Approaches and methods

1) Grammar translation method

Context:- Its leading exponents were Johann Seidenstücker, Karl Plötz, II. S.Ollendorf, and Johann
Meidinger.
- It became the offspring of German scholarship, which gave rise to the idea of “ to know everything
about something rather than the thing itself “ (W.II. D. Rouse, quoted in Kelly 1969: 53).
- It was first known in USA as the Prussian method

Characteristics: -Consists in approaching the language first through an analysis of its grammatical
rules, then using this knowledge to be able to translate in and out of the target language.
- It is mainly focused on reading and writing, but barely any speaking or listening
- Vocabulary is mainly focused on reading, memorizing the word and its translation as well as the use
of a dictionary
- Its main focus in its practical use is to apply what was mentioned before
- Accuracy is expected from the students
- Grammar is studied deductively
- The medium of instruction is the native language

Advantages: Limited command of spoken English of language teachers, It was used by their teachers,
It gives a sense of control and authority, It works in large classes with a lot of students.

Main disadvantage: The lack of speaking or listening, and the fact that the students need to learn a lot
of grammatical patterns and vocabulary made the activity very tedious and frustrating for those trying
to learn it, as well as the difficulties when putting them into practice.

Conclusion: Even though this method proved to be flawed and inefficient, this sparked new linguists to
find new ways of teaching

2) The direct approach

Principles: oral training, inhibition of the mother tongue (new words are taught by showing objects),
sentence is the unit of speech, inductive teaching of grammar.

Techniques: question/answer exercise, dictation, reading aloud, student self-correction, conversation

practice, paragraph writing.

Summary of principles: avoids close association between the target language and the mother tongue,
lays emphasis on speech, follows the child’s natural way of learning a language, teaches the
language by ‘use’ not ‘rule’

Advantages: it's a natural method, based on sound principles of education

Disadvantages: doesn’t consider all aspects of language teaching, is not comprehensive, requires
teachers who are native speakers of fluent, and depends on teachers skills.

3) The reading approach

Reading Approach improve student’s knowledge by reading. Students could pick up the basics of a
language by learning to understand words and grammatical patterns from written text. The whole
point of the Reading Approach is to teach students just enough words to express themselves, as well
as basic sentence structure patterns by reading. In this method, words would be introduced gradually
to students and learned via a lot of repetition. Reading materials should contain a wide variety of
topics in order for them to learn more vocabulary.

Design: The objectives of this method is that students will be able to identify meaning rather than
letters or words, be able to understand and read the text quickly and to be able to read actively.
The syllabus is based on the development of reading skill. How to make students have the ability to
comprehend what they read.
Skimming,scanning, extensive reading, intensive reading. Reading aloud, shared reading, word study,
guided reading, independent reading.
Teachers motivate learners.

Procedure:The students decode each word in a text and automatically comprehend the meaning of
the words, as they do with their everyday spoken language.

Conclusion: In the Reading Approach teaching method, students focus on identifying meaning,
understanding the text quickly, and reading actively. Reading approach also has some weaknesses
and some benefits. It is a fact that no approach or method is perfect, But the important thing that can
not be ignored is that reading is a very important thing. By doing reading students will learn many
things, and can understand everything related to the language learning especially English. So, it is
important to know how to read effectively by using the Reading Approach.

4) Audio-lingual method
The Audio-Lingual method is a highly oral-based teaching method, that focuses on the repetition of
utterances (involving structure, pronunciation and many other aspects)

Approach: Audiolingualism is highly related to structural linguistics. It was a structured-based teaching

that was essentially focused on teaching the structures of the language, involving parts such as
morphology, phonetics, phonology and syntax. It was a rule-governed method, that worked
pyramidally to form utterance, and create language. The primary medium of language in this method
was oral. The developers of Audiolingualism also worked with behavioral psychology, which focused
on three elements. Learning is repetition based and understood as the verbal behavior towards the
stimulus. When behaviorism and structural linguistics are together, Audiolinguism originates.

Design: There is a distinction between short and long-range objectives when it comes to the
Audio-lingual method. Improvement towards oral based skills, such as comprehension, pronunciation,
recognition and oral reproduction are the short-range objectives. Long-range objective must be to use
the language as the native speaker would.
Syllabus: It contains the main items of phonology, morphology and syntax of the language. A
minimum knowledge of basic vocabulary will be presented, so that learning can be started properly.
Moreover a determined order will be used: Listening ->Reading -> Writing. The order boosts learning.
Activities: repetition, inflection, contraction, rejoinder, replacement, completion, transformation,
restoration, transposition, expansion, integration.

Procedure: Students hear and repeat each line of the dialogue. The teacher will pay attention to their
pronunciation, then correct it, and memorized by the students. Dialogue is adapted to the student’s
interest. Certain structures from the dialogue are selected and used for practice. Dialogue will be
carried out in the laboratory to practice and improve

5) Oral or situational language teaching method

The oral approach and the situational language teaching is a method that was developed by Harold
Palmer and A.S Hornby between the 20s and the 30s. These two linguists were working teaching the
English language to foreign people. This made them think about work in this method to teach easily
the language. One of the first aspects of this method were Vocabulary selection and Grammar control.
Both one and the other had a very important role in this method because with the basic structures and
basic vocabulary foreign people could start to learn English. Also, first structures that they learned
were always Subject, transitive verb and Object direct. Ex: "Dog chases cats”. This method has not to
be confused with Direct Method because they follow different rules. For example, the main rules of the
Oral Approach method are:
Language teaching begins with the spoken language. Material is taught orally before it is presented in
written form; The target language is the language of the classroom; New language points are
introduced and practiced situationally; Vocabulary selection procedures arc followed to ensure that an
essential general service vocabulary is covered; Items of grammar are graded following the principle
that simple forms should be taught before complex ones; Reading and writing arc introduced once a
sufficient lexical and grammatical basis is established.
With this method the learner is expected to apply the language learned in a classroom to situations
outside the classroom. This is how child language learning is believed to take place, and the same
processes arc thought to occur in second and foreign language learning. The objectives are to learn
the language in the oral way and teach new structures and new vocabulary. All of these following a
syllabus with words that will be practiced and structures that will be used during following lessons.
Learner roles has to be active and they have to participate in the activities because a big part of this
method is practical while the teacher responsibilities have to be adjusted to special need or
individuals, develop language activities with the textbook and without it and review classes and errors.
This method depends of a textbook and visual aids, to help to the learners.
The procedure of a class can be divided in 4 parts: Pronunciation, revision, presentation and oral
practice. And the evolution of all this method finale culminated in 90s with the PPP Format. It means:
Presentation, Practice and Production. It is the new structure of the classes. The teachers presents a
text, an audio or a material to learn something new, in the practice learner say the structure and follow
the instructions to use the new structures and vocabulary in some situations and activities and in the
production phase; they use this structure through dialogues and other activities.

6) Total physical response

Total Physical Response is a language teaching method built around the coordination of speech and
action. It attempts to teach language through speaking and physical activity. The overall aim of this
method is comprehension. It is usually used in the beginning stage of the learning process when the
learner is not able to produce long sentences or create a dialogue. This method encourages students
to learn a foreign language, reduces stress of making mistakes and focuses on teaching basic
speaking skills. In this method meaning is more important than form. The role of the teacher is also
vital. The teacher is the one who presents new knowledge and motivates learners to acquire it. The
learning is achieved in the form of commands and it is usually used the imperative tense. Students on
the other side learn language in a stress free environment, they are encouraged to make mistakes
and speak when they feel ready. The lesson becomes more interesting through the variety of different
activities. The learner practices new knowledge by engaging in role plays,dialogues,conversations
etc. Collaborative work is also promoted. To sum up, total physical response is a very important
method for the learning process because the learner becomes more familiar with the use of oral
language and is more active in the whole process of learning. And through practice assimilates more
easily the new vocabulary and is able to convey meaning.

7) The silent way

The silent way is based on a humanistic approach whose fundamental principle is that the teacher
should maintain as much silence as possible in the classroom in order to facilitate the production and
concentration of the student.
The Silent Way uses a structural syllabus and concentrates on teaching a small number of functional
and versatile words.
Characteristics: The student is the center of attention, so learners should be encouraged to speak as
much as possible; Silence is fundamental because it helps concentration and mental organization;
Students are responsible for developing their autonomy and independence.

Having explained what the silent method is, Gattegno establishes different premises that the method
holds in order to guarantee learning, which are: Learning must be carried out as a process of
discovery by the student, avoiding repetition; Learning is more effective if it is supported by physical
elements; The student must be autonomous when confronted with the fact of producing.
In other words the students are in charge whereas the teachers are there to guide.

Teaching materials
Focusing on the second premise, the activities used in the silent method have the function of
encouraging the student to participate orally. Different physical elements are used to facilitate the
process. Association and colours play a very important role.
The coloured Cuisenaire rods; The pronunciation charts (Fields); The vocabulary or word charts
(colour-coded according to conceptual groupings of words)

Objectives:
Therefore we can conclude that the silent way puts emphasis on developing students' ability to learn:
Development of students' oral and listening competence at basic levels, Acquisition of basic
knowledge of grammar, Ability to use correct pronunciation, Use of language to express ideas and
feelings.

8) Suggestopedia
Approach: Suggestion: any information coming to you beneath the level of conscious perception
It is a lexical approach: the method relies on memorization of vocabulary pairs àit is more about a
lexical translation rather than contextualization
However, acts of communication are also included in order to experience material in “whole
meaningful texts”

6 Theoretical components Suggestopedia builds on: Authority, Infantilization, Double-planedness,

Environment; Intonation, Rhythm, Concert pseudo-passiveness.
Design: Objective: deliver advanced conversational proficiency quickly
Syllabus: 30 days course, 4h/day, 6 days/week; 10 units, 3 days/unit; Each unit focuses on a dialogue
(~1,200 words) with translation, accompanied by vocabulary lists and a grammar commentary; Day 1
of each unit: teacher presents general content, students receive dialogue and read it several times;
Days 2 & 3: Primary (imitation, Q&A, reading) & secondary elaboration (making new combinations,
reading parallel texts, engaging in conversation); Written tests throughout course; Mid-course:
practice target language in exemplary setting; Last day: construct a play based on studied material;
pupils are expected to speak freely.
Learning activities: common ones (reading, imitation…) + listening; “pre-session phase” on 1st day of
each unit where students relax while teacher reads the new dialogue to them.
Learners’ roles: groups of 12, both sexes equally, socially homogenous, sit in circle; “infantilization”:
pupils are supposed to maintain pseudo-passive state, subject to the learning process and let the
material roll over them
Teachers’ behavior: Confidence in the method, fastidious manners, well-organized, strict observers,
solemn attitude, modest enthusiasm, stress global attitudes = predispose learners to suggestion
Materials: textbook with emotional force & interesting characters; background music
(baroque/classical music make brain most receptive)

Procedure: A 4h-class has three parts: 1. Oral review; 2. Presentation of new material + discussion in
target language; 3. The essence: concert session
Conclusion: A very extravagant and original method, hardly comparable to any other one. Lots of
controversy & criticism as to the effectiveness and lacking evidence of the method (it is said that it is
based on pseudo-science). Relies on placebo-effect: pupils have to fully subject to the method and
expect their success every time they enter the classroom; otherwise they won’t be suggestible
enough. Certain elements can indeed be taken out and incorporated into the more eclectic
approaches of today.

9) Community language learning

Approach
Curran did not explain the method well so, a student of him called La Forge completed it. La forge
focused on the base of the sounds of the words to give a meaning to th words and finally construct a
complete phrase with them.
Again, the bound is key the relations between knower learner are predictable passing by 5 phases:
Claiming to know: The learner will reclaim knowledge, Self-assertiveness: The learner will express
his/her own view, Indignation: Impotence by the process of learning, Tolerance: Comprehension of
different knowledge, Independence: Self-learning.
These 5 phases are very similar to the evolution of people in life. However, the relation between
learner-learner are unpredictable. S.A.R.D (security, attention, retention, discrimination)

Design: translation, group work, recording, reflection and observation; listening and free conversation.

Roles of the members

Learner-> Becomes a member of a community expressing their emotion and desire of what they want
to know.
Knower-> Be a “counselor” which means to teach in a nonjudgmentally way and try to solve the
problems of the learner calmly. This will involve a solution to the feeling of the student (anger, anxiety
etc.).

Procedure: In groups a silence is established at first until a volunteer demands what they want to
know. Students discuss a topic and then prepare it to present to another class. In advance groups a
theater can be prepared with help of the teacher. Use of instruments and cards to make it visual. No
textbook required.

10) Communicative language teaching

The Communicative Language Teaching focuses on language as a means of communication. The
goal is to develop the communicative competence, so what the speaker needs to know in order to be
considered communicatively competent in a speech community, without a previous grammar
knowledge.
The teacher uses a syllabus to organize the course, characterized by grammar, vocabulary, functions
etc about specific topics from everyday conversation.
Linguistics thought that to learn a language is necessary to use it, so it is recommended that the
teacher makes activities during the lesson (role plays, jig-saw activities, opinion-sharing...)
Linguistics suggest procedures such as oral practice about topics of a given dialogue or
mini-dialogue, questions about it or personal experiences.

11) The natural approach

The Natural Approach belongs to a tradition of language teaching methods based on observation and
interpretation of how learners acquire both first and second languages in informal settings. In the
Natural Approach, a focus on comprehension and meaningful communication as well as the provision
of the right kinds of comprehensible input provides the necessary and sufficient conditions for
successful classroom second and foreign language acquisition. Its greatest claim to emphasize the
importance comprehensible and meaningful practice activities, rather than the production of
grammatically perfect utterances and sentences.

Its main principles are:

Communication as the primary function of the language; Little attention to the theory, especially
grammar; High attention to vocabulary; Input should be as comprehensible as possible; The primacy
of meaning over form visual aids are useful (because they help with vocabulary); Focus on basic
personal communication skills, rather than academic learning skills; The focus in the classroom is on
listening and reading; Use of TPR (Total Physical Response)

12) Whole language

Approach: A theory of the nature of language
- an account of the nature of language proficiency: language seen from an interactional perspective,
as a vehicle for human communication with interactional relationship between readers and writers.
Always linked to a social context.
- an account of the basic units of language structure: language structure seen as a whole, therefore,
unable to be broken down into separate skills as authentic contexts will involve an integration of skills.
A theory of the nature of language learning
- an account of the psycholinguistic and cognitive processes involved in language learning: processes
like “creation of meaning”, “learning by doing” and collaborative work “in mixed groups on common
projects”. Lack of transmission of knowledge but its creation and understanding in a mutual social
context.
- an account of the conditions that allow for successful use of these processes: collaborative work “in
mixed groups on common projects”. Taught in an authentic, personalized, self-directed, collaborative,
pluralistic environment. Such characteristics are believed to focus learner attention and to motivate
mastery.

Design: Use of authentic literature (non-artificial); Focus on real and natural events; High interest
literature; Comprehensive reading for a real purpose; Real audience target of writing; Writing as a
process of discovery; Use of student-produced texts (not teacher/other-generated texts); Student
choice regarding topics of interest for reading and writing; Group reading/writing; Encouragement of
risk taking & errors as a sign of learning.
Students will develop language through collaborative learning, in an environment where
self-evaluation and the evaluation of other students & teachers role consists of that of a facilitator in
class that acts as an active participant in the learning process. The primary materials that will be used
in class are real-world materials, as pieces of literature, and other real-world texts, as newspapers or
storybooks.

Procedure: The procedure of the approach consists in process writing for a self-discovery of language
and the own purpose of the student. Involving also cooperative learning in mixed groups but relying
on the collaboration of small groups of reading and writing and individually as well. The elaboration of
portfolios and book writing will be also interesting combined with assistance to certain conferences of
proficient speakers of the language.

13) Task based learning

TBLT is motivated primarily by a theory of learning rather than a theory of language. However, several
assumptions about the nature of language can be said to underlie current approaches to TBLT. These
are:
Language is primarily a means of making meaning. “ meaning is primary “
Language is a means of achieving real-world goals. Language teaching courses must center on the
learners’ communicative needs and prepare them for relevant domains and situations of language
use.
Lexical units are central in language used and language learning. To carry out communicative tasks, a
large vocabulary may be needed; therefore, TBLT and strategies for learning vocabulary are often
seen as complementary.
Spoken interaction is the central focus of language and the keystone of language acquisition.
Language use involves integration of skills.

The theory of learning

TBLT shares the general assumptions about the nature of language learning underlying
Communicative Language Teaching; however, it draws more centrally on SLA theory, and many of its
proponents describe it from a cognitive perspective.
Language learning is determined by learner internal, rather than external, factors. Learning is
promoted by activating internal acquisition processes.
Language learning develops gradually and learners pass through several stages as they restructure
their language system over time.
A focus on form can facilitate language learning. Grammar is not taught as an isolated feature of
language but as it arises from, its role in meaningful communication.
Negotiation of meaning provides learners with opportunities for provision of comprehensible input and
modified output.
Tasks provide opportunities for learners to “ notice hypotheses.”
Interaction and communication through tasks provides opportunities for scaffolded learning.
Task activity and achievement are motivational.
Learning difficulty can be negotiated and fine-tuned for particular pedagogical purposes.

Objectives
Task-based learning is a communicative approach to language learning where learners are given
interactive, “real-world” tasks to complete. In order to do this, they need to communicate. Once the
task is complete, then the teacher discusses the language used. The learners plan an itinerary for a
guest who is coming to stay with their teacher.

The syllabus
A TBLT syllabus specifies the tasks that should be carried out by learners within a program.
Task-based syllabus can be developed with two types of tasks:
Real-world tasks, which are designed to practice those tasks that turn out to be important and useful
in the real world.
Pedagogical tasks, which have a psycholinguistic basis in SLA theory and research but do not
necessarily reflect real-world tasks.

Types of teaching activities: jigsaw task (combining different pieces of info), information gap task
(students have different information, but all information is complementary), problem-solving task,
decision-making task and opinion exchange task.

Procedure
It has three stages: pre-task (teacher introduces topic, may give students vocabulary that could be
useful for task, or ask questions, play games that include the vocabulary…), task cycle (students start
task divided in groups, teacher only observes) and language focus (analysis of language, correction
and reflection, teacher predicts errors that students may make, and prepares activities for such errors)
Task based learning has the advantage of getting students to use their skills at their current level,
developing language through its use. It has the advantage of placing the focus of students toward
achieving a goal where language becomes a tool, making the use of language a necessity.
In addition to this it is important to realize that there is a lot more to communication than performing
tasks. Skehan (1996) expressed that TBL could have some dangers if it is not executed correctly and
could result in affecting the growth and change of the language learners' interlanguage.

14) Competence based language teaching

Competence Based Language Teaching method is a framework for teaching that emerged in the
1970s and is focused on having students master specific skills that are related to the real world task.
This approach is based on predetermined “competencies”, which focuses on outcomes and real-world
performances. CBTL takes an interactional approach to language learning as language is considered
as a way to achieve social and personal goals. Objectives in CBLT are usually highly specific.
However, this teaching method has been accused of being overly behavioural because the objectives
could almost be seen as a form of ‘dog training’ (people are able to execute a behaviour but they don’t
know why they’re doing it). In other words, CBLT is lacking in the development of higher cognitive
activity.

15) Content and language integrated teaching

CLIL describes the educational approach to teaching a curriculum subject through a foreign language
with a ‘dual focus’ of acquiring more subject knowledge and improving competences and skills in the
foreign language at the same time.

Approach: Content, communication,cognition, and culture. The 4Cs are tightly intertwined. Learning
the content has a positive influence on communication, as it contributes to language development.
Content and cognition are closely linked, since for content learning to be effective, students need to
be cognitively engaged. Language, cultural understanding, cognitive engagement and thinking are all
connected to the content and context of CLIL.

Objectives: To develop intercultural communication skills; prepare for internationalization; provide

opportunities to study content through different perspectives; access subject-specific target language
terminology; improve overall target language competence; develop oral communication skills; diversify
methods and forms of classroom practice; increase learner motivation.

Procedure: no specific techniques or lesson procedures are associated with the model. In a
content-driven approach, procedures typically used to teach subject matter in a content class are
used, with appropriate adjustments according to the learners’ level of language proficiency. In a
language-driven approach, procedures more typically used in language courses.

16) The lexical approach

The term lexical approach was born very late- by Michael Lewis in 1993. This approach claims that
vocabulary has a central role in linguistic description. Even Noam Chomsky clarifies- “Lexicon is
prime”. There is no possibility to build a correct grammatic sentence without using words and words
are the most significant aspect of the language. Moreover, this approach establishes the importance
of lexical units.
Speaking about the lexical theory we have to consider three approaches: the contrastive approach,
language input, and lexical units (colloquially “chunks”). The contrastive approach focuses on learning
the words, not by directional translations (equivalents in the mother language). The language input
says that learners should learn vocabulary by reading.
Lexical units (chunks/lexical items) concentrate on the determined single word, part of a word, or
chain of words. They could be understood as a lexeme. According to Pawley, there are six types of
lexical units:
Binomials – two connected words (sometimes by conjunction and), which could have one translation
i.e. clean and tidy (clean), ready steady (ready); Trinomials- three connected words (sometimes by
conjunction and), which could have one translation i.e cool, calm and collected, tall dark, and
handsome. Those chains of words indicate sometimes stereotypes; Idioms – language construction
that has its own translation/meaning i.e. dead drunk, lazy potato, costs an arm and a leg.; Similies –
hier it is to use construction as…as. It is about comparing i.e as old as the world, as cold as ice.
Those structures have metaphorical meanings; Connectives- connect related sentences i.e. to sum
up, finally, to conclude; Conversational gambits- exclamations and orders. Guess whaaaat! Look!

There are four types of learning methods: complete courses, activities, printouts, and computer
programs. The complete course could be a course book with exercises like learning, watching,
hearing, and reading, where it is possible to adopt vocabulary. The determined activities are
dependent on the teacher’s methods. It could be plays, films, talking, and puns. Printouts are
generally the only activities printed from the textbook. Nowadays computer programs are fashionable,
and learners can find vocabulary and learn for themselves.
It should be emphasized that the role of the teacher is really difficult in this approach. It is said that
students can learn words on their own. It is the reason, why this approach is still outstanding. There
are some procedures like teaching individual collocations, making students aware of collocations,
extending what students already know by adding knowledge of collocations to already-known
vocabulary.

17) Multiple intelligences

Multiple Intelligence (MI) is a philosophical learning system that describes human intelligence in a way
that affirms that there are different dimensions in education, these must be studied and developed. MI
is based on the work of Howard Gardner of Harvard Graduate School of Education (1993). Gardner
said that the traditional IQ only evaluates language and logic but that brains have many more
dimensions in intelligence, he also defends that some humans have some of these skills more
developed and they can be trained. MI brings together some common points of the teaching models
already presented at the time. It determines that there are eight native intelligences in all humans, and
they are the following: linguistic, logical/mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily, interpersonal,
intrapersonal, and naturalist.
When Gardner proposed MI theory, he did so to contribute to cognitive science, and was not intended
as a teaching system. Some educators such as Armstrong (1994) have interpreted this theory to
apply it in educational systems. The application of MI to the teaching of a secondary language is a
more recent topic, therefore we can see some shortcomings since they were not related from the
beginning. We have seen that the MI theory considers that intelligence has eight types of dimensions,
the teaching of a secondary language will be strongly related to the linguistic one, but we will see how
other dimensions such as "musical" will also have to be considered. We must see language not only
in linguistic dimensions, but also in a multisensory way, to create a good perception of what language
is and an effective language teaching system is. Taking this into account we can say that intelligence
is the ability to deal with cognitive complexities.
We do not have a learning system or a method of teaching a secondary language related to "Multiple
Intelligence", however, a system based on four stages has been proposed (Christison 1997):
Stage 1: "Awaken intelligence". Teachers brings different objects to the class, students have different
multisensory experiences.
Stage 2: "Amplify the intelligence". This time students expand their knowledge but with objects
brought/chosen by themselves, they explain the different qualities of these and do a task expressing
what they have discussed and learned (table 2 of the PowerPoint).
Stage 3: "Teach with/for the intelligence". Teachers deepen in theoretical classes to reinforce the
sensory experiences they have had and what relationship the language has here. In addition,
students will complete a task (table 3 of the PowerPoint).
Stage 4: "Transfer of the intelligence". Students analyze everything learned and relate it to problems
and challenges in the world outside the classroom.
The role of teachers here is a bit complex; it is considered that the MI theory is not prescriptive and
that teachers do not have a model to follow, rather they have a guide to lean on and some bases from
which to build their system. teaching a secondary language. Teachers are encouraged to create a
personal inventory of experiences and relate those experiences to the different types of intelligence;
they are encouraged not only to be teachers of the secondary language they are teaching but also to
teach students to develop all types of intelligence. Students also have an

important role in this process, they must be involved not only with acquiring knowledge of a language,
but also grow personally and see how the different intelligences work to apply them on a day-to-day
basis and be more decisive (they should create another inventory of experiments just like teachers).