HD Automotive Engineering

(EG114705 / EG314705 / EG524705)

TRN4582
Electric Vehicle Technology II
Topic 1
Electric Vehicle Characteristics
Basic Parameters of Electric Vehicle
01

02 Systems introduction
Average Power Calculation

Power Weight Ratio and Driving Cycle

03

Force Speed Characteristics of Vehicle

04

Torque-Speed Requirement and Characteristics of Vehicle

05
04
05
EV Powertrain
Electric Vehicle Characteristics
 Electrification
Electrification in automobiles

• Electrification in automobiles can occur both in propulsion and

non-propulsion loads.

• The electrification level for the given vehicles defines the ratio of
electrical power available to the total power.

• Today, most of the vehicles being manufactured have 10-20% of

electrification. These more-electric vehicles (MEVs) employ
electrified non-propulsion loads, such as electrically assisted
power steering, electrically driven air conditioning, pumps, fans,
and so on.
 Electrification
Electrification in automobiles

• Mild hybrids have a higher degree of electrification, and they

provide auto start/stop function, regenerative braking capability,
and some use of electric power for propulsion.

• Depending on the system requirements, integration complexity,

and cost, mild hybrids can be designed as low voltage or high
voltage systems.

• This typically provides between 8-15% improvements in fuel

efficiency. By 2017, 70% of the new vehicles are expected to have
start/stop function in Europe.
 Electrification
Electrification in automobiles

• Full hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) have a higher degree of

electrification. Depending on the design of the powertrain, full
hybrids can achieve 20-50% and more reduction in fuel
consumption.
• In power-split hybrids (parallel-series), two electric motors are
coupled with an internal combustion engine to create an
electrically variable transmission. The design of the powertrain
defines the fuel efficiency improvement in city and highway
driving conditions.
 Electrification
Electrification in automobiles

• Degree of electrification: typical fuel efficiency improvement and

electric traction motor power.
 Electrification
Electrification in automobiles

• In all-electric vehicles (EVs), the traction power is supplied solely

from an electric motor and an electric energy storage system.

• One of the main concerns in EVs is the limited driving range,

which is dependent on the energy density of the battery cells and
also the temperature.
 Electrification
Electrification in automobiles

• In all-electric vehicles (EVs), the traction power is supplied solely

from an electric motor and an electric energy storage system.

• One of the main concerns in EVs is the limited driving range,

which is dependent on the energy density of the battery cells and
also the temperature.
 Electrification
How does an EV Work?

• Energy Storage
• Power Units
 Electrification
How does an EV Work?

Internal Combustion Engine Electric Motor

• Power Units
 Power Units
Internal Combustion Engine – Drawbacks
• Complex, heavy, big & expensive
• Maintenance & wearing out
• 75% of energy is wasted (~90% on Super Sport Car)
• Doesn't run on renewable energy from solar or wind
• Unhealthy exhaust emission
• Every liter of gasoline produces 2.3 kg of CO2
 Power Units
Electric Motor – Advantages
• Only one moving part (rotor)
• Light, compact, simple, no maintenance and inexpensive
• Efficiency close to 100% & braking can charge battery:
• 4x better than average car
• Much better acceleration
• Can run on renewable energy
• Zero emissions
 Power Units
Internal Combustion Engine – Power Output
• Power output refers to an amount of energy delivered within a
given timeframe.
• In automotive engineering, it means the amount of mechanical
energy output generated by the motor, again within a given
timeframe.
• It has an impact on the car’s acceleration, traction capacity (the
weight that it is able to move) and its ability to climb uphill.
 Power Units
Internal Combustion Engine – Power Output

Torque
• Mechanical energy power output refers to the product of rotation
speed (measured in revolutions per minute) and torque.
• Expressed in Newton meters (Nm), torque describes the motor’s
pulling power.
 Power Units
Internal Combustion Engine – Power Output

Power
• Measured during a testing process, illustrated by changes to the
torque depending on rotation speed.
• The value used by automotive manufacturers generally refers to
the maximum power output measured.
• It’s expressed in watts (W), and, more generally, in kilowatts (kW).
 Power Units
power output of an electric car motor

• In an Electric Vehicle, the mechanical power — given in watts (W),

kilowatts (kW) or horsepower (PS) — is calculated by multiplying
speed (RPM) by torque, the rotational equivalent of linear force,
measured in pound-feet (lb-ft) or Newton meters (Nm).
 Power Units
kilowatts (kW) relate to horsepower (PS)

• “Horsepower” historically refers to the power output of a car

engine, and dates back to the late nineteenth century.
• It’s a way of expressing the power output in a more literal way by
equating it to a workload that people can understand.
• Horsepower, refers to the power output generated by a horse in
order to lift a 75 kg weight one meter high in one second.
• Under the metric system, it is equal to around 736 W.
• the motor output of an electric vehicle can be stated
interchangeably in either kW or PS.
 Power Units
the power output of an electric car

• The role of a motor is to create mechanical energy out of another

form of energy.
• Its power output is derived from its maximum energy
transformation capacity.
• In electric vehicle, its power output depends on the size of its
motor (its volume) and the wattage of the incoming current.
• Power output is also a result of yield, i.e. the quantity ratio of
incoming electricity supplied to outgoing mechanical energy
delivered.
• Not all of the energy provided by the electric grid or charging
station ends up being used to power the motor. It can be lost due
to heat or friction along the way.
 Power Units
the power output of an electric car

• For an electric vehicle, the “useful” energy calculation can be

found by dividing the output (speed x torque) by the input, and
expressing the result as a percentage.
 Electrification
How does an EV Work?

• Energy Storage
 EV Energy Storage
EV Battery

• Batteries can store energy and are used to power a large variety
of devices, ranging from micro batteries that maintain the
memory of computer chips or pacemakers up to big batteries that
power electric cars and stabilize the electricity grid.

• Batteries that can only discharge once are called primary cells, for
example, our well-known AAA and AA alkaline batteries.

• Batteries that can be recharged are called secondary batteries.

Examples of which are lead-acid, nickel-metal hydride and
lithium-ion batteries.
 EV Energy Storage
EV Battery

• Primary cells (Primary Batteries), are disposed because their

electrochemical reaction cannot be reversed.
• Δ G negative (irreversible)

• Secondary cells (Secondary Batteries), are rechargeable because

their electrochemical reaction can be reversed by applying a
certain voltage to the battery in the opposite direction to the
discharge.
• Δ G negative (discharge)
• Δ G positive (charge)
 EV Energy Storage
EV Battery

• Every battery consists of three main components.

➢ The negative anode,
➢ the positive cathode,
➢ and the electrolyte.
• Other words for the electrodes are the minus pole and the plus
pole. The electrolyte is typically a liquid electrolyte and together
with the separator it avoids physical contact between the two
electrodes.
 EV Energy Storage
EV Battery

• Batteries consist of a positive and negative pole or electrode. In a

charged battery, energy is stored in a chemical form in the
electrodes which is released as electrical energy when discharged.

• Also, secondary batteries can be charged using electricity during

which the electrical energy is converted to chemical energy,
stored in the battery. An important characteristic of batteries is
that the energy storage efficiency is very high, mostly more than
90% in Li-ion batteries.
 EV Energy Storage
EV Battery

• The most important battery performance parameters are

➢ the capacity,
➢ state of charge,
➢ efficiency, energy content,
➢ the energy density,
➢ cycle life and
➢ C-rates.
 EV Energy Storage
EV Battery - Capacity
• the voltage when a Lithium-ion battery is discharged at a constant
and low current.

• The voltage on average decreases during discharge because

lithium ions that have the largest chemical driving force, hence
the largest voltage, will go first from the negative to the positive
electrode.
 EV Energy Storage
EV Battery - Capacity
• This quantifies the amount of charge that is passed during
discharge from the negative to the positive electrode.
• It corresponds to the number of Lithium-ions, each carrying one
elemental charge unit, that can be stored in the electrodes.
• How much lithium ions can be stored in the electrode material
depends in detail on the electrode chemistry.
 EV Energy Storage
EV Battery - Capacity
• Graphite can host one Lithium atom per 6 carbon (C) atoms
• Silicon (Si) atom can host 4.4 Lithium ions
• The unit of charge is coulomb (C), and the elementary charge,
carried by 1 electron or an ion equals 1.6x10^-19 coulomb.
• The unit of current is ampere (A), which corresponds to Coulombs
passing per second.
• A discharge current during a certain time period this corresponds
to a specific amount of discharge capacity.
• For batteries typically this is expressed in Ah, where 1 Ah
corresponds to a current of 1 A during one hour, which equals
3600 coulomb.
• To determine how much a battery is charged in percent, we can
use the State of charge (SOC). 100% represents the fully charged
state. In the same way the state of discharge is defined.
 EV Energy Storage
EV Battery - Capacity
• The efficiency of a battery can be divided into two different types.
The coulombic efficiency is the ratio between the discharge and
charge capacity.

• The other type of efficiency is the energy efficiency, that is simply

the ratio of the outcoming and incoming energy.
 EV Energy Storage
EV Battery - Capacity
• The total amount of energy stored in the battery during charge,
and released during discharge corresponds to the average voltage
times the capacity.
• This corresponds to the area underneath the discharge or charge
plot.
• Multiplying the unit of voltage, volt, with the unit of capacity,
coulomb, leads to the unit of energy, joules (J).
 EV Energy Storage
EV Battery - Capacity

• The capacity is typically expressed in ampere-hours,

multiplication with the voltage results in watt-hour (Wh), which is
the unit most often used to express the energy content of a
battery as we have seen before.

• For the conversion to joules you need to realize that 1 watt-hour

is the same as 3600 J.
 Energy Storage
Batteries – Energy Density
• The energy density is another very important parameter. There
are two types of energy density, one is per weight, and one is
per volume.
• The gravimetric energy density by dividing the energy content
by the battery weight resulting in the unit watt-hours per
kilogram.
• The energy density per volume is called the volumetric energy
density.
• To obtain the volumetric energy density we divide the energy by
the volume of the battery, typically in Liters.
• The gravimetric energy density is most relevant for EVs, and the
volumetric energy density for portable electronics.
 Energy Storage
Gravimetric Energy Density of Batteries
• A vehicle needs to be as light as possible, the battery cannot be
too heavy.
• This limits the maximum amount of energy stored in an EV
battery, which itself limits the driving range.
• Lithium-ion batteries currently have the highest gravimetric
energy density of all battery technologies (~250 Watt-hours per
kilogram).
 EV batteries
Cycle Life of Batteries
• Upon repeated charging and discharging, a battery loses some
capacity.
• This is called capacity fading and is the main reason why
batteries have a so called cycle life. When 70% of the starting
capacity is left, the battery is often considered to be at the end
of its cycle life, at least for EV applications.
 EV batteries
Cycle Life of Batteries
• The C-rate, or X-rate, represents the current to charge or
discharge the battery to its full capacity in X hours.
• Example - C/10 corresponds to the current that would charge or
discharge the battery in 10 hours. 5C corresponds to the current
that would charge or discharge the battery in 0.2hours.
• Higher C-rates will lead to higher charging currents, but lower
efficiency.
 EV batteries
Example
• Consider a gasoline-powered car and an EV, both requiring 100
kWh for a journey. Assume that the conversion from chemical to
mechanical energy is 25% efficient for the gasoline car and 90%
efficient for the electric car. The state-of-the-art lithium-ion
batteries have an energy density close to 250 Wh/kg, which is
still relatively small compared to 12,900 Wh/kg for gasoline.

• Determine the calculated weight of fuel required for the

gasoline-powered car and what is the weight of the EV battery?

Gasoline weight → 31 kg
EV battery weight → 444 kg
Basic EV Parameters
 Basic EV Parameters
Power Rating of the EV Powertrain
Minimum power rating of an EV components for use within an EV
depends on:

• the vehicle mass (the forces on the vehicle) and

• the desired acceleration performance (power that needs be
delivered by the powertrain to control the vehicle speed).

What are the forces on a vehicle while driving?

• Rolling resistance force
• Aerodynamic drag force
• Gradient force
 EV powertrain
Rolling resistance force
• The rolling resistance force occurs due to the friction between the tires and
the road. The rolling resistance force is zero at standstill.

• When the vehicle starts moving, the rolling resistance force acts in the
direction opposite to the direction of motion and can be calculated by the
rolling resistance coefficient Cr multiplied by the normal force between the
vehicle and the road.

• For a flat surface, the normal force is the vehicle mass m times the standard
gravity g.
 EV powertrain
Rolling resistance force
 EV powertrain
Rolling resistance force
• In the case of a road with an
inclination angle, the normal force
becomes the weight m.g multiplied
by the cosine of the road angle.

• It is important to note that the

rolling resistance force is
independent of the vehicle speed,
and it is always opposite the driving
direction.
 EV powertrain
Rolling resistance force
• Approx. independent of vehicle
speed.

• Opposing the driving direction.

• The coefficient Cr should be low to

keep the frictional losses low.

• Cr is typically around 0.01 to 0.02.

 EV powertrain
Aerodynamic drag force
• It is hence important to note that the aerodynamic drag in independent of
vehicle mass but has a strong dependence on the vehicle speed.

• That is why in a car, the aerodynamic drag force is higher than the rolling
resistance force when the speed is above about 70 to 80 km/h.
 EV powertrain
Aerodynamic drag force
• As the vehicle speed increase, the aerodynamic drag force opposes the vehicle
motion as the air as is forced to flow around the moving vehicle.

• It can be calculated as the product of the aerodynamic drag coefficient Cd the

front area of the vehicle Af, the air density and the square of the vehicle speed
v, divided by 2.
 EV powertrain
Aerodynamic drag force
Example:
An electric vehicle has the following attributes: drag coefficient 𝐶𝐷 = 0.25, vehicle
cross section A =2𝑚2 , and available propulsion energy of 𝐸𝑏 = 20 kWh (1 kWh = 3
6 × 106 J). Let the density of air ρ𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 1.2 𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 .
.
Instantaneously at a vehicle speed of 120 km/h, calculate the aerodynamic drag
force, power, and range, while driving in (a) calm conditions with no wind and (b)
windy conditions with a 12 km/h headwind.
 EV powertrain
Aerodynamic drag force
Solution:
The vehicle speed v in m/s is obtained by dividing the speed in km/h by 1000/3600 or 3.6:
 EV powertrain
Gradient force
The third force that acts on a vehicle is the gradient force, and it occurs when the
vehicle is driving on an uphill or a downhill road.

The gradient force is due to the longitudinal component of gravitational force,

namely mg where inclination angle of the road. As seen earlier, the cosine
component of the gravity contributes to the normal force and the corresponding
rolling resistance force.
 EV powertrain
Net force on the vehicle
Vehicle drive requirements and performance specifications must be understood
in order to develop the electric powertrain. The main load forces of aerodynamic
drag 𝐹𝐷 , rolling resistance 𝐹𝑅 , and climbing resistance acting on the vehicle
𝐹𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 , should be considered.

Fgrad
 EV powertrain
Net force on the vehicle

It is important that it only consider the forces in the forward and reverse direction, as
they influence the powertrain. The forces in other directions are neglected for simplicity.
Secondly, the forces in the vehicle are assumed to be acting at one point. In reality, the
forces are distributed over the vehicle.
 EV powertrain
Net force on the vehicle

It is important that it only consider the forces in the forward and reverse direction, as
they influence the powertrain. The forces in other directions are neglected for simplicity.
Secondly, the forces in the vehicle are assumed to be acting at one point. In reality, the
forces are distributed over the vehicle.
 EV powertrain
Net force on the vehicle

Basic Power
If a vehicle is traveling at a constant speed v, then the power P required to propel it is
equal to the product of the force F and the speed. In equation form:

where s is the distance, and t is the time required to travel the distance. The metric units
for distance, time, and speed are the meter (m), the second (s), and meters/second (m/s),
respectively.

Energy
The energy E required to propel the vehicle at a constant speed is simply the product of
power and time:
 EV powertrain
Operating point
Let us now look at a force/speed diagram
of a vehicle with a mass of 1.5 ton, frontal
area of 2.5m^2 and the speed range of 0-
200 km/h. From the formula for the
traction force, we can calculate the force
at each speed level for zero vehicle
acceleration.

Those points make a force/speed curve of

this car. When the speed is close to zero,
then the traction force is used to
overcome the rolling resistance force. As
the speed increase, the traction force
needed increases fast, as the
aerodynamic force increase with the
square of the speed.
 EV powertrain
Power for Auxiliaries

• Infotainment system
• Heating, air conditioning
• Lighting
• Wiper
• Window,
• seat adjustment
• Lock system
Regenerative Braking
 Brake System
Overview
A brake is a mechanical device that inhibits motion by absorbing energy from a
moving system

BRAKES - Principle
• A common misconception about brakes system is that brakes squeeze against a
drum or disc, and the pressure of the squeezing action slows the vehicle down.
However, this is in fact a part of the reason for slowing down a vehicle.
• Actually brakes use friction of brake shoes and drums to convert kinetic energy
developed by the vehicle into heat energy.
• When applying brakes, the pads or shoes that press against the brake drums or
rotor convert kinetic energy into thermal energy via friction.
• kinetic energy -> heat energy.
 Regenerative Braking
regenerative braking system
• Regenerative braking technology
funnels the energy created by the
braking process of recovering a
part of the kinetic energy of the
vehicle and converting it to a form
that can be stored and used later.
• In a regenerative braking system,
the energy normally lost in the
braking process is transferred to
the generator from the rotating
axel and then transferred to the
energy storage system.
 Regenerative Braking
How it works
 Regenerative Braking
Kinetic Energy
• For a gasoline engine powered vehicle, the vehicle’s kinetic
energy is converted to heat energy during braking operation.
• Hence, this energy cannot be re-used.
• However, in case of electric vehicles, this energy can be
recovered. For a vehicle of mass ‘m’ moving with a velocity ‘v’
the kinetic energy can be given by:
 Regenerative Braking
Kinetic Energy
• Direction of power flow in motoring and regenerative mode

https://youtu.be/CYwptIkKEbE
 Regenerative Braking
Forces acting on a vehicle
• the net power required for traction can be expressed by the
below equation:

• m(dv/dt) = the braking force

Ptract > 0 Vehicle is in motoring mode.

Ptract < 0 Vehicle is under braking conditions
 Regenerative Braking
Advantages
• It reduces the net energy consumption which results in higher
efficiency.

• As the energy recovered from braking can be used to charge the

battery, the range of the vehicle can be increased.

• The mechanical wear and tear is reduced.

 Regenerative Braking
Braking Power
• Braking is done as a measure of safety and the vehicle is
expected to stop or slow down in a short time period.

• While for traction, the energy is generally lower than the braking
energy.

• For example, the braking energy required for reducing the speed
of the vehicle from 100km/hr to 0km/hr is more than the energy
required for a vehicle to reach 100km/hr from 0km/hr due to
short duration.
 Regenerative Braking
Braking Power
• the regenerative braking is implemented at the base speed.

• constant line is the maximum braking power which can be

recovered by the machine during regenerative braking.

• the vehicle at certain speeds require higher braking power (more

than what can be recovered).

• the regenerative braking system are generally used along with

mechanical braking system.

https://youtu.be/CYwptIkKEbE
 Regenerative Braking
Limitation
• At certain speeds the energy that can be recovered is less than the
braking energy and the regenerative braking system has to be used
with mechanical braking system

• The regenerative braking system depends on the rating of the machine

and hence, this can be a limitation especially at lower speeds.

• When the battery pack is completely charged, or almost full the

regenerative braking is limited or cannot be operated.

• The regenerative braking is limited only to the axle to which the

machine is connected.
 Regenerative Braking
Example
• An electric vehicle has a total weight of 1200kg and running at
55km/h on a flat road. The EV driver brakes the EV and it takes
the EV 10s to stop by its regenerative braking system. If the
regeneration process has an efficiency of 60%, determine the
maximum power that the system can be recovered during this
braking event.

Ans = 8.4kW
EV Driving Range
 EV Driving Range
EV driving range
The driving range is the distance your EV can drive with the energy
stored in its battery.

An EV’s driving range can depend on:

• the battery capacity

• how the vehicle is driven
• the external conditions (e.g. cold or warm weather)
• the weight of the vehicle.
 EV Driving Range
EV driving range
 EV Driving Range
Range Test
 EV Driving Range
Testing Cycle
Range standards are a key driver of the EV industry because vehicle
manufacturers advertise driving range to market their electric
vehicles. As such, standardized range testing provides consumers
with a uniform approach to range measurement.

There are two main standards used to measure a vehicle’s range:

• The Worldwide Harmonised Light Vehicle Test Procedure (WLTP)

• The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) testing standards.
 EV Driving Range
Testing Cycle - EPA
• EPA test cycle used in the US is a dynamometer concept cycle.
• The car is tested on a dyno and not on the real road.
• There are two estimates in this cycle, the urban estimate
represented by the UDDS (Urban Dynamometer Driving
Schedule) and the highway estimate represented by the HWFET
(Highway Fuel Economy Test).
 EV Driving Range
Testing Cycle - EPA
• Before the testing procedure begins, the car is fully charged and
left on its own for the night.
• When the testing begins, continuous UDDS and HWFET cycles
are performed until the battery is totally depleted with a mix of
55% HWFET and 45% UDDS.
• Then the car is fully charged using a precise meter on the plug to
determine the kWh drawn from the grid. In this way, the on-
board charger efficiency is also taken into account.
• Because this is a lab test, a correction factor is applied to the
results to better simulate real life.
• This correction factor ranges between 0 and 1 and depends on
the number of drive cycles the car was tested for.
 EV Driving Range
Testing Cycle -WLTP
 EV Driving Range
Testing Cycle - WLTP
• The WLTP cycle (Worldwide Harmonized Light Vehicle Test
Procedure) has been in use since September 2017 in Europe and
replaces the NEDC cycle.
• As in the NEDC setup and EPA, the test takes place in a lab as
well. The WLTP cycle is divided into four parts based on different
average speeds (for class 3).
• These four parts are low, medium, high and extra high speeds.
• The total duration of the test is half an hour, the distance
traveled is 23.25 km and the topology mix is 52% urban and 48%
highway with an average speed of 46.5 km/h and maximum
speed 131 km/h.
 EV Driving Range
Testing Cycle - WLTP
• The WLTP procedures includes several WLTC test cycles applicable
to vehicle categories of different power-to-mass (PMR) ratio.
• The PMR parameter is defined as the ratio of rated power (W) /
curb mass (kg).

WLTC cycle for Class 3b vehicles

 EV Driving Range
Testing Cycle
 EV Driving Range
Engineering Range Test
 EV Driving Range
Class Exercise
Question:
It is noted that that EV manufacturer provided that the Model Z has a combined power
consumption according to the current WLTP of 16. 9kWh/100km and has the 80kwh
battery capacity.

• Determine the theoretically drive range of Model Z.

~473km
 HD Automotive Engineering
(EG114705 / EG314705 / EG524705)

Thank You!