controlled-reaction, so there
b. Lactobacillus ferment lactose into lactic
is an optimum temperature.
acid (acidic so preservative)
4. Cooled to halt action of lactobacillus
5. Flavourings added
 - Used to culture large amounts of microorganisms (for food production)
Industrial fermenter - Fermenter can control conditions

Controlled condition Reason

Aseptic precautions Ensure only wanted

microorganisms grow

Nutrients Provides energy for

growth

Optimum pH & Optimum condition for

temperature enzymes and
microorganisms

Oxygenation For aerobic respiration

Agitation Ensure even distribution

of everything
Food production - Polytunnels, pesticides,
and fish farming
Greenhouses/polytunnels Fertilisers
● Temperature, water levels, fertilisers, and CO2 ● Organic/inorganic
concentration (limiting factors) are optimised ● Provides mineral ions:
○ Artificial lighting ○ Nitrogen: Amino acids
○ Artificial heating ○ Phosphorus: DNA & cell membrane
○ Increasing CO2 ○ Potassium: Enzymes
○ Prevents pests from entering
○ Regular watering

Pest control ● Pest: Animals that cause a problem to crops

● We can biologically control pests: introducing predators or bacteria
○ Advantage: No pollution, long-lasting
○ Disadvantage: Takes longer to work, may not kill entire population
● Or we can use pesticides
○ Advantage: Protect crops, increase yield
○ Disadvantage: May bioaccumulate in body, kill other beneficial organisms
 Method used Explanation

Maintaining water quality Water filtered to remove

Fish farming harmful bacteria/metals.

Reason: Provide source of Controlling predation Intraspecific: Separated by

size so don’t fight.
protein for humans.
Interspecific: Different species
● Raise large numbers of fish separated.
in small spaces
Controlling disease Antibiotics to increase
● Controlled environment -> survival.
better fish
Removing waste products Water filtered to remove
faeces.

Controlling feeding Quality frequency controlled.

Selective breeding Only allow fish w/ desired

traits to reproduce to maintain
these traits
Selective breeding
Process Plants/animals
1. Select 2 individuals w/ desirable traits E.g. Wheat (yield)
2. Breed them
● Cross wheat with large head & long legs
3. Repeat over many generations
with wheat with short stems but small
head.
● We get wheat with short stems and a large
head (ideal).

E.g Cows (milk production)

● Select female with large milk production

● Select male whose mom had large milk
production
● Breed & repeat over generations
Genetic Modification
Process of genetic Uses of GM
modification
Manufacturing human insulin
1. Cut DNA with a specific restriction enzyme
(cuts DNA at specific place). ● Plasmid combines w/ humulin DNA
2. DNA now contains protruding sticky ends. ● Recombinant plasmid inserted into bacterial
3. Open a bacterial plasmid with same cell
restriction enzyme. Sticky ends appear. ● Bacterial cell placed in fermenter to
4. Original and plasmid DNA joined using reproduce quickly and make insulin protein
ligase to form recombinant DNA.
5. Recombinant DNA inserted into bacterial
cell

Plasmids/viruses can be used as the vector.

● They take up DNA

● Then insert the recombinant DNA into
other cells
● The DNA of other cells are modified until
they all contains the modified version.
Genetically modified plants Transgenic GMO
● Done to improve food production Genetic modification: Laboratory techniques to
● Genetically modified to: transfer genes or alleles.
○ Become drought-resistant
○ Become resistant to herbicides Transgenic: GMO that’s across a specie
○ Produce additional vitamins (e.g. golden boundary (e.g: Spider Goat)
rice)

Advantages Disadvantages

Reduces use of High cost of seeds

pesticides -
environment

Increased yields Effects on human

health not yet
explored
Cloning
Micropropagation
Micropropagation: Small pieces of plant tissue Commercial use
grown in vitro (outside organism) using a
Advantages:
nutrient media.
● Genetically identical offspring.
Process:
● Large numbers produced rapidly.
1. Explant cells scraped from plant, sterilised ● Can be done at any time of the year.
2. Explants transferred to a sterile petri dish ● Sometimes easier than seed growth.
containing sterile nutrient agar.
Disadvantages
3. Cells grow & divide into calluses.
4. Callus transferred to a medium with ● Sterile laboratory with trained personnel
hormones, develops plantlets. needed.
5. Plantlets planted. ● Genetically identical may be vulnerable to
infectious diseases.
Mammal cloning
Process (e.g. Dolly the sheep):

1. Nucleus removed from unfertilised egg cell

2. Nucleus from adult body cell (of “mother”)
inserted into enucleated egg cell
3. Electric shock causes egg cell to divide
(mitosis) and forms embryo
4. Embryo inserted into womb of surrogate
mother

Cloning for human proteins

● Transgenic animal producing human

proteins is created
● Transgenic animal cloned (pharming)
○ To produce antibodies / other human
proteins that act as medicine
4. Ecology & the
environment
The organism in the environment
Key terms
Ecology: The study of interactions between living organisms and their environment.

Population: A number of organisms of the same species living in the same area.

Community: All populations living in the same area.

Habitat: The place where an organism lives

Ecosystem: The biotic and abiotic factors that interact within an area.
Investigating population size
Percentage coverage Estimated number

1. Randomly place quadrats using 1. Randomly place quadrats using

a grid and random numbers a grid and random numbers
2. Count number of squares within 2. Count number of individuals in
quadrat that are more than half quadrat
covered by species. 3. Repeat: use multiple quadrats
3. Repeat: use multiple quadrats 4. Average # of individuals in
4. Squares covered by grass / total quadrat * (total area / area
squares in quadrat = % coverage sampled) = estimated population
size
Feeding relationships
Trophic levels
Term Definition Example
Trophic levels:
Producers Produce own nutrients using Grass, trees
energy from sunlight
The position an organism
occupies in a food chain Primary Herbivores - Feed on Squirrels, butterfly
consumer producers (plants)

Secondary Carnivores - Feed on Snakes, frogs

consumer primary consumers

Tertiary Carnivores - Feed on Foxes, lions

consumers secondary consumers

Decomposers Saprotrophs - Break food Fungi (mushrooms)

down outside bodies by
secreting environment
Food chains Food pyramids
● Arrows show direction of energy transfer
● Pyramid of numbers
○ Shows number of organisms at each
trophic level
○ May not be pyramid-shaped: size of
organism may vary (e.g. many bugs feed
on 1 tree)
● Pyramid of biomass
○ Shows dry mass (g/m2)

Food webs ●
○ Always pyramid-shaped
Pyramid of energy
● Show interdependence of species ○ Shows amount of energy contained within
○ A change in 1 specie will cause changes in different trophic levels
other species (food source / predator) ○ Only 10% transferred

Drawing pyramids: Keep height same, vary

width based on constant scale factor.
Transfer of energy
Sun (light energy) → Producers (chemical energy) → Consumers (chemical energy)

● Only 10% of energy is passed on to the next trophic level because:

○ Energy is used for movement
○ Energy is used to generate heat
○ Organisms don’t eat every part of an organism
○ Some ingested materials egested as faeces (not absorbed)
○ Some absorbed material lost as waste:
■ Carbon dioxide & water (respiration)
■ Urea & water in urine