Areas of Triangles and Parallelograms

Introduction to Areas of Triangles and Parallelograms

Introduction

The area represents the amount of planar surface being covered by a closed geometric
figure.

Areas of closed figures

Figures on the Same Base and Between the Same Parallels

Two figures are said to be on the same base and between the same parallels if:
a) They have a common side.
b) The sides parallel to the common base and vertices opposite the common side lie on the
same straight line parallel to the base.

Figures on same base AB and between

same parallels AB and PQ

For example : Parallelogram ABCD, Rectangle ABEF and Triangles ABP and ABQ

Area of a parallelogram
 Parallelogram

Area of a parallelogram = b × h

Where ‘b is the base and ‘h is the corresponding altitude(Height).

′ ′

Area of a triangle

Area of triangle

Area of a triangle = 1

2
× b × h

Where \(‘b’\) is the base and \(‘h’\) is the corresponding altitude.

Theorems
Parallelograms on the same Base and Between the same Parallels

Two parallelograms are said to be on the same base and between the same parallels if
a) They have a common side.
b) The sides parallel to the common side lie on the same straight line.

Parallelogram ABCD and ABEF

Theorem : Parallelograms that lie on the same base and between the same parallels are
equal in area.
Here, ar(parallelogram ABCD) = ar(parallelogram ABEF )
Triangles on the same Base and between the same Parallels

Two triangles are said to be on the same base and between the same parallels if
a) They have a common side.
b) The vertices opposite the common side lie on a straight line parallel to the common side.

Triangles ABC and ABD

Theorem : Triangles that lie on the same base and between the same parallels are equal in
area.
Here, ar(ΔABC) = ar(ΔABD)

Two triangles having the same base & equal areas

If two triangles have the same base and are equal in area, then, their corresponding
altitudes are equal.

-If two triangles have equal bases and are equal in area, then their corresponding altitudes
are equal.

A Parallelogram and a triangle between the same parallels

A triangle and a parallelogarm are said to be on the same base and between the same
parallels if
a) They have a common side.
b) The vertices opposite the common side lie on a straight line parallel to the common side.

A triangle ABC and

a parallelogram ABDE

Theorem : If a triangle and a parallelogram are on the same base and between the same
parallels, then the area of the triangle is equal to half the area of the parallelogram.
Here ar(ΔABC) = 1

2
ar(parallelogarm ABDE)
 Number Systems
Introduction to Number Systems
Numbers

Number: Arithmetical value representing a particular quantity.

The various types of numbers are Natural Numbers, Whole Numbers, Integers, Rational
Numbers, Irrational Numbers, Real Numbers etc.

Natural Numbers

Natural numbers(N) are positive numbers i.e. 1, 2, 3 ..and so on.

Whole Numbers

Whole numbers (W) are 0, 1, 2,..and so on. Whole numbers are all Natural Numbers
including '0'.
Whole numbers do not include any fractions, negative numbers or decimals.

Integers

Integers are just like whole numbers, but they also include negative numbers.
They are denoted by Z.

Examples: -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2

Rational Numbers

A number ‘r’ is called a rational number if it can be written in the form , where p and q are
p

integers and q ≠ 0.

Irrational Numbers

Any number that cannot be expressed in the form of where p and q are integers and q ≠ 0
p
,
q

, is an irrational number.
Examples: √2, 1.010024563 … , e, π

Real Numbers
Any number which can be represented on the number line is a Real Number(R).
It includes both rational and irrational numbers.
Every point on the number line represents a unique real number.

Irrational Numbers
Representation of Irrational numbers on the Number line

Let √x be an irrational number. To represent it on the number line we will follow the
following steps:

Take any point A. Draw a line AB = x units.

Extend AB to point C such that BC = 1 unit.
Find out the mid-point of AC and name it 'O'. With 'O' as the center draw a semi-circle
with radius OC.
Draw a straight line from B which is perpendicular to AC, such that it intersects the
semi-circle at point D.

Length of BD = √x.

Constructions to Find root of x.

With BD as the radius and origin as the center, cut the positive side of the number line
to get √x.

Identities for Irrational Numbers

Operations on Rational and Irrational numbers

Arithmetic operations between:

rational and irrational will give an irrational number.

irrational and irrational will give a rational or irrational number.

Example : 2 × √3 = 2√3 i.e. irrational.

√3 × √3 = 3 which is rational.
Identities for irrational numbers

If a and b are real numbers then:

√ab = √a√b

√a
a
√ =
b √b

(\sqrt a + \sqrt b) (\sqrt a - \sqrt b) = a - b\)

2
(a + √b)(a − √b) = a − b

(√a + √b)(√c + √d) = √ac + √ad + √bc + √bd

(√a + √b)(√c − √d) = √ac − √ad + √bc − √bd

2
(√a + √b) = a + 2√ab + b

Rationalisation

Rationalisation is converting an irrational number into a rational number.

Suppose if we have to rationalise . 1

√a

1 1 1
× =
a
√a √a

Rationalisation of 1
:
√a+b

1 1 1
× =
2
√a+b √a−b a−b

Laws of Exponents for Real Numbers

If a, b, m and n are real numbers then:

m n m+n
a × a = a

m n mn
(a ) = a
m
a m−n
= a
n
a

m m m
a b = (ab)

Here, a and b are the bases and m and n are exponents.

Exponential representation for irrational numbers

If a > 0 and n is a positive integer, then:

1
n
√a = a n

Let a > 0 be a real number and p and q be rational numbers, then:

p q p+q
a × a = a

p q pq
(a ) = a
p
a p−q
q
= a
a

p p p
a b = (ab)

Decimal Representation of Rational Numbers

Decimal expansion of Rational and Irrational Numbers

The decimal expansion of a rational number is either terminating or non- terminating and
recurring.
Example: = 0.5 ,
1

2
= 3.33.. 1

The decimal expansion of an irrational number is non terminating and non-recurring.

Examples:
√2 = 1.41421356..

Expressing Decimals as rational numbers

Case 1 - Terminating Decimals

Example - 0.625
Let x=0.625
If the number of digits after the decimal point is y, then multiply and divide the number by
10 .
y

So,x = 0.625 ×
1000 625
=
1000 1000

Then, reduce the obtained fraction to its simplest form.

Hence, x =
5

Case 2: Recurring Decimals

If the number is non-terminating and recurring, then we will follow the following steps to
convert it into a rational number:
Example - 1.042
¯
¯¯¯
¯¯

Step 1. Let x = 1.042 (1)

¯
¯¯¯
¯¯

Step 2. Multiply the first equation with 10 , where y is the number of digits that are
y

recurring.
Thus, 100x = 104.24 2 (2)
¯
¯¯¯
¯¯

Steps 3. Subtract equation 1 from equation 2.

On subtracting equation 1 from 2 , we get
99x = 103.2

103.2 1032
x = =
99 990

Which is the required rational number.

Reduce the obtained rational number to its simplest form
Thus, x =
172

165
 Coordinate Geometry
Cartesian System
Cartesian plane & Coordinate Axes

Cartesian Plane: A cartesian plane is defined by two perpendicular number lines,

A horizontal line(x − axis) and a vertical line (y − axis).

These lines are called coordinate axes. (Cartesian plane is named after French
mathematician Rene Descartes, who formalized its use in mathematics) The Cartesian plane
extends infinitely in all directions.

Origin: The coordinate axes intersect each other at right angles, The point of
intersection of these two axes is called Origin.

Quadrants

The cartesian plane is divided into four equal parts, called quadrants. These are named in
order as I,II,III and IV starting with the upper right and going around in anticlockwise
direction.

Quadrants

Points in different Quadrants.

Signs of coordinates of points in different quadrants:

I Quadrant: ‘+’ x - coordinate and ‘+’ y - coordinate. E.g. (2,3)

II Quadrant: ‘-’ x - coordinate and ‘+’ y - coordinate. E.g. (-1,4)

III Quadrant: ‘-’ x - coordinate and ‘-’ y - coordinate. E.g. (-3,-5)

IV Quadrant: ‘+’ x - coordinate and ‘-’ y - coordinate. E.g. (6,-1)

Plotting on a Graph
Representation of a point on Cartesian plane

Using the co-ordinate axes, we can describe any point in the plane using an ordered pair of
numbers. A point A is represented by an ordered pair (x, y) where, x is the abscissa and y is
the ordinate of the point.

Position of a point in a plane

Plotting a point

The location of a point in the plane is given by its coordinates,the first number x gives the
point's horizontal position and the second number y gives its vertical position.
For example, Point (3,2) is 3 units away from positive y-axis and 2 units away from positive
x-axis. Therefore, point (3,2) can be plotted as shown below. Similarly, (-2,3), (-1,-2) and
(2,-3) are plotted.

Plotting a point in the plane

 Linear Equations in Two Variables
Framing a Linear Equation
Linear equation in one variable

When an equation has only one variable of degree one, then that equation is
known as linear equation in one variable.

Standard form: ax+b=0, where a and b ϵ R & a ≠ 0

Examples of linear equation in one variable are :

- 3x-9 = 0
- 2t = 5

Linear equation in 2 variables

When an equation has two variables both of degree one, then that equation is
known as linear equation in two variables.

Standard form: ax+by+c=0, where a, b, c ϵ R & a, b ≠ 0

Examples of linear equations in two variables are:

- 7x+y=8
- 6p-4q+12=0

Examples of a Linear Equations

Solution of linear equation in 2 variables

A linear equation in two variables has a pair of numbers that can satisfy the
equations. This pair of numbers is called as the solution of the linear equation in
two variables.

The solution can be found by assuming the value of one of the variable and then
proceed to find the other solution.
There are infinitely many solutions for a single linear equation in two variables.

Graph of a Linear Equation

Graphical representation of a linear equation in 2 variables

Any linear equation in the standard form ax+by+c=0 has a pair of solutions (x,y), that
can be represented in the coordinate plane.
When an equation is represented graphically, it is a straight line that may or may not
cut the coordinate axes.
Solutions of Linear equation in 2 variables on a graph

A linear equation ax+by+c=0 is represented graphically as a straight line.

Every point on the line is a solution for the linear equation.
Every solution of the linear equation is a point on the line.

Lines passing through origin

Certain linear equations exist such that their solution is (0,0). Such equations when
represented graphically pass through the origin.
The coordinate axes x-axis and y-axis can be represented as y=0 and x=0 respectively.

Lines parallel to coordinate axes

Linear equations of the form y=a, when represented graphically are lines parallel to
the x-axis and a is the y-coordinate of the points in that line.
Linear equations of the form x=a, when represented graphically are lines parallel to
the y-axis and a is the x-coordinate of the points in that line.
Introduction to Euclid’s Geometry Class 9 Notes: Chapter
5

Introduction to Euclid’s Geometry

Geometry is a branch of mathematics that includes the study of different shapes and sizes we
observe in our day-to-day life. The Greek mathematician Euclid has introduced geometry with a new
definition, axioms and postulates. In the introduction to Euclid’s geometry chapter, we will learn
Euclid’s approach to geometry and how it is related to present geometry.

What is Euclid’s Geometry?

The word “geometry” comes from the Greek words “geo”, which means the “earth”, and “metron”,
which means “to measure”. Euclidean geometry is a mathematical system attributed to Euclid a
teacher of mathematics in Alexandria in Egypt. Euclid gave us an exceptional idea regarding the
basic concepts of geometry, in his book called “Elements”.

Euclid listed 23 definitions in his book “Elements”. Some important points are mentioned below:

● A line is an endless length.

● A point has no dimension (length, breadth and width).
● A line which lies evenly with the points on itself is a straight line.
● Points are the ends of a line.
● A surface is that which has breadth and length only.
● A plane surface is a surface which lies evenly with the straight lines on itself.
● Lines are the edges of a surface.

Euclid realized that a precise development of geometry must start with the foundations. Euclid’s
axioms and postulates are still studied for a better understanding of geometry.

Know more: Euclidean Geometry

Euclid’s Postulates
The five postulates made by Euclid are:

Postulate 1: A straight line may be drawn from any one point to any other point

Postulate 2: A terminated line can be produced indefinitely

Postulate 3: A circle can be drawn with any centre and any radius.

Postulate 4: All right angles are equal to one another.

Postulate 5: If a straight line falling on two straight lines makes the interior angles on the same side
of it taken together less than two right angles, then the two straight lines, if produced indefinitely,
meet on that side on which the sum of angles is less than two right angles.

Euclid’s Axioms
The seven axioms made by Euclid are given below.

(1) Things which are equal to the same thing are equal to one another.

(2) If equals are added to equals, the wholes are equal.

(3) If equals are subtracted from equals, the remainders are equal.

(4) Things which coincide with one another are equal to one another.

(5) The whole is greater than the part.

(6) Things which are double of the same things are equal to one another.

(7) Things which are halves of the same things are equal to one another.

Theorem
According to this theorem, Two distinct lines cannot have more than one point in common.

Proof: Say, there are two lines ‘l’ and ‘m’ that have one common point.

Now, let us suppose, ‘l’ and ‘m’ have two common points, say A and B. So, two lines, l and m, pass
through two distinct points A and B. But the assumption contradicts with the axiom that only one line
can pass through two distinct points. Hence, the assumption we made is wrong and the two lines ‘l’
and ‘m’ have only one common point.

Equivalent Versions of Euclid’s Fifth Postulate

(i) ‘For every line l and for every point P not lying on l, there exists a unique line ‘m’ passing through
P and parallel to l’.
(ii) Two distinct intersecting lines cannot be parallel to the same line.

Know more: Euclid’s Fifth Postulates

Important Questions
Q.1) If A, B and C are 3 points on a line, and B lies between A and C, prove that AB + BC = AC.

Q.2) Prove that an equilateral triangle can be formed on any given line segment.

Q.3) If AC = BD, then prove that AB = CD.

Students of class 9 can refer the introduction to Euclid’s geometry class 9 notes to prepare for their
exam more effectively. Stay tuned with BYJU’S and get detailed notes of all concepts of Class 9
mathematics.

Related Links:

● NCERT Solution for Class 9 Maths Chapter 5 Euclid’s Geometry

● Class 9 Maths Chapter 4 Notes
● RD Sharma for Class 9 Maths Euclid’s Geometry
● NCERT Exemplar for Class 9 Maths Chapter 5 Introduction to Euclid’s
Geometry
● Important Questions Class 9 Maths Chapter 5-Introduction to Euclid’s
Geometry)
Frequently asked Questions on CBSE Class 9 Maths Notes
Chapter 5: Introduction to Euclids Geometry

What is ‘Euclids geometry’?

Euclidean geometry, the study of plane and solid figures on the basis of axioms and theorems
employed by the Greek mathematician Euclid.

What is an ‘Infinity point’?

An ideal mathematical point in projective geometry that preserves the magnitudes of all angles of a
transformed plane is called an ‘Infinity point’.

Who was Alexandrian?

He was a Greek mathematician and engineer who was active in his native city of Alexandria, Roman
Egypt.
 Lines and Angles
Parallel Lines and a Transversal
Parallel lines with transversal

Parallel lines with a transversal

∠1 = ∠5, ∠2 = ∠6, ∠4 = ∠8 and ∠3 = ∠7 (Corresponding angles)

∠3 = ∠5, ∠4 = ∠6 (Alternate interior angles)
∠1 = ∠7, ∠2 = ∠8 (Alternate exterior angles)

Lines parallel to the same line

- Lines that are parallel to the same line are also parallel to each other.

Introduction to Geometry
Angles and types of angles

When 2 rays originate from the same point at different directions, they form an
angle.

- The rays are called arms and the common point is called vertex
- Types of angles : (i) Acute angle 0 < a < 90
∘ ∘

(ii) Right angle a = 90 ∘

(iii) Obtuse angle : 90 < a < 180

∘ ∘

(iv) Straight angle = 180 ∘

(v) Reflex Angle 180 < a < 360

∘ ∘

(vi) Angles that add up to 90 are complementary angles

∘

(vii) Angles that add up to 180 are called supplementary angles.

∘

Intersecting Lines and Associated Angles

Intersecting and Non-Intersecting lines

When 2 lines meet at a point they are called intersecting

When 2 lines never meet at a point, they are called non-intersecting or parallel lines
Adjacent angles

2 angles are adjacent if they have the same vertex and one common point.

Adjacent angles

Linear Pair

When 2 adjacent angles are supplementary, i.e they form a straight line (add up to 180 ),∘

they are called a linear pair.

Vertically opposite angles

When two lines intersect at a point, they form equal angles that are vertically opposite to
each other.

Basic Properties of a Triangle

Triangle and sum of its internal angles

Sum of all angles of a triangle add up to 180 ∘

Exterior angle of a triangle = sum of opposite internal angles

- If a side of a triangle is produced, then the exterior angle so formed is equal to the sum of
the two interior opposite angles

∠4 is the exterior angle

- ∠4 = ∠1 + ∠2
 Triangles
Congruence of Triangles
Congruent Triangles

- In a pair of triangles if all three corresponding sides and three corresponding angles are
exactly equal, then the triangles are said to be congruent.

Congruent triangles

In congruent triangles, the corresponding parts are equal and are written as CPCT
(Corresponding part of congruent triangle).

Criteria for Congruency

SSS Criteria for Congruency

If three sides of one triangle are equal to the three sides of another triangle, then the
two triangles are congruent.
If all sides are exactly same, then their corresponding angles must also be exactly
same.

SAS Criteria for Congruency

- Axiom :Two triangles are congruent if two sides and the included angle of one triangle are
equal to the corresponding sides and the included angle of the other triangle.

ASA Criteria for Congruency

- Two triangles are congruent if two angles and the included side of one triangle are equal
to the corresponding two angles and the included side of the other triangle

Included side is 4cm

AAS Criteria for Congruency

- Two triangles are congruent if two angles and the included side of one triangle are equal
to two angles and the included side of the other triangle.

Why SSA and AAA congruency rules are not valid?

SSA or ASS test is not a valid test for congruency as the angle is not included between
the pairs of equal sides.-
The AAA test also is not a valid test as even though 2 triangles can have all three same
angles, the sides can be of differing lengths. This becomes a test for similarity (AA).

Angles of a triangle

RHS Criteria for Congruency

If in two right triangles the hypotenuse and one side of one triangle are equal to the
hypotenuse and one side of the other triangle, then the two triangles are congruent.
RHS stands for Right angle - Hypotenuse - Side.

Properties of Isosceles triangle

- If 2 sides of the triangle are equal, the angles opposite those sides are also equal and vice
versa.

Criteria for Congruency of triangles

- The criteria for congruency of triangles are :

SAS
ASA
AAS
SSS
RHS

symbolically, it is expressed as ΔABC ≅ ΔXY Z

Inequalities in Triangles
Relationship between unequal sides of triangle and the angles opposite
to it.

- If 2 sides of a triangle are unequal, then the angle opposite to the longer side will be larger
than the angle opposite to the shorter side.

Triangle inequality

- The sum of the lengths of any two sides of a triangle must be greater than the third side.
 Quadrilaterals
Properties of Parallelogram
Opposite sides of a parallelogram are equal

in ΔABC and ΔCDA

AC = AC [Common / transversal]

∠BCA = ∠DAC [alternate angles]

∠BAC = ∠DCA [alternate angles]

ΔABC ≅ ΔCDA [ASA rule]

Hence,
AB = DC and AD = BC [ C.P.C.T.C]

Opposite angles in a parallelogram are equal

In parallelogram ABCD
AB‖CD; and AC is the transversal

Hence, ∠1 = ∠3....(1) (alternate interior angles)

BC‖DA ; and AC is the transversal

Hence, ∠2 = ∠4....(2) (alternate interior angles)

Adding (1) and (2)

∠1 + ∠2 = ∠3 + ∠4

∠BAD = ∠BCD

Similarly,
∠ADC = ∠ABC
Properties of diagonal of a parallelogram

- Diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other.

In ΔAOB and ΔCOD,

∠3 = ∠5 [alternate interior angles]

∠1 = ∠2 [vertically opposite angles]

AB = CD [opp. Sides of parallelogram]

ΔAOB ≅ ΔCOD [AAS rule]

OB = OD and OA = OC [C.P.C.T]

Hence, proved

Conversly,
- If the diagonals of a quadrilateral bisect each other, then it is a parallelogram.

- Diagonal of a parallelogram divides it into two congruent triangles.

In ΔABC and ΔCDA,

AB = CD [Opposite sides of parallelogram]

BC = AD [Opposite sides of parallelogram]

AC = AC [Common side]
ΔABC ≅ ΔCDA [by SSS rule]

Hence, proved

Diagonals of a rhombus bisect each-other at right angles

Diagonals of a rhombus bisect each - other at right angles

In ΔAOD and ΔCOD,
OA = OC [Diagonals of parallelogram bisect each other]

OD = OD [Common side]

AD = CD [Adjacent sides of a rhombus]

ΔAOD ≅ ΔCOD [SSS rule]

∠AOD = ∠DOC [C.P.C.T]

∠AOD + ∠DOC = 180 [∵ AOC is a straight line]

Hence, ∠AOD = ∠DOC = 90

Hence proved

Diagonals of a rectangle bisect each-other and are equal

Rectangle ABCD

In ΔABC and ΔBAD,

AB = BA [Common side]
BC = AD [Opposite sides of a rectangle]

∠ABC = ∠BAD [Each = 90 ∵ ABCD is a Rectangle]

0

ΔABC ≅ ΔBAD [SAS rule]

∴ AC = BD [C.P.C.T]

Consider ΔOAD and ΔOCB,

AD = CB [Opposite sides of a rectangle]

∠OAD = ∠OCB [∵ AD||BC and transversal AC intersects them]

∠ODA = ∠OBC [∵ AD||BC and transversal BD intersects them]

ΔOAD ≅ ΔOCB [ASA rule]

∴ OA = OC [C.P.C.T]

Similarly we can prove OB = OD

Diagonals of a square bisect each-other at right angles and are equal

Square ABCD

In ΔABC and ΔBAD,

AB = BA [Common side]

BC = AD [Opposite sides of a Square]

∠ABC = ∠BAD [Each = 90 ∵ ABCD is a Square]

0

ΔABC ≅ ΔBAD [SAS rule]

∴ AC = BD [C.P.C.T]

Consider ΔOAD and ΔOCB,

AD = CB [Opposite sides of a Square]

∠OAD = ∠OCB [∵ AD||BC and transversal AC intersects them]

∠ODA = ∠OBC [∵ AD||BC and transversal BD intersects them]

ΔOAD ≅ ΔOCB [ASA rule]

∴ OA = OC [C.P.C.T]

Similarly we can prove OB = OD

In ΔOBA and ΔODA,

OB = OD [ proved above]
BA = DA [Sides of a Square]

OA = OA [ Common side]
ΔOBA ≅ ΔODA, [ SSS rule]

∴ ∠AOB = ∠AOD [ C.P.C.T]

But, ∠AOB + ∠AOD = 180 [ Linear pair]

0

0
∴ ∠AOB = ∠AOD = 90

Important results related to parallelograms

 Parallelogram ABCD

Opposite sides of a parallelogram are parallel and equal.

AB||CD, AD||BC, AB = CD, AD = BC

Opposite angles of a parallelogram are equal adjacent angels are supplementary.

∠A = ∠C, ∠B = ∠D,

0 0 0 0
∠A + ∠B = 180 , ∠B + ∠C = 180 , ∠C + ∠D = 180 , ∠D + ∠A = 180

A diagonal of parallelogram divides it into two congruent triangles.

ΔABC ≅ ΔCDA [With respect to AC as diagonal]
ΔADB ≅ ΔCBD [With respect to BD as diagonal]

The diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other.

AE = CE, BE = DE

∠1 = ∠5 (alternate interior angles)

∠2 = ∠6 (alternate interior angles)
∠3 = ∠7 (alternate interior angles)

∠4 = ∠8 (alternate interior angles)

∠9 = ∠11 (vertically opp. angles)

∠10 = ∠12 (vertically opp. angles)

The Mid-Point Theorem

The mid-point theorem

The line segment joining the midpoints of two sides of a triangle is parallel to the third side
and is half of the third side

In ΔABC, E - midpoint of AB; F - midpoint of AC

Construction: Produce EF to D such that EF = DF .

In ΔAEF and ΔCDF ,

AF = CF [ F is midpoint of AC]
∠AF E = ∠CF D [ V.O.A]
EF = DF [ Construction]

∴ ΔAEF ≅ ΔCDF [SAS rule]

Hence,
∠EAF = ∠DCF ....(1)
DC = EA = EB [ E is the midpoint of AB]

DC‖EA‖AB [Since, (1), alternate interior angles]

DC‖EB

So EBCD is a parallelogram
Therefore, BC = ED and BC‖ED
Since, ED = EF + F D = 2EF = BC [ ∵ EF=FD]
We have,EF =
1

2
BC and EF ||BC
Hence proved

Introduction to Quadrilaterals
Quadrilaterals

Any four points in a plane, of which three are non collinear are joined in order results in to a
four sided closed figure called 'quadrilateral'

Quadrilateral

Angle sum property of a quadrilateral

Angle sum property - Sum of angles in a quadrilateral is 360

In △ADC,
∠1 + ∠2 + ∠4 = 180 (Angle sum property of triangle)................(1)

In △ABC,
∠3 + ∠5 + ∠6 = 180 (Angle sum property of triangle)..................(2)

(1) + (2):
∠1 + ∠2 + ∠3 + ∠4 + ∠5 + ∠6 = 360

I.e, ∠A + ∠B + ∠C + ∠D = 360
Hence proved

Types of Quadrilaterals
Trapezium

A trapezium is a quadrilateral with any one pair of opposite sides parallel.

Trapezium

P QRS is trapezium in which P Q||RS

Parallelogram

A parallelogram is a quadrilateral, with both pair of opposite sides parallel and equal. In
parallelogram, diagonals bisect each other.

Parallelogram ABCD

Parallelogarm ABCD in which AB||CD, BC||AD and AB = CD, BC = AD

Rhombus
A rhombus is a parallelogram with all sides equal. In rhombus, diagonals bisect each other
perpendicularly

Rhombus ABCD

A rhombus ABCD in which AB = BC = CD = AD and AC⊥BD

Rectangle

A rectangle is a parallelogram with all angles as right angles.

Rectangle ABCD

A rectangle ABCD in which, ∠A = ∠B = ∠C = ∠D = 90

0

Square

A square is a special case of parallelogram with all angles as right angles and all sides equal.
 Square ABCD

A square ABCD in which ∠A = ∠B = ∠C = ∠D = 90

0
and AB = BC = CD = AD

Kite

A kite is a quadrilateral with adjacent sides equal.

Kite ABCD

A kite ABCD in which AB = BC and AD = CD

Venn diagram for different types of quadrilaterals

 Circles
Introduction to Circles
Circles

- The set of all the points in a plane that is at a fixed distance from a fixed point makes a
circle.
- A Fixed point from which the set of points are at fixed distance is called centre of the
circle.
- A circle divides the plane into 3 parts: interior (inside the circle), the circle itself and
exterior (outside the circle)

Radius

- The distance between the center of the circle and any point on its edge is called the
radius.

Tangent and Secant

A line that touches the circle at exactly one point is called its tangent.
A line that cuts a circle at two points is called as a secant.

In the above figure: PQ is the tangent and AB is the secant.

Chord

-The line segment within the circle joining any 2 points on the circle is called the chord.

Diameter
- A Chord passing through the center of the circle is called the diameter.
- The Diameter is 2 times the radius and it is the longest chord.

Arc

- The portion of a circle(curve) between 2 points is called an arc.

- Among the two pieces made by an arc, the longer one is called major arc and the shorter
one is called minor arc.

Circumference

The perimeter of a circle is the distance covered by going around its boundary once. The
perimeter of a circle has a special name: Circumference, which is π times the diameter
which is given by the formula 2πr

Segment and Sector

- A circular segment is a region of a circle which is "cut off" from the rest of the circle by a
secant or a chord.
- Smaller region cut off by a chord is called minor segment and the bigger region is called
major segment.

- A sector is the portion of a circle enclosed by two radii and an arc, where the smaller area
is known as the minor sector and the larger being the major sector.
- For 2 equal arcs or for semicircles - both the segment and sector is called the semicircular
region.

Circles and Their Chords

Theorem of equal chords subtending angles at the center.

- Equal chords subtend equal angles at the center.

Proof : AB and CD are the 2 equal chords.

In ΔAOB and ΔCOD
OB = OC [Radii]
OA = OD [Radii]
AB = CD [Given]

ΔAOB ≅ ΔCOD (SSS rule)

Hence, ∠AOB = ∠COD [CPCT]

Theorem of equal angles subtended by different chords.

- If the angles subtended by the chords of a circle at the center are equal, then the chords
are equal.

Proof : In ΔAOB and ΔCOD

OB = OC [Radii]

∠AOB = ∠COD [Given]

OA = OD [Radii]

ΔAOB ≅ ΔCOD(SAS rule)

Hence, AB = CD [CPCT]

Perpendicular from the center to a chord bisects the chord.

Perpendicular from the center of a circle to a chord bisects the chord.

Proof: AB is a chord and OM is the perpendicular drawn from the center.

From Δ OM B and ΔOM A,
0
∠OM A = ∠OM B = 90

OA = OB (radii)
OM = OM (common)
Hence,ΔOM B ≅ ΔOM A (RHS rule)
Therefore AM = MB [CPCT]

A Line through the center that bisects the chord is perpendicular to

the chord.

- A line drawn through the center of a circle to bisect a chord, is perpendicular to the
chord.

Proof: OM drawn from center to bisect chord AB .

From Δ OM A and ΔOM B,
OA = OB (Radii)

OM = OM (common)

AM = BM (Given)

Therefore, ΔOM A ≅ ΔOM B (SSS rule)

⇒ ∠OM A = ∠OM B (C.P.C.T)

But, ∠OM A + ∠OM B = 180 0

Hence, ∠OM A = ∠OM B = 90 0

⇒ OM ⊥AB

Circle through 3 points

- There is one and only one circle passing through three given noncollinear points.
- A unique circle passes through 3 vertices of a triangle ABC called as the circumcircle. The
centre and radius are called the circumcenter and circumradius of this triangle,
respectively.

Equal chords are at equal distances from the center.

Equal chords of a circle(or of congruent circles) are equidistant from the centre (or centres).
Proof : Given, AB = CD, O is the centre. Join OA and OC .
Draw, OP ⊥AB, OQ⊥CD
In ΔOAP andΔOCQ,
OA = OC (Radii)

AP = CQ ( AB = CD ⇒ CD, since OP and OQ bisects the chords AB and CD.)

1 1
AB =
2 2

ΔOAP ≅ ΔOCQ (RHS rule)

Hence, OP = OQ (C.P.C.T.C)

Chords equidistant from center are equal

Chords equidistant from the center of a circle are equal in length.

Proof : Given OX = OY (The chords AB and CD are at equidistant)

OX⊥AB, OY ⊥CD

In ΔAOX and ΔDOY

∠OXA = ∠OY D (Both 90 )
0
OA = OD (Radii)
OX = OY (Given)

ΔAOX ≅ ΔDOY (RHS rule)

Therefore AX = DY (CPCT)
Similarly XB = Y C
So, AB = CD

Circles and Quadrilaterals

Angle subtended by an arc of a circle on the circle and at the center

The angle subtended by an arc at the centre is double the angle subtended by it on any part
of the circle.

Here PQ is the arc of a circle with centre O, that subtends ∠P OQ at the centre.
Join AO and extend it to B.
In ΔOAQ
OA = OQ ..... [Radii]
Hence, ∠OAQ = ∠OQA....[Property of isosceles triangle]
Implies ∠BOQ = 2∠OAQ .....[Exterior angle of triangle = Sum of 2 interior angles]
Similarly, ∠BOP = 2∠OAP
⇒ ∠BOQ + ∠BOP = 2∠OAQ + 2∠OAP

⇒ ∠P OQ = 2∠P AQ

Hence proved

Angles in same segment of a circle.

-Angles in the same segment of a circle are equal.

Consider a circle with centre O.
∠P AQ and ∠P CQ are the angles formed in the major segment PACQ with respect to the arc

PQ.
Join OP and OQ
∠P OQ = 2∠P AQ = 2∠P CQ .....[ Angle subtended by an arc at the centre is double the angle

subtended by it in any part of the circle]

⇒ ∠P CQ = ∠P AQ

Hence proved

Angle subtended by diameter on the circle

- Angle subtended by diameter on a circle is a right angle.(Angle in a semicircle is a right

angle)

Consider a circle with center O, POQ is the diameter of the circle.

∠P AQ is the angle subtended by diameter PQ at the circuference.

∠P OQ is the angle subtended by diameter PQ at the center.

... [Angle subtended by arc at the centre is double the angle at any other
1
∠P AQ = ∠P OQ
2

part]
1 0 0
∠P AQ = × 180 = 90
2

Hence proved
Line segment that subtends equal angles at two other points

- If a line segment joining two points subtends equal angles at two other points lying on the
same side of the line containing the line segment, the four points lie on a circle.(i.e they are
concyclic)

Here ∠ACB = ∠ADB and all 4 points A,B,C,D are concyclic.

Cyclic Quadrilateral

- A Quadrilateral is called a cyclic quadrilateral if all the four vertices lie on a circle.

In a circle, if all four points A, B, C and D lie on the circle, then quadrilateral ABCD is a cyclic
quadrilateral.

Sum of opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral

- If sum of a pair of opposite angles of a quadrilateral is 180 degree, the quadrilateral is

cyclic.

Sum of pair of opposite angles in quadrilateral

- The sum of either pair of opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral is 180 degree
 Heron’s Formula
Area of a Triangle
Triangle

The plane closed figure, with three sides and three angles is called as a triangle.

Types of triangles:
Based on sides - a) Equilateral b) Isosceles c) Scalene
Based on angles - a) Acute angled triangle b) Right- angled triangle c) Obtuse angled
triangle

Area of a triangle

1
Area = × base × height
2

In case of equilateral and isosceles triangles, if the length of the sides of triangles are given
then,
we use Pythagoras theorem in order to find the height of a triangle.

Area of an equilateral triangle

Consider an equilateral ΔABC , with each side as a units. Let AO be perpendicular bisector
of BC. In order to derive the formula for the area of equilateral triangle, we need to find
height AO.

Equilateral triangle ABC

Using Pythagoras theorem,

2 2 2
AC = OA + OC

2 2 2
OA = AC − OC

Substitute AC = a, OC =
a

2
to find OA
 2
a
2 2
OA = a −
4

√3a
OA =
2

We know the area of triangle is

× base × height,
1
A =
2

1 √3a
A = × a ×
2 2

2
√3a
∴ Area of Equilateral triangle =
4

Area of an isosceles triangle

Consider an isosceles ΔABC with equal sides as a units and base as b unit.

Isosceles triangle ABC

The height of the triangle can be found by Pythagoras’ Theorem :

2 2 2
CD = AC − AD
2 2 2
b 4a −b
2
⇒ h = a − =
4 4

1
2 2
⇒ h = √4a − b
2

Area of triangle is A = 1

2
bh

1 1
∴ A = × b × √4a2 − b2
2 2

1
∴ A = × b × √4a2 − b2
4

Area of a triangle - By Heron's formula

Area of a ΔABC , given sides a, b, c by Heron’s formula (Also known as Hero’s Formula) :
 Triangle ABC

Find semi perimeter (s ) =

a+b+c

Area = √s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c)

This formula is helpful to find area of a scalene triangle, given the lengths of all its sides.

Area of any polygon - By Heron's formula

Area of a quadrilateral whose sides and one diagonal are given, can be calculated by dividing
the quadrilateral into two triangles and using the Heron’s formula.

Example :A park, in the shape of a quadrilateral ABCD, has ∠C ∘

= 90 , AB = 9 m, BC = 12 m,
CD = 5 m and AD = 8 m. How much area does it occupy?

⇒ We draw the figure according to the information given.

Quadrilateral ABCD

The figure can be split into 2 triangles ΔBCD and ΔABD

From ΔBCD, we can find BD (Using Pythagoras’ Theorem)
2 2 2
BD = 12 + 5 = 169

BD = 13cm

Semi-perimeter for ΔBCD S

12+5+13

1
= = 15
2

Semi-perimeter ΔABD S
9+8+13
2 = = 15
2

Using Heron's formula we find A 1

and A2

A1 = √15(15 − 12)(15 − 5)(15 − 13) = √15 × 3 × 10 × 2

 2
A1 = √900 = 30cm

Similarly we find A to be 35.49cm .

2
2

The area of the quadrilateral ABCD = A1 + A2 = 65.49 cm

2
 Statistics
Introduction to Statistics
Introduction to Statistics

- Study dealing with the collection, presentation and interpretation and analysis of data is
called as statistics.

Data

Facts /figures numerical or otherwise collected for a definite purpose is called as data.
data collected first hand data:- Primary
Secondary data: data collected from a source that already had data stored

Frequency

- The number of times a particular instance occurs is called frequency in statistics.

Ungrouped data

Ungrouped data is data in its original or raw form. The observations are not classified in
groups.

Grouped data

In grouped data, observations are organized in groups.

Class Interval

The size of the class into which a particular data is divided.

E.g divisions on a histogram or bar graph.
Class width = upper class limit - lower class limit

Regular and Irregular class interval

Regular class interval: When the class intervals are equal or of the same sizes.
E.g 0-10, 10-20, 20-30….. 90-100
Irregular class interval: When the class intervals are of varying sizes.
E.g 0-35, 35-45, 45-55, 55- 80, 80-90, 90-95, 95-100

Frequency table

- A frequency table or distribution shows the occurrence of a particular variable in a tabular

form.

Sorting
 Raw data needs to be sorted in order to carry out operations.-
Sorting ⇒ ascending order or descending order

Ungrouped frequency table

- When the frequency of each class interval are not arranged or organised in any manner.

Grouped frequency table

- The frequencies of the corresponding class intervals are organised or arranged in a

particular manner, either ascending or descending.

Graphical Representation of Data

Bar graphs

Graphical representation of data using bars of equal width and equal spacing between them
(on one axis). The height of the bar on the other axis depicts the value of the variable.

Savings (in percentage

) N umber of Employees (F requency)

20 105

30 199

40 29

50 73

T otal 400

The data can be represented as:

Data shown in a bar graph

Variable being a number

A variable can be a number such as ‘no. of students’ or ‘no. of months’.

Can be represented by bar graphs or histograms depending on the type of data.
 Discrete → bar graphs
Continuous → Histograms

Histograms

Like bar graphs, but for continuous class intervals.

Area of each rectangle is ∝ Frequency of a variable and the width is equal to the class
interval.

Histogram

Frequency polygon

If the midpoints of each rectangle in a histogram are joined by line segments, the
figure formed will be a frequency polygon.
Can be drawn without histogram. Need midpoints of class intervals

Frequency polygon

Mid point of class interval

Mid point of class interval is called as class mark

Class mark = Upper Limit + Lower Limit

Equality of areas
- Addition of two class intervals with zero frequency preceding the lowest class and
succeeding the highest class intervals enables to equate the area of the frequency polygon
to that of the histogram(Using congruent triangles.)

Measures of Central Tendency

Average

- The average of a number of observations is the sum of the values of all the observations
divided by the total number of observations.

Mean

Mean for ungrouped frequency distribution, x̄ =

∑ x i fi

f
i

where f is the frequency of i observation x

i
th
i

Mode

The most frequently occurring observation, is called the mode.

The class interval with the highest frequency is the modal class

Median

Value of the middle most observation.

If n(number of observations) is odd, Median = ( observation.
n+1
th
)
2

If n is even, Median is the mean or average of ( observation.

n n+1
th th
) and ( )
2 2
 Statistics
Introduction to Statistics
Introduction to Statistics

- Study dealing with the collection, presentation and interpretation and analysis of data is
called as statistics.

Data

Facts /figures numerical or otherwise collected for a definite purpose is called as data.
data collected first hand data:- Primary
Secondary data: data collected from a source that already had data stored

Frequency

- The number of times a particular instance occurs is called frequency in statistics.

Ungrouped data

Ungrouped data is data in its original or raw form. The observations are not classified in
groups.

Grouped data

In grouped data, observations are organized in groups.

Class Interval

The size of the class into which a particular data is divided.

E.g divisions on a histogram or bar graph.
Class width = upper class limit - lower class limit

Regular and Irregular class interval

Regular class interval: When the class intervals are equal or of the same sizes.
E.g 0-10, 10-20, 20-30….. 90-100
Irregular class interval: When the class intervals are of varying sizes.
E.g 0-35, 35-45, 45-55, 55- 80, 80-90, 90-95, 95-100

Frequency table

- A frequency table or distribution shows the occurrence of a particular variable in a tabular

form.

Sorting
 Raw data needs to be sorted in order to carry out operations.-
Sorting ⇒ ascending order or descending order

Ungrouped frequency table

- When the frequency of each class interval are not arranged or organised in any manner.

Grouped frequency table

- The frequencies of the corresponding class intervals are organised or arranged in a

particular manner, either ascending or descending.

Graphical Representation of Data

Bar graphs

Graphical representation of data using bars of equal width and equal spacing between them
(on one axis). The height of the bar on the other axis depicts the value of the variable.

Savings (in percentage

) N umber of Employees (F requency)

20 105

30 199

40 29

50 73

T otal 400

The data can be represented as:

Data shown in a bar graph

Variable being a number

A variable can be a number such as ‘no. of students’ or ‘no. of months’.

Can be represented by bar graphs or histograms depending on the type of data.
 Discrete → bar graphs
Continuous → Histograms

Histograms

Like bar graphs, but for continuous class intervals.

Area of each rectangle is ∝ Frequency of a variable and the width is equal to the class
interval.

Histogram

Frequency polygon

If the midpoints of each rectangle in a histogram are joined by line segments, the
figure formed will be a frequency polygon.
Can be drawn without histogram. Need midpoints of class intervals

Frequency polygon

Mid point of class interval

Mid point of class interval is called as class mark

Class mark = Upper Limit + Lower Limit

Equality of areas
- Addition of two class intervals with zero frequency preceding the lowest class and
succeeding the highest class intervals enables to equate the area of the frequency polygon
to that of the histogram(Using congruent triangles.)

Measures of Central Tendency

Average

- The average of a number of observations is the sum of the values of all the observations
divided by the total number of observations.

Mean

Mean for ungrouped frequency distribution, x̄ =

∑ x i fi

f
i

where f is the frequency of i observation x

i
th
i

Mode

The most frequently occurring observation, is called the mode.

The class interval with the highest frequency is the modal class

Median

Value of the middle most observation.

If n(number of observations) is odd, Median = ( observation.
n+1
th
)
2

If n is even, Median is the mean or average of ( observation.

n n+1
th th
) and ( )
2 2
 Constructions
Introduction to Constructions
Linear Pair axiom

If a ray stands on a line then the adjacent angles form a linear pair of angles.
If two angles form a linear pair, then uncommon arms of both the angles
form a straight line.

Angle Bisector
Construction of an Angle bisector

Suppose we want to draw the angle bisector of ∠ABC we will do it as follows:

Taking B as center and any radius, draw an arc to intersect AB and BC to intersect at D
and E respectively.
Taking D and E as centers and with radius more than DE

2
, draw arcs to intersect each
other at a point F.
Draw the ray BF. This ray BF is the required bisector of the ∠ABC.

Construction of angle bisector

Perpendicular Bisector
Construction of a perpendicular bisector

Steps of construction of a perpendicular bisector on the line segment AB:

Take A and B as centers and radius more than AB

2
draw arcs on both sides of the line.
Arcs intersect at the points C and D. Join CD.
CD intersects AB at M. CMD is the required perpendicular bisector of the line segment
AB.
Proof of validity of construction of a perpendicular bisector

Proof of the validity of construction of the perpendicular bisector:

ΔDAC and ΔDBC are congruent by SSS congruency. (∵ AC = BC, AD = BD and CD = CD)

∠ACM and ∠BCM are equal (cpct)

ΔAM C and ΔBM C are congruent by SAS congruency. (∵ AC = BC, ∠ACM = ∠BCM and
CM = CM)
AM = BM and ∠AMC = ∠BMC (cpct)
∠AMC + ∠BMC = 180 (Linear Pair Axiom)
∘

∴ ∠AMC = ∠BMC = 90 ∘

Therefore, CMD is the perpendicular bisector.

Constructing Angles
Construction of an Angle of 60 degrees

Steps of construction of an angle of 60 degrees:

Draw a ray QR.

Take Q as the center and some radius draw an arc of a circle, which intersects QR at a
point Y.
Take Y as the center with the same radius draw an arc intersecting the previously
drawn arc at point X.
Draw a ray QP passing through X
∘
∠P QR = 60
 Constructing 60 degrees.

Proof for validity of construction of an Angle of 60 degrees

Proof for the validity of construction of the 60 angle:

∘

Join XY
XY = XQ = YQ (By construction)
∴ △XQY is an equilateral triangle.

Therefore, ∠XQY = ∠P QR = 60 ∘

Triangle Constructions
Construction of triangles

At least three parts of a triangle have to be given for constructing it but not all
combinations of three parts are sufficient for the purpose.
Therefore a unique triangle can be constructed if the following parts of a triangle are given:

two sides and the included angle is given.

three sides are given.
two angles and the included side is given.
In a right triangle, hypotenuse and one side is given.
If two sides and an angle (not the included angle) are given, then it is not always
possible to construct such a triangle uniquely.

Given base, base angle and sum of other two sides

Steps for construction of a triangle given base, base angle, and the sum of other two sides:

Draw the base BC and at point B make an angle say XBC equal to the given angle.
Cut the line segment BD equal to AB + AC from ray BX.
Join DC and make an angle DCY equal to ∠BDC .
Let CY intersect BX at A.
 ABC is the required triangle.

Given base(BC), base angle(ABC) and AB-AC

Steps of construction of a triangle given base(BC), base angle(∠ABC) and difference of the
other two sides(AB-AC):

Draw base BC and with point B as the vertex make an angle XBC equal to the given
angle.
Cut the line segment BD equal to AB – AC(AB > AC) on the ray BX.
Join DC and draw the perpendicular bisector PQ of DC.
Let it intersect BX at a point A. Join AC.
Then △ABC is the required triangle.

Proof for validation for Construction of a triangle with given base, base
angle and difference between two sides

Validation of the steps of construction of a triangle with given base, base angle and
difference between two sides

Base BC and ∠B are drawn as given.

Point A lies on the perpendicular bisector of DC. So, AD = AC.
BD = AB – AD = AB – AC (∵ AD = AC).
Therefore ABC is the required triangle.
Given base(BC), base angle(ABC) and AC-AB

Steps of construction of a triangle given base(BC), base angle(∠ABC) and difference of the
other two sides(AC-AB):

Draw the base BC and at point B make an angle XBC equal to the given angle.
Cut the line segment BD equal to AC – AB from the line BX extended on opposite side
of line segment BC.
Join DC and draw the perpendicular bisector, say PQ of DC.
Let PQ intersect BX at A. Join AC.
△ ABC is the required triangle.

Given perimeter and two base angles

Steps of construction of a triangle with given perimeter and two base angles.

Draw a line segment, say GH equal to BC + CA + AB.

Make angles XGH equal to ∠B and YHG equal to ∠C , where angle B and C are the
given base angles.
Draw the angle bisector of∠XGH and ∠Y H G. Let these bisectors intersect at a point
A.
Draw perpendicular bisectors PQ of AG and RS of AH.
Let PQ intersect GH at B and RS intersect GH at C. Join AB and AC
△ ABC is the required triangle.
Proof for validation for Construction of a triangle with given perimeter
and two base angles

Validating the steps of construction of a triangle with given perimeter and two base angles:

B lies on the perpendicular bisector PQ of AG and C lies on the perpendicular bisector

RS of AH. So,GB = AB and CH = AC.
BC + CA + AB = BC + GB + CH = GH. (∵ GB = AB and CH = AC)
∠BAG = ∠AGB (∵ ΔAGB, AB = GB)

∠ABC = ∠BAG + ∠AGB = 2∠AGB = ∠XGH

Similarly, ∠ACB = ∠Y H G
 Probability
Introduction to Probability
Probability

Probability is the measure of the likelihood of an event to occur. Events can’t be

predicted with certainty but can be expressed as how likely it can occur using the idea
of probability.
Probability can range between 0 and 1, where 0 probability means the event be an
impossible one and probability of 1 indicates a certain event.

Experiment

An experiment:

is any procedure that can be infinitely repeated or any series of actions that have a
well-defined set of possible outcomes.
can either have only one or more than one possible outcomes.
is also called the sample space.

Trail

A single event that is performed to determine the outcome is called trial.

All possible trials that constitute a well-defined set of possible outcomes, are
collectively called as an experiment/sample space.

Experimental Probability
Experimental/Empirical Probability

The empirical probability of an event that may happen is given by:

Probability of event to happen P (E) =

N umber of f avourable outcomes

(T otal number of outcomes)

Coin tossing experiment

Considering a fair coin, there are only two possible outcomes that is either getting heads or
tails.

Number of possible outcomes = 2

Number of outcomes to get head = 1
Probability to get head =
N umber of outcomes to get head 1
=
N umber of possible outcomes 2

Rolling of Dice Experiment

When a fair dice is rolled, the number that comes up top is a number between one to six.
Assuming we roll the dice once, to check the possibility of three coming up.

Number of possible outcomes = 6

Number of outcomes to get three = 1
Probability to get three =
N umber of outcomes to get three 1
=
(N umber of possible outcomes) 6

Sum of Probabilities of Favorable and unfavorable events

When a trial is done for an expected outcome, there are chances when the expected
outcome is achieved. Such a trial/event is called favourable event.
When a trial is done for an expected outcome, there are chances when the expected
outcome is not achieved. Such a trial/event is called unfavourable event.
All favourable and unfavourable event outcomes come from the well-defined set of
outcomes.
Suppose an event of sample space S has n favourable outcomes. Then, there are S-n
unfavourable outcomes.
The probability of favourable and unfavourable events happening depends upon the
number of trials performed, however, the sum of both these probabilities is always
equal to one.