1) Methods and approaches: from the Grammar-Translation method up till now

1. Concepts
Within the general area of methodology people talk about approaches, methods, techniques,
procedures and models, all of which go into the practice of English teaching.

 Approach: It refers to the theories about the nature of language and language learning that
serve as the source of practices and principles in language teaching. It offers a model of
language competence. An approach describes how people acquire their knowledge of the
language and makes statements about the conditions which will promote successful language
learning.
 Method: It is the practical realization of an approach (simply put, the way one teaches). It is a
set of activities, roles of teachers and learners, the kind of material which will be helpful.
Methods include procedures and techniques.
 Procedure: It is an ordered sequence of techniques.
 Technique: It is one single activity.
 Model: Sets of procedures for teaching practice.

The evolution of language teaching methodologies reflects changing perspectives on language

acquisition and educational priorities.

2. Grammar-Translation Method

The Grammar-Translation Method is probably the oldest language teaching method. It used to serve
the purpose of teaching the classical languages, Latin and Greek, therefore it also used to be referred
to with the name ‘Classical Method’.
Original purposes
The original purpose of the method was to help language learners read and appreciate foreign
language literature. At the same time, the idea was that by reading literary texts, learners can become
more familiar with the grammar of their native language also write and speak their native language
better. Additionally, language learning was considered a helpful mental exercise which contributed to
the development of the individuals.
Principles
 The initial task is reading a literary passage, which is eventually translated into the native
language. Translation may be written or spoken, and it has the purpose of showing that the
students can understand the text.
 Most of the classroom communication happens in the learners’ native language: they ask their
questions in their L1 and get answers also in their L1. The teacher also asks students in their native
language. This indicates that the ability of communicating in the target language is not a goal.
 Grammar is taught deductively, this means that the learners learn about the forms (grammar rules)
of the target language in their L1, the grammar rules are presented by the teacher with examples
and then the learners are asked to apply the rules to examples they are given.
3. Direct Method

Original purposes

Although based on an already discredited theory, the Direct Method has been a very popular method
for several decades. In many ways, the Direct Method is the exact opposite of the Grammar-
Translation Method. Its success may be attributed to the fact that the Grammar-Translation Method
did not prepare language learners for real-life communication, while the main aim of the Direct
Method is that learners should learn to use the foreign language as naturally as possible. The name of
the method comes from the idea that the meaning of words and expressions are to be directly
connected with the target language, therefore translation is not allowed. The core idea of the method is
to teach foreign language to learners the same way a baby learning its mother tongue.

Principles
 Reading in the target language is taught from the beginning.
 Reading skill is developed through practice with speaking.

Objects (realia or pictures) are present in the classroom environment to help students understand the meaning.
 Native language is NOT used in the classroom.
 Teachers
should demonstrate and not explain or translate, therefore students make a direct association between the
 Students should learn to think in the target language as soon as possible.
 Vocabulary is acquired more naturally if students use it in full sentences.
 Vocabulary is emphasized over grammar.
 The purpose of language learning is communication.
 The syllabus is based on topics or situations, not on linguistic structures.
 The teacher directs the class activities, but students are less passive.
 The teacher and the students are partners in the teaching and learning process.
 Grammar is taught inductively, that is the learners are presented with examples of language use,
with the help of which they figure out the rules.
4. Audio-Lingual Method

Original purpose

The Audio-Lingual Method was invented in the United States of America during World War II,
because there was a need for speakers of foreign languages for military purposes. The method has its
roots in behavioural psychology and considers language learning to be a habit formation. Using the
Stimulus-Response-Reinforcement model, it attempted, through a continuous process of such positive
reinforcement, to engender good habits in language learners.
Principles
 New language is introduced in a natural context. The text (usually a dialogue) is presented by the
teacher in the target language, the meaning of the unknown words is illustrated or explained. In
the later stage of the lesson the language learners repeat the lines of the dialogue.
 Grammar is not explained, it is taught through the examples that come up in the text.
 The teacher tries to prevent the students from making mistakes by helping out, making the learners
repeat and applying different drilling techniques.
 There are different kinds of drills (repetition, substitution, transformation, completion, question
and answer, cued response, chain, backward build up drill, role-playing, error correction,
dictation). Their primary aim is to model and automatize language.

⚫ To use the target language automatically

goals ⚫ Habit formation

⚫ Overcoming the habit of the native language

Teacher:
⚫ leader – directing, controlling

role of T ⚫ model for imitation

role of Ss Students:
⚫ Imitators

⚫ Follow the teacher’s directions

Order:
areas of 1. Listening 1. and 2. are the most important skills
language/skills 2. Speaking pronunciation is taught from the beginning
emphasized 3. Reading
4. Writing

⚫ Native language – interfere the acquisition of the target language

role of L1
⚫ Only the target language is used

⚫ Errors have to be avoided

treatment of errors
⚫ The teacher has to pay attention and notice what is difficult for
students
 ⚫ New structures and vocabulary are presented through dialogues
some characteristics
of the ⚫ Most important skills: listening, speaking
teaching/learning
⚫ Drills
process
⚫ Explicit grammar rules are not provided

⚫ Everyday speech is emphasized

How is the language
⚫ Level of complexity: graded
and culture viewed?
⚫ Culture is viewed through the everyday behaviour and lifestyle of the
target language

A variation of audio-lingualism is a procedure most often referred to as PPP: present, practice and
production. In this procedure, the teacher introduces a situation which contextualizes the language to
be taught which is later practiced and finally produced. The PPP procedure came under a sustained
attack in the 1990s. It was argued that it was clearly teacher-centered and therefore sat uneasily in a
humanistic and learner-centered framework. It also seems to assume that students learn in straight
lines - that is, starting from no knowledge, through highly restricted sentence-based utterances and on
to immediate production. Many state that it entirely fails to present the multitude of ways in which
teachers can operate, e.g. the task-based method.
Keith Johnson offered the deep-end strategy as an alternative, where by encouraging the students into
immediate production you turn the procedure on its head. The teacher can now see if and where the
students are having problems during the production and return to either practice or production.
Some more models that went further:
 ARC – authentic use (e.g. task-based method), restricted use (guided writing), clarification
and focus (explanation, error analysis) – This terminology is more descriptive then
prescriptive.
 OHE – observe, hypothesize, experiment (illustration, interaction, induction)
 ESA – engage, study, activate

5. Silent Way

Original purposes

Devised by Caleb Gattegno, this method requires the learner to take active ownership of their language
learning and to pay great attention to what they say. Distinctive features include the relative restraint
of the teacher (who is not completely silent, but says as little as possible) and the use of specially
designed wallcharts. The use of Cuisenaire rods in mainstream ELT arose from this method.

The Silent Way has had a direct influence on mainstream teaching by promoting the use of phonemic
charts and pointing to objects and sounds, and Cuisenaire rods, and an indirect one in the use of
discovery techniques.
 ● teacher gives only what they absolutely need to promote students’
learning

goals ● self-expression

● expressing thoughts, perceptions, feelings

● independence from teacher

● technician or engineer (facilitator)

role of T ● teacher can give the help

role of Ss
● teacher provides what Ss need

● students’ role: they use what they know

● teacher is silent
interaction ● giving clues not model the language

● S-S interaction is encouraged

● pronunciation
areas of ● intonation
language/skills
emphasized ● structure of the language

● oral before written

● perception not translation

role of L1 ● give instruction if it is needed

● feedback

● continuous observation
evaluation
● no tests

● self-correction

● peer correction
treatment of errors
● natural, indispensable part of the learning process

● T uses the errors as a basis for deciding where further work is needed

● basic sounds

● language specific color chart

some characteristics
of the ● situations focus on the structure of the language
teaching/learning
● minimal spoken cues
process
● describing feelings

● taking responsibility for learning

 ● T constantly observes S
How are the feelings
of the students dealt ● taking into consideration student’s feedback about the lesson
with?
● cooperation

How is culture
viewed? ● language expresses the spirit of the culture
6. Total Physical Response (TPR)

Original purposes
The basic idea of the Total Physical Response Method is that language learners should acquire the
target language similarly to their mother tongue. This means that just like a baby is merely exposed to
language in the first months of its life without actually producing language, language learners should
start out by listening to the target language first and start speaking when they feel ready to do so. In
the Total Physical Response Method language learners first encounter commands uttered by the
teacher. Then, they are allowed to use both their mother tongue and the target language when they
respond to the teacher. The meaning of words is made clear by visual aids and context.
Principles
 Children listen to the teachers’ instructions and respond with their bodies, without speaking.
Testing also takes place based on listening comprehension and indicating answers on a worksheet.
At later stages of the course, the children will gradually start speaking.
 In the Total Physical Response Method the meaning in the target language is often conveyed by
actions and memory is activated by the learner’s physical response.
 Comprehension develops first, learners will only start speaking at later stages. The learners’ first
speech productions are instructions, just like the teacher’s.

● communicate in a foreign lg.

● enjoy experiencing a lg.

goals
● reduce stress while learning

● encourage Sts
Learning L1= Learning L2
● teacher is the director
role of T
role of Ss ● students imitate nonverbally, then students answer verbally to the
teacher’s actions
● Teacher interacts with all students, or individual students perform
interaction actions together.
● Students can learn from each other

● spoken over written

● grammar
areas of
language/skills ● vocabulary
emphasized
● comprehension before production

● imperatives often used

● Only at the introduction

role of L1 ● rarely used if instructions are not clear

● but not used otherwise

 ● teacher will know by observation if Ss understand the material by their
evaluation actions
● evaluate a series of actions

● errors are expected

treatment of errors
● teachers are tolerant and correct them unobtrusively “fine-tune”

● modelling the language

some characteristics ● perform actions (Ss+T)
of the teaching/
learning process ● comprehension before production

● commands, actions performed by teacher/students

● fun in learning

● no stressful environment
How are the feelings
of the students dealt ● enjoyable learning
with?
● feeling of success

● perfection is not expected

7. Suggestopedia

Original purposes
The core idea of Suggestopaedia is that the reason why people do not learn efficiently enough is that
there are psychological barriers (affective filters) that prevent them from efficient learning. People are
afraid of failure and because of this they are unable to utilize their full mental capacity.
Suggestopaedia has as its aim do desuggest these barriers and thus make people believe in their
success.
The classroom and the teaching style of the teacher are adapted to fit the goals of the Suggestopaedia
method.
Principles
 As you could observe in the video, the classroom environment differs from other classrooms: there
is a friendly atmosphere, comfortable circumstances, music, posters and pictures everywhere and
the teacher speaks reassuringly.
 Communication happens on “two planes”, the linguistic message is encoded on one level, and
factors influencing the linguistic message are present on the other. On the conscious level, the
learner is consciously focusing on the target language, while on the subconscious level the music
suggests that learning is easy and pleasant.
 Students often receive a new name (infantilization).
goals
● everyday communication

● elimination of psychological barriers (fear of unable to perform)

● activation of unconscious mind

role of T Teacher:
role of Ss
● authority
Ss:
● trust and respect the teacher

● adopt childlike roles once they feel secure

interaction
● Teacher - Student

● Student - Student

● from the beginning

● suggestions from the T

areas of
● Vocabulary
language/skills
emphasized ● Grammar- explicit but minimal

● Language use over linguistic form

role of L1
● translation of the text/dialogue

● as course proceeds L1 reduced

evaluation
● in-class performance
treatment of errors
● gentle

● modelled correctly

some characteristics
● relaxing atmosphere
of the
teaching/learning ● music
process
● activate whole brain

● first: reception then activation

8. Communicative Approach

Original purposes

The Communicative approach - or Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) - is the name which
was given to a set of beliefs which included not only a re-examination of what aspects of language to
teach, but also a shift in emphasis in how to teach. The 'what to teach' aspect of the Communicative
approach stressed the significance of language functions rather than focusing solely on grammar and
vocabulary.

Principles

 A guiding principle was to train students to use the language forms appropriately in a variety of
contexts and for a variety of purposes.
 The “how to teach” idea is closely related to the idea that plentiful exposure to language in use and
plenty of opportunities to use it are vitally important for a student’s development of knowledge
and skill.
 The accuracy of the used language is less important than successful achievement of the
communicative task. Students are focused on the content of what they are saying or writing rather
than just the language form. The teacher should not dictate what specific language forms the
students use either (However, it is difficult to pin down exactly what the approach is, thus all
language teaching aims to improve students’ communicative ability, however focused it may be.)
 A key to enhancement of communicative purpose and the desire to communicate is the
information gap.
goals
● using the target lg to communicate

● learners to be involved in real communication

role of T
● T: advisor, helps Ss
role of Ss
● T establishes situations to promote communication

● Ss’ aim to figure out the T’s intentions

 interaction
● target lg is the vehicle for classroom communication, not only the
object of study
● T – S and S – S

areas of
● grammar and vocabulary: learning from the situational context
language/skills
emphasized ● more emphasis on skills than systems

role of L1
● not used

evaluation
● Ss’ success is determined as much as by their fluency as it is by their
accuracy

treatment of errors
● errors are tolerated, but gently corrected

some characteristics
● games are important
of the
teaching/learning ● groupwork, pair work, roleplay
process
● more learner-centred

● use of authentic materials

9. Task-based learning (TBL)

Original purpose
The idea of Task-based learning (TBL) was greatly popularised by N Prabhu who, working with
schools in Bangalore, southern India, speculated that students were just as likely to learn language if
they were thinking about a non-linguistic problem as when they were concentrating on particular
language forms.
Principles
 Instead of language structure, students are presented with a task to solve.
 Its structure is pre-task (introduction to the topic), task cycle (planning, report), language focus
(analysis, practice)
 It has received plenty of criticism, such as the hardship of grading task performances or its
applicability to beginner learners.
10. Community Language Learning

Original purposes

The influence of CLL in mainstream teaching has been fairly pronounced. The idea that students
should reflect upon their learning experiences is now widely accepted.

Principles
  According to CLL method, students sit in a circle. It is up to them to decide what they want to
talk about. A counsellor or a 'knower' stands outside the circle. The knower provides or
corrects target language statements so that if, for instance, a student says something in their
own language, the knower can then give them the English equivalent for them to use. A
student says what he or she wants to say either in English or in his or her first language. In the
latter case the knower translates it into English, in effect 'teaching' the student how to make
the utterance. The student can now say what he or she wants to the circle. Later, when students
are more confident with the language, they can be put in lines facing each other for pairwork
discussion.

 In some CLL lessons the students' utterance - helped or provided by the knower - are recorded
onto tape to be analysed later. There is often a period for reflection during which students
comment frankly on how they felt about the activity. In all of these cases teachers help
students achieve what they want, offering help and counsel to the 'community' of the class.
The job is to 'facilitate' rather than to teach.

goals
● how to use the target lg communicatively

● learning about Ss’ own learning process

● taking responsibility about their learning

role of T
● T: counsellor – skilfully understands the fears of Ss, supports Ss
role of Ss through their struggle, provides non-threatening environment
● Ss: mutual interdependency

● cooperation between Ss and T

interaction
● T initially structures the class, T is in charge

● Ss having conversation – T physically removes herself and encourages

Ss to interact with each other
● Ss decide what they want to say

areas of
● listening and speaking skills
language/skills
emphasized ● grammar, pronunciation patterns, vocabulary are based on the lg the Ss
have generated
role of L1
● to provide bridge from the familiar to the unfamiliar

● translation of transcripts

evaluation
● no particular way is prescribed

● integrative test (paragraph/interview)

● Ss’ self-evaluation
treatment of errors
● non-threatening way

● repeating correctly

● sustaining a respectful, non-defensive relationship between T-Ss

(human computer)
some characteristics
● Ss are invited to say how they feel about their learning process
of the
teaching/learning ● T provides the agenda of the class
process
11. Other methods and approaches

 Lexical approaches – Emphasis on language chunks – working with idioms, collocations, fixed expressions, authentic texts and lexical
syllabuses
 Dogme - a communicative approach to language teaching that encourages teaching without published textbooks and focuses instead on
conversational communication among learners and teacher (e.g. learner generated content, research-based method, project works, follow-up
questions).
 Pragmatic eclecticism - decisions about what and how to teach are based, essentially, on what seems to work. What seems to work will
depend upon the age and character-type of learners, their cultural backgrounds, and the level they are studying at - not to mention the
teacher's own beliefs and preferences. Writers of current coursebooks tend to mix work on language skills with various kinds of study,
providing communicative activities alongside more traditional grammar practice, and mixing in elements of learner training, and activities
designed to encourage humanistic engagement.
 Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL): Teaches subjects such as science or history through a foreign language, integrating
content and language learning in a dual-centered approach.
 TPR Storytelling - TPRS is a second language acquisition method. The method uses storytelling as a teaching tool. In the TPRS class, the
teacher and students co-create stories in the target language to facilitate language acquisition.
 Growing Participator Approach (GPA) - Views language learning as cultural participation, emphasizing immersion and social interaction. n
GPA, the goal is not language acquisition, but participation in the life of a new community, which is constantly growing over time.
 The Tandem Approach – Enables two individuals with different mother tongues to communicate and learn each other's language. This
method, which is free of charge, is based on two broad principles: independent learning and reciprocity.
 The Flipped Classroom Approach - A flipped classroom is structured around the idea that lecture or direct instruction is not the best use of
class time. Instead students encounter information before class, freeing class time for activities that involve higher order thinking.
 Gamification - Incorporating game elements into language learning, such as points, levels, and rewards, can increase motivation and
engagement.
 AI powered language learning apps - Applications such as Duolingo, Babbel, and ELSA Speak utilize AI to provide personalized learning
experiences. These platforms adapt to individual learning styles and proficiency levels, offering tailored lessons and real-time feedback