CONTENT

TOPIC NAME PAGE NO.

1. LIFE PROCESS
PRECISE ............................................................................................................................................... 01
INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................... 02
NUTRITION ........................................................................................................................................... 03
NUTRITION IN PLANTS ........................................................................................................................ 04
NUTRITION IN ANIMALS ..................................................................................................................... 13
RESPIRATION ....................................................................................................................................... 24
RESPIRATION IN PLANTS .................................................................................................................... 26
RESPIRATION IN ANIMALS ................................................................................................................. 27
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM OF MAN ......................................................................................................... 28
CIRCULATION & TRANSPORTATION .................................................................................................... 38
EXCRETION ........................................................................................................................................... 48
TRY YOURSELF ..................................................................................................................................... 57
POINTS TO REMEMBER ....................................................................................................................... 60
CONCEPT APPLICATION LEVEL - I (NCERT Questions) ........................................................................ 64
CONCEPT APPLICATION LEVEL - II ....................................................................................................... 73
CONCEPT APPLICATION LEVEL - III ...................................................................................................... 79
ANSWER KEY ....................................................................................................................................... 80
 TOPIC NAME PAGE NO.

2. CONTROL AND COORDINATION

INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................... 83
CONTROL AND COORDINATION IN PLANTS ....................................................................................... 83
PLANT HORMONE ................................................................................................................................ 85
CONTROL AND COORDINATION IN ANIMALS ..................................................................................... 88
A. NERVOUS SYSTEM AND SENSE ORGANS OF ANIMALS ............................................................... 88
SENCE ORGANS AND RECEPTORS ...................................................................................................... 90
REFLEX ACTION AND REFLEX ARC ..................................................................................................... 90
HUMAN BRAIN .................................................................................................................................... 91
B. HORMONES IN ANIMALS ................................................................................................................ 94
ENDOCRINE GLANDS ........................................................................................................................... 95
HOMEOSTASIS AND FEED BACK ......................................................................................................... 99
TRY YOURSELF ................................................................................................................................... 100
POINTS TO REMEMBER ..................................................................................................................... 102
CONCEPT APPLICATION LEVEL - I (NCERT Questions) ...................................................................... 105
CONCEPT APPLICATION LEVEL - II ..................................................................................................... 110
CONCEPT APPLICATION LEVEL - III .................................................................................................... 116
ANSWER KEY ..................................................................................................................................... 118
CH-1: LIFE PROCESS BIOLOGY/CLASS-X

PRECISE
Life Process
Process required for maintenance of life

Definite Indefinite
Clearly Define Not Clearly Define

Nutrition Mode of uptake Visible movement

of nutrients - not seen in plants
but they are livings
Transportation
Mainly by blood Reproduction
Many living things
Respiration Process that do not reproduce
release energy from food but they can not be
classified as non
Metabolism Sum total of all livings on this
chemical reactions in body basis

Self consciousness i.e.

Response to stimuli

Internal Growth

Excretion i.e. biological

removal of nitrogenous waste

Molecular movements are

essential for repair and
maintenance

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LIFE PROCESS

INTRODUCTION
• Life : Life is a self regulated complex system of molecules where chemical reactions are going on all the
time that lead to its maintinance, growth, responsiveness and reproduction.
• Living organism : Living beings are organised self regulated discrete entities which exhibit the various
characteristic of life like movements, growth, responsiveness and reproduction.
• Life processes : All the living organisms including humans perform a number of activities such as
nutrition, respiration, excretion, growth & reproduction. These activities are characteristics of living
organism & help in maintenance of life. These maintenance functions of living organisms are known as
life processes.

Some Characteristic of living organisms

(i) Cellular organization : All organisms are made up of cells.
(ii) Sensitivity : Giving response to stimuli (Stimulus = change in environment) (Response = visible effect
because of stimulus) Consciousness is one of the most important definite life feature. eg. Plants grows
towards light, pupil dilate in dark etc.
(iii) Respiration & Energy utilization: Respiration is the process in which nutrients are converted into
useful energy in a cell. Energy produced during respiration is used to perform many kinds of works with
in the body.
(iv) Internal growth:It is characteristic feature of livings.
(v) Homeostasis:All organism maintain relatively constant internal conditions in different environments,
known as homeostasis.
(vi) Regulation: All organism have neural or chemical regulatory mechanism that co-ordinate internal
processes.
(vii) Reproduction: It is a process of producing young ones of their own kinds. Heredity character are
passed from parent to the offsprings during reproduction.
(viii) Metabolism: The sum total of all the chemical & physical changes that are constantly taking place in
living organisms & are necessary for life.
Types of metabolic pathways
(a) Anabolic pathways : Biosynthetic pathways, in which complex substances are synthesized from simpler
ones. Ex : Photosynthesis (Endothermic reaction – energy is used)
(b) Catabolic pathways : Break down of complex organic substances into simpler ones. Ex : Respiration.
(Exothermic – energy released)

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(ix) Excretion : A number of waste products are formed as by-products of metabolism. They are usually
toxic and removed from the body.
(x) Irritability : Everyliving organism is aware of its surroundings. It responds to changes in the environment.
The branch of biology that deals with the study of life process, activities and body functions is
called physiology.

NUTRITION

"Nutrition" is a process of intake as well as utilization of nutrients by an organism. It is the process of

breakdown of nutrients into smaller molecules and their absorption. Food provides us nutrition and
energy. It contains different types of nutrients in varying amounts according to the need of our body.

Nutrients :
These are the substances required by our body for its growth, repair, work and maintenance of the body.
Different types of nutrients are carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, mineral etc. Our daily energy
need may vary according to our occupation, age, sex and under some specific conditions.

Nutrients

Macro nutrients Micro nutrients

Fats Carbohydrate Proteins Vitamins Minerals

MODES OF NUTRITION :
• There are several modes of nutrition on the basis of which organisms are classified as follows :
1. Autotrophic : (Auto = self, trophic = food)
• It is a mode of nutrition in which organisms prepare their own food.
• Inorganic molecules like CO2 and H2O are converted into organic molecules like carbohydrates in the
presence of sunlight and chlorophyll. e.g. Green plants.Autotrophs are further categorized. as:
(i) Photoautotroph : Those which utilize sunlight for preparing their food
(ii) Chemoautotroph : Those which utilize chemical energy for preparing their food.
2. Heterotrophic : (Hetero = different ; trophic = food)
• It is a mode of nutrition in which organisms derive their food from some other animals or plants.
• They cannot prepare their own food e.g. human being. Heterotrophs are further categorized depending
on the nature of food they consume :
(i) Herbivores : Animals which eat only plants, e.g. Cow, goat etc.
(ii) Carnivores : They feed on flesh of other animals, e.g. Lion, vulture etc.
(iii) Omnivores : They feed on plants and animals both e.g. Dog, human etc.
(iv) Detritivores : Feed on detritus or dead organic remains, e.g. Earthworm etc.
(v) Sanguivorous : Feed on blood e.g. Leech, female mosquito etc.
(vi) Frugivorous : Feed on fruits, e.g. Parrot etc.
(vii) Insectivores : Feed on insects, e.g. Bats etc.

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On the Basis of Mode of Feeding Organisms are Categorised As :

(i) Holozoic : They ingest mostly solid but sometimes liquid food. e.g.,Amoeba, human etc.
(ii) Saprotrophic : They absorb organic matter from dead and decaying organisms with the help of their
enzymes. e.g., Bacteria, fungi etc.
(iii) Parasitic : Theyderive their nutrition from other livingplants or animals e.g. Plasmodium, round worms,
etc.
Mode of Nutrition

Autotrophic Heterotrophic

Photosynthetic Chemosynthetic Parastitic Saprophytic Holozoic

Prepare food by prepare food by Derives food Derive food Feeds on
using solar energy using chemical energy from living from dead & solid food
e.g.: green plants e.g.: Sulphur bacteria tissues of host decaying matter e.g. Amoeba,
e.g. plasmodium e.g. Fungi man
Leech bacteria
• Nutrition can be divided into two categories on the basis of occurance.
1. Nutrition in plants 2. Nutrition in animals.

NUTRITION IN PLANTS
• Plant perform photosynthesis [Photo (light) and synthesis (Build up)]. Photosynthesis is a process
that converts carbon dioxide into organic compounds, especially sugars, using sunlight in
presence of chlorophyll. Photosynthesis occurs in plants, algae, and many species of bacteria.
It is represented by:
6CO2 + 12H2O + Sunlight C6H12O6 + 6O2  + 6H2O
• It takes place in every green part of plant mainly in the green leaves. Plants stores food in the form of
Starch.
[Different from animals which stores food in the form of Glycogen]

Factors involved in Photosynthesis

1. Sunlight :
• For plants, sun is the basic source of radiant energy.
• Plants utilize the light in the visible region of solar spectra (electromagnetic spectrum) which
comes under the range of 380 nm - 780 nm.
• Visible region consists of white light which is a mixture of 7 lights of different wavelengths.

380 nm 760 nm

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Note : Plants utilize carbon dioxide during photosynthesis, the intensity of light at which amount of CO2 used
during photosynthesis becomes equal to the amount of CO2 released during respiration by plants in
called as Compensation point.
Compensation point occurs at low light intensitythat is during morning and during evening hours.

Sunlight V I B GY O R
Red/Orange  Maximum Photosynthesis
Blue/violet  Highest rate of absorption
Green  No Photosynthesis

Starch test : Requirement for photosynthesis can be tested by reaction between starch and iodine refer as
starch test.
Starch + I2  Blue Black Colour

Steps of starch test

1. Heat some water to boiling point in a beaker .
2. Use forceps to dip a leaf in the hot water for about 30 seconds. This kills the cytoplasm, denatures the
enzymes and makes the leaf more permeable to iodine solution.
3. Push the leaf to the bottom of a test tube and cover it with alcohol. Place the tube in the hot water (water
bath). The alcohol will boil and dissolve out most of the chlorophyll.
4. Remove the leaf and dip it once into the hot water to soften it.
5. Spread the decolorized leaf flat on a white tile and drop iodine solution onto it. The parts containing
starch will turn blue; parts without starch will stain brown or yellow with iodine.
• Covered part will show Brown/Yellow while uncovered part will show blue black colour
• This proves light is essential for photosynthesis.

2. Carbon-di-oxide :
• Terrestrial plants obtain carbon dioxide from the atmosphere through the small openings present on
leaves called as stomata.
• They help in exchange of gases and water.
• Stomata opening is guarded by the presence of guard cells (kidney shaped).
• Aquatic plants obtain CO2 dissolved in water through their general body surface so they perform more
photosynthesis than terrestrial plants.

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Test : To prove CO2 is essential for photosynthesis.

• Take a test tube and put some KOH(KOH absorbs CO2) inside the tube. Cover its mouth with perforated
cork.
• Insert half part of leaf inside tube (Inner portion is devoid of CO2 while outer part receive CO2).
• Make assembly air tight with help of vaseline.
• Perform starch test.
• Inner part will remain Brown/Yellow while outer part will show blue black colour.

• It can also be performed by Bell-Jars experiment.

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3. Chlorophyll :
These are the green pigments present in chloroplast. They are found in green leaves in a maximum
amount as well as in other green aerial parts of plant. There are six different types of chlorophyll, they are
chlorophyll a,b,c,d,e and bacteriochlorophyll, amongst them chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b are the
most commonlyoccurring chlorophylls.
Besides chlorophyll certain other pigments are also present in plants like.
(i) Carotenes : Orange in colour e.g. Carrot.
(ii) Xanthophylls : Orange yellow in colour e.g. Maize.
(iii) Phycobilins : Different colour like red, violet e.g. Blue-green algae, brown algae etc.

Table – Kinds of Photosynthetic pigments in various groups of plants

Photosynthetic Pigment Colour Distribution
Chlorophyll
(i) Chlorophyll a yellow green All green plants except bacteria
(ii) Chlorophyll b blue green All higher plants and green algae
(iii) Chlorophyll c green Diatoms
(iv) Chlorophyll d green / red Red algae
(v) Bacteriochlorophylls pale blue Bacteria
Carotenoids
Carotenes and Xanthophylls orange Algae and higher plants
Phycobilins
Phycoerythrin red Red algae
Phycocyanin red Red algae and blue green algae

• Take a variegated (multi colour) leaf like Crotons. Mark green and non green areas.
• Perform starch test.
• Non green part will show Brown/Yellow while green part will show blue black colour.
• This proves chlorophyll is essential for photosynthesis.

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4. Water
Plants absorb water by root hairs from the soil by the process of osmosis which get transported upward
through xylem to the leaves. It act as an important raw material and helps in production of reducing
power that is NADH2 and FADH2.
 Besides that various enzymes are also involved in photosynthesis.

SITE OF PHOTOSYNETHESIS 
• The actual site of photosynthesis is chloroplast (cell organelle)
• Leaf  Mesophyll tissue  Palisade / Spongy parenchyma Chloroplast  Chlorophyll
• Green colour of plants appears because out of the seven colour of the white visible light, chlorophyll
absorb all excepts green colour. Green is totally reflected back. Hence, leaves look green in colour.

Site of photosynthesis is different in prokaryotes and eukaryotes.

• In prokaryotes : Photosynthesis occurs in lamellar chromatophores.
• In eukaryotes : Photosynthesis occurs in chloroplast.
• Exception : Fungi ( It lacks chlorophyll so no photosynthesis occurs here).
• In higher plants chloroplast in the main site of photosynthesis.
• Chloroplast is also called as green plastid.
• Plastid was first observed by Haeckel.
• Plastids are of 3 different types on the basis of pigments present in them.
(i) Leucoplast : White in colour, found in underground parts, lacks coloured pigment. Helps in storage of
protein (Aleuroplst), oil (Elaioplast), starch (Amyloplast)
(ii) Chromoplast : Colour other than green found in aerial parts on the plants.
(iii) Chloroplast :
• Contain green pigment, called as chlorophyll.
• Chloroplast was discovered by Schimper.
• Number of chloroplasts is variable in different species of plants.
• In lower plants like algae they are 1 or 2 number.
• In higher plants their number varies from 40 - 100 per palisade cell or more.
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• Chloroplast also have variable shapes, for example cup shaped, ribbon shaped etc. in algae while it is
discoidal in higher plants.

• A typical structure of chloroplast is a double membranous structure having two parts.

(a) Grana :
• It is a lamellar system consisting of stacks of granum lamella each bounded by a membranous box called
as thylakoid.
• They are 40 - 60 per cell. Number of thylakoids per grana is 50 or more Chlorophyll molecules are
found inside the thylakoid membrane where they trap solar energy in the form of small energy packets
called 'photon' or 'quanta'.
• Grana are interconnected to each other by a channel called as stroma lamellae or Fret's channel.

(b) Stroma :
• It is a non pigmented proteinaceous matrix in which grana remain embedded. It contain enzymes for
dark reaction.

Structure of Chlorophyll molecule :

• A chlorophyll molecule has two parts.
(i) A tetrapyrrole ring or a porphyrin ring and
(ii) A long hydrocarbon tail called phytol.
– The porphyrin ring has four smaller pyrrole rings.
– In each small ring there is a nitrogen atom.
– All four rings bind with a metal atom magnesium (Mg++) present at the centre.
– A porphyrin ring called the head has a flat structure with alternate single and double bonds.
– The head joins with the tail by an ester linkage
– A porphyrin ring has number of side-chains.
– The side-chains differ in different chlorophylls like chlorophyll a has a methyl group (–CH3) and
Chlorophyll b has an aldehyde group (–CHO) Refer Fig. These side chains modify the absorption
spectrum also.
• Chlorophyll a is more abundant in green plants than chlorophyll b.

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Structure of Chlorophyll a, Chlorophyll b and  Carotene

MECHANISM OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS :
(I) LIGHT REACTION :
• It is also called as photochemical process.
• It was discovered by 'Robert Hill' therefore it is also called as Hill's reaction.
• Site : Grana of chloroplast.
• Raw materials : Light and water.
• Regulation : This process is regulated by chlorophyll molecules.

It involves three basic steps :

(A) Photo excitation of chlorophyll molecule :
During this process chlorophyll molecule receives sunlight in the form of small energy bundles called as
photons and become excited to higher energy level.

(B) Photolysis :
• It is also called as photoxidation of water, this takes place in presence of Mn+2 and Cl¯ ions.

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• O2 is liberated as by product and H+ ions are used for reduction of NADP

2NADP + 4H  2NADPH2

(C) Photophosphorylation :
• During this processATP are produced. It takes place in quantasomes.
• Mg+2 ions and inorganic phosphate is required to convert ADP into ATP, ADP + iP ATP.

(II) DARK REACTION :

• It is also called as thermo chemical reaction.
• It was discovered by Melvin calvin and Benson therefore it is also called as
• Calvin cycle Site = Stroma of chloroplast.
• Raw materials : They require CO2, NADPH2, ATP and Enzymes.
• Regulated by : Light reaction and enzymes.

It involves three basic steps :

(A) Carboxylation :
In this step CO2 is captured by CO2 acceptors like RUBP (C3 Plants) PEP (C4 Plants) with the help of
carboxylase enzyme i.e. RUBISCO & PEPCO respectively.

(B) Synthesis :
This phase capture CO2 is assimilated into glucose in the presence of phosphatase and isomerease
enzymes and RUBP is regenerated back.

(C) Regeneration of RUBP

Phases of photosynthesis

Light dependent Light independent or Dark phase

(i) Occurs in presence of light in thylakoid. (i) Occurs in stroma or matrix.

Use products of light reaction.
(ii) Excitation of chlorophyll bylight. (ii) RUBP* acts as acceptor of CO2
(iii) Electron moves in cytochrome system. (iii) UsingATP and *NADPH2, CO2
is reduced to carbohydrate.
(iv) Light energy in converted into
chemical energy (ATP).
(v) Photolysis of water (O2 is released).
(vi) ATP, NADPH2, O2 are the main end
products of light reaction.

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Diffirence between light reaction & Dark reaction

Light Reaction Dark Reaction
1. Light It is required for the reaction It is light independent.
2. Conversion The reaction converts light energy The reaction uses chemical energy in
into chemical energy. building organic.
3. Chlorophyll It is essential for the reaction. Chlorophyll is not required directly.
4. Occurance It occurs in thylakoids of chloroplasts. It occurs in strom a part of chloroplasts.
5. Products Its products are ATP and NADPH 2 Its main product is starch.
6. Oxygen Oxygen is liberated as a by product. Its does not produce oxygen.
7. Electron Light reaction involves movement of There is no involvem ent of an electron
transport electrons along a transport chain. transport chain.

OVERALL REACTION OF DARK PHASE :

12RUBP + 6CO2 + 12NADPH + 18ATP + 12H+  12RUBP + C6H12O6 + 18ADP + 18ip +
12NADP
* RUBP = Ribulose Bi Phosphate
* NADP = NicotinamideAdenine Dinucleotide Phosphate
* ip = Inorganic phosphate
• Desert plants are exception. Theyopen stomata in night to absorb CO2 and form intermediate compound
i.e. malate. Which is stored in vacuole and during day it is converted into sugar.

FACTORS AFFECTING PHOTOSYNTHESIS :

(a) Light :
• Normally plants utilize sunlight but marine algae can perform photosynthesis even in the moon light.
• Plants can also perform photosynthesis in the artificial lights.
• Highest rate of photosynthesis : Red light
• Minimum photosynthesis : Green light
• Very high light intensity can cause reduction in the rate of photosynthesis by causing
(i) Decrease in transpiration rate (ii) Denaturation of chlorophyll molecule

(b) Temperature :
• Optimum range = 25ºC to 30ºC
• It ranges from 10ºC - 40ºC
• In some forms like algae of hot spring 60ºC - 70ºC is normal

(c) Carbon dioxide :

• It is the raw material for the formation of glucose. Land plants obtain CO2 from the atmosphere through
the stomata. The aquatic plants get their CO2 as bicarbonates through their general surface.
• CO2 used by the green plants during photosynthesis is released due to respiration in green plants and
other organisms.
• Hence, we say that photosynthesis and respiration are antagonistic to each other.
• It has been proved experimentally that an increases in CO2 concentration up to 0.5 percent may cause
increase in photosynthesis but only for a limited time period provided other conditions remain constant.
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(d) Oxygen :
• O2 acts as competitive inhibitor of CO2. Over concentration of O2 stops photosynthesis.

(e) Chlorophyll :
• Chlorophyll content is directlyproportional to rate of photosynthesis. No photosynthesis occurs in etiolated
cells, In variegated leaves it occurs only at places where chlorophyll is present.

SIGNIFICANCE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS :
• Photosynthesis is a boon to the nature and to the human beings. It has following significance :
(i) Production of food material
(ii)Atmospheric control and purification of air.

NUTRITION IN ANIMALS :
• Animal are heterotrophs (consumers). Theydepend upon plants or animals for food and can not synthesize
their own food.

Holozoic nutrition :
• Holozoic nutrition is typical of most animals - all vertebrates and most invertebrates.
• The organisms take the whole food (animal or plant or their parts) into their body and then digest it to
smaller particles.
• Theyhave a specialised digestive tract which has various parts modified for ingestion, digestion, absorption
and egestion.

Process of Nutrition in Animals : -

Ingestion  Digestion Absorption Assimilation  Egestion

1. Nutrition in Amoeba :
• Amoeba is holozoic (takes solid food). It is omnivorous i.e. it ingests all kinds of aquatic micro-organisms
like bacteria, diatoms, algae, other protozoans, etc.

Steps of Nutrition in amoeba

(i) Ingestion: Food is taken in with help of pseudopodia
(ii) Digestion: Intracellular with help of enzymes present in lysosomes.
(iii) Absorption andAssimilation
(iv) Egestion: Undigested food thrown out

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2. Nutrition in Human Being

Human Digestive System

Alimentary canal Associated Glands

Mouth – Anus – Salivary glands
– Gastric gland
– Liver
– Pancreas
– Intestinal gland

Mouth  Pharynx  Oesophagus  Stomach  Duodenum  Jejunum  Ileum  Ceacum  Colon  Rectum  Anus

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM OF MAN

• All the organs that are responsible for the intake of food, its digestion, assimilation and removal of the
undigested waste in an organism constitute the digestive system. It is made up of :
1.Alimentarycanal
2.Associated digestive glands

1. ALIMENTARY CANAL
Buccal Cavity -
• It is an organ of ingestion, mastication and swallowing of food.
• It consists of teeth, tongue, palate and its muscles. It opens outside through the mouth aperture.
• It lies below the nasal cavity and is separated from it by the palate.
• The hard palate forms the roof of the mouth and continues posteriorly into soft palate.
• The extension of soft palate in the form of uvula can be seen in an open mouth.
• Internally the buccal cavity is lined with mucous membrane containing mucus glands.
• There are 3 pairs of salivary glands which pour their secretions in the form of saliva in the mouth i.e.
1. Parotid gland
2. Submandibular
3. Sub lingual

Fig. Buccal Cavity of Man

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Fig. Human Digestive System

Teeth -
Jaws present in buccal cavity are provided with four different types of teeth (Heterodont) :
Incisors : For cutting
Canines : For tearing
Premolars : For grinding
Molars : For grinding

• Dental formula of humans : In human beings two set of teeth appear during their life time (Diphyodont)-
(A) Milk teeth : These are temporary , arise at 6 – 11 month age, 20 in number
Half upper jaw 2 1 0 2
Half lower jaw
= i2 , c , pm , m
1 0 2
(B) Permanent teeth : In adults
Half upper jaw 2 1 2 3
Half lower jaw
= i , c , pm , m
2 1 2 3
Tongue-
• At the floor of the oral cavity is present a musculo-sensory organ, the tongue.
• It has voluntary muscles and is richly supplied with blood vessels and sensory neurons.
• On its surface are present tiny protuberances called papillae. These papillae have taste buds for
identifying the chemical nature of food.
• Tongue is not only an organ of taste but also helps in swallowing the food and is essential for speech.
Pharynx-
• It is a wide opening at the back of mouth.
• Posteriorly it leads into two tubes - gullet (food pipe) and glottis (wind pipe).

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• In front of glottis is a muscular flap epiglottis which closes the glottis when the food is swallowed.
• Pharynx has 2 openings of internal nares above and two opening of Eustachian tubes on the sides
Oesophagus-
• It is a long narrow muscular tube which connects mouth to stomach.
• Food passes through oesophagus by peristaltic movements of the muscular wall.
Stomach-
• It is a large muscular elastic bag situated below the diaphragm.
• Its walls are supplied with glandular epithelium secreting gastric juices and mucus.
• It is J shaped and is present on the left hand side of the abdomen. It has three parts- cardiac, fundus,
and pylorus. Cardiac end is towards the oesophagus and food passes into the duodenum through
the pylorus.

Fig. – Structure of Stomach (mammals)

Pyloric sphincter-
• It is a ring of smooth muscles and connective tissue surrounding an opening between the pyloric region of
the stomach and duodenum.
• It opens and closes several times. With each opening, a small amount of food (chyme) moves into the
duodenum.
Small Intestine-
• It consists of three parts.
(a) Duodenum (b) Jejunum (c) Ileum.
(a) Duodenum- It form the upper part of small intestine which is C shaped and about 9 inches long and is
only one inch in diameter. It gets pancreatic juice from pancreas and bile juice from liver through a
common bile duct.
(b) Jejunum- Duodenum leads into a coiled tube called jejunum that is about 7 feet long.
(c) Ileum- Jejunum leads to ileum. The internal wall is thrown into number of folds called villi which increase
the surface area for absorption.
Large Intestine-
It is muchshorter than small intestineand is basicallyforabsorption of water anddischargingthe undigested
wastes. It has three parts, caecum, colon and rectum.
(a) Caecum-
• Caeum is a blind sac and is present where ileum joins the large intestine (just below the opening of ileum).
• In case of humans, it is verysmall and from it extends a small finger like vermiform appendix which gets
infected during appendicitis (Fig.).
• Caecum is large and spacious and a food storage organ in herbivores where cellulose fermentation takes
place.
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(b) Colon-
• It may be 5-6 feet long and 3 inches in diameter and is present in the form of an inverted U in the
abdominal cavity (Fig.).

• Ascending colon is the first part present on the right side that moves upwards from the caecum.
• Transverse colon is the horizontal part placed transversely.
• Descending colon is the next region that moves down on the left side.
• Pelvic colon- It is S shaped and continues into rectum. Food can remain in the colon for a long time may
be as long as 36 hours before being passed out to rectum.
(c) Rectum -
It is a small muscular region at the end of the large intestine. It can store the undigested food for a very
short time before passing it out through anus.

2. DIGESTIVE GLANDS-
• Apart from large number of gastric and intestinal glands present in the lining of the stomach, there are
three main associated digestive glands which pour their secretions into the alimentary canal.
• They are salivary glands, gastric gland, liver, pancreas and intestine gland.
I. Salivary glands
• There are 3 pairs of salivary glands.

Human Salivary Glands

I. Salivary glands :
It produces saliva. In rabbit, 4 pairs of salivary glands are present while in man only three pairs of
salivary glands are present. They help in chemical digestion. They secrete an enzyme called salivary
amylase or ptyalin. It helps in digestion of starch.
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(A) Parotid glands : largest glands present just below the external ear. In this glands, virus causes mumps
disease. (Parotid duct/Stenson’s duct)
(B) Submaxillary glands / Submandibular glands : These lie beneath the jaw-angles. (Wharton’s duct)
(C) Sublingual glands : Smallest glands which lie beneath the tongue and open at the floor of buccal
cavity.(Duct of Rivinus)

II. Gastric glands :

• Present in stomach. They secrete hydrochloric acid, protein digesting enzymes and mucus.
• These are of 3 types :
(A) Cardiac glands : secrete an alkaline mucus.
(B) Pyloric glands : secrete an alkaline mucus.
(C) Fundic glands : each gland has 5 type of cells.
1. Peptic / Zymogen cells : secrete pepsinogen, prorennin.
2. Oxyntic cells : Secrete HCl
3. Goblet cells : secrete mucus
4. Argentaffin cells : produces serotonin somatostatin and histamine
5. G-cells : secrete and store the hormone gastrin.

III. Liver-
• It is the largest gland of the body that lies in the upper right region of the abdomen just below the
diaphragm.
• It secretes bile -a brownish-green fluid that passes from liver through hepatic ducts (that form of a
shape) and is poured into the common bile duct that opens in the duodenum (Fig.).
• Bile contains bile pigments and organic salts called bile salts. It helps in digestion of fats.
Function of liver :
• Formation of glucose from excess organic acids.
• Storage of vitamins :A, D, E, B12 Synthesis of vitaminAfrom carotene.
• Secretions of blood anticoagulant named heparin.
• Synthesis of blood or plasma proteins, fibrinogen and prothrombin.
• Secretion of bile, detoxification of harmful chemicals.
• Elimination of pathogens and foreign particles through phagocytic cells called Kupffer’s cells.
• The bile juice is secreted through common bile duct into the duodenum, but if there is no food in the
intestine, it is passed to the gall bladder through cystic duct.
• The gall bladder a small sac below liver, stores and concentrates bile. During digestion it contracts to
release the stored bile into the duodenum.

Fig. The duct systems of liver, gall bladder and pancreas

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IV. Pancreas-
• It is a compound gland having dual function - exocrine as well as endocrine.
• The exocrine part secretes pancreatic juice.
• It is located in the bend of the duodenal loop.
• The pancreatic juice passes into the duodenum through pancreatic duct which joins the common bile
duct.
• Pancreatic juice contains three enzymes -(i) trypsin (ii) amylase and (iii) lipase.

V. Intestinal glands
• Throughout the internal lining of small intestine are present numerous unicelluar glands, called intestinal
glands, that secrete intestinal juice or succus entericus.
• It contains many enzymes that help in the digestion of food.

DIGESTION IN DIFFERENT PARTS OFALIMENTARY CANAL :

1. Digestion in buccal cavity (Salivary phase of digestion)
• Digestion of food starts in the buccal cavity.
• The ingested food is masticated (chewed) in the buccal cavity with the help of grinding teeth.
• Saliva secreted by the salivary glands during mastication is mixed with the food.
• The saliva performs many functions, such as :
(i) It moistens and lubricates the internal lining of buccal cavity and tongue to facilitate swallowing and
speaking.
(ii) It moistes and lubricates the food.
(iii) It helps in binding the food particles and making a food bolus that helps in swallowing.
(iv) It acts as a solvent to dissolve some food particles that stimulates taste buds and allow us to know the
tastes of the food.
(v) Saliva contains two enzymes named salivary amylases (ptyalin) and maltase that help in the digestion of
food as follows :
Salivary amylase
Starch      Maltose
or Ptyalin

Maltase
Maltose   Glucose
Salivary enzymes act in neutral or slightly alkaline medium (pH = 7.2)
(vi) Saliva clean the mouth and also destroys bacteria to prevent tooth decay.

Swallowing
• The passage of food bolus from buccal cavity into the stomach through pharynx and oesophagus is
called swallowing.
• The process of swallowing involves manysimultaneous actions.
• The tongue is pressed against the roof of buccal cavity (palate) to provide a push to the food bolus.
• As a result of this push, food bolus reaches the pharynx, from where it passes into the oesophagus and
finally into the stomach.
• Lubrication of internal lining of oesophagus facilitates the passage of food.
• During swallowing of food, its entry into the nasal chambers is prevented by the posterior part of palate.
• Similarly, food cannot enter into the wind-pipe. (larynx) because its opening is closed by the flap-like
epiglottis.
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Figure : Swallowing Showing Closure of glottis by epiglottis

and momentary stoppage of breathing
• In case the food enters into the windpipe due to any reason, there is spontaneous coughing which
forcibly removes the food from the wind-pipe.

Peristalsis
• The process of waves of contractions in the wall of alimentary canal pushing the food forward is called
peristalsis and the wave of contraction is called peristaltic movement.

Figure : Peristaltic movement

• Food bolus keeps on rolling from its anterior to posterior side due to the peristaltic movements as shown
in figure.
• Peristaltic movements occur because of the contraction of circular muscles present all along the length of
alimentarycanal.
• Mucus lining the internal lining of gut facilitates in the passage of food because of lubrication.

2. Digestion in stomach (Gastric phase of digestion)

• Whatever food is taken by man, reaches in the stomach and stored there for about 3 hours. To
accommodate about 2-3 litres of food the elastic stomach gets disteneded.
Churning of food –
• When the stomach receives food, the highly muscular wall of stomach undergoes alternate contractions
and relaxations causing the churning of food.
• Churning of food breaks large particles of food physically into smaller ones.
Partial digestion of food –
• In the stomach, the food is mixed with gastric juice secreted by the gastic glands.
• Gastric juice contains large quantities of mucus which when mixed with the food liquefies the food.
• HCl kills bacteria that may accompany the food.
• HCl also converts inactive enzymes pepsinogen and prorennin present in the gastric juice into their
active forms.
• Various steps of digestion in the stomach can be summarised as follows :
HCl
Prorennin 
 Rennin

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Pepsinogen HCl
 Pepsin
Rennin
Casein  Paracasein
(Soluble milk protein) (Insoluble protein)
Pep sin
Proteins    Peptones + Proteoses
• Because of churning, mixing of gastric juice and partial digestion, the food in the stomach is converted
into a thick paste (pulp-like material) called chyme.
• The chyme enters into the small intestine in small amounts at a time.

3. Digestion in small intestine

• Digestion of food is complete in the small intestine.
• The food comes across three digestive juices in this part of the gut. These digestive juices are :
(a) Bile (b) Pancreatic juice and (c) Intestinal juice
(a) Bile :
• The important functions of bile are :
(i) It neutralizes acidity of chyme.
(ii) It prepares alkaline medium for the action of enzymes present in pancreatic and intestinal juices.
(iii) It emulsifies fats, i.e., breaks larger drops of fats into smaller droplets. It increases surface area for the
action of enzymes.
(b) Pancreatic juice :
• It is alakline in nature and contains three types of enzymes, i.e.
(i) Pancreatic amylase : It digests the left over straches into maltose.
(ii) Trypsin : It converts peptones and proteoses into small peptides and amino acids ; and
(iii) Lipase : Its acts on fats and converts them into fatty acids and glycerol.
These reactions are summarized as follow :
Amylase
Starch   Maltose
Tryspin
Peptone and proteoses   Peptides + Amino acids
Lipase
Fats   Fatty acids + Glycerol
(c) Intestinal juice :
The partiallydigested food now enters into the ileum whereintestinal juice i.e. “Succus entericus” (Intestinal
juice ) is secreted.At this place digestion is completed.
• It contains many enyzmes that help in the completion of digestion of food. These enzymes are :
(i) Maltase which digests maltose and produces glucose.
(ii) Lactase converts milk sugar lactose into glucose and galactose.
(iii) Invertase (Sucrase) that splits sucrose into glucose and fructose and
(iv) Lipase which digests fats into fatty acids and glycerol.
Maltose Maltase
  Glucose
Lactase
Lactose    Glucose + Galactose

Sucrose Sucrase
  Glucose + Fructose

Fats Lipase
  Fatty acids + Glycerol
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• In this wayinsoluble, indiffusible forms of food are converted into soluble and diffusible forms.
• This simple and diffusible food in the small intestine is present in the form of a liquid called chyle.
• Now digested food is absorbed from small intestine into the blood.

Summary of digestion of food in various parts of alimentary canal of man

Se cre tion Nutrie nt
Re gion Enzyme s Product of dige s tion
(Source gland) (Subs trate )
(i) P tyalin
Saliva
Buccal cavity (Salivary amylase Starch, Maltose Maltose, Glucose
(Salivary glands)
(ii) Maltase
Oesophagus None – – –
Gastric juice & P epsin P roteins Milk P roteoses and peptones
Stomach Hydrochloric Rennin (Not found protein Crudling of milk,
and (Gastric glands) in adult humans) or casein caseinogen
Emulsifies fats,
Bile (Liver) None food made
alkaline
Duodenum Maltose
P ancreatic analayse Strach
P ancreatic juice P roteoses, peptones,
Trypsin P roteins
Small P ancrease) peptides
Lipase Emulsified fats
Intestine Fatty acids and glycerol

Maltase Maltose Glucose

Intestinal juice Sucrase (Invertase) Sucrose Glucose and frutose
Ileum (Intenstinal glands
between villi) Lactase Lactose Glucose and galactose
Lipase Fats Fatty acids & glycerol

Absorbs water and some

Colon None – –
remnants of digested food
Large
Intestine Temporarily stores
Rectum None – – undigested food and
faeces.

ABSORPTION :
• Diffusion ofdigested food through theinternal liningof alimentarycanal into the bloodis called absorption.
• Very little absorption takes place through the internal lining of stomach.
• Maximum absorption takes place through the internal lining of small intestine (ileum).
• To bring about efficient absorption, the small intestine contains longitudinal folds (villi) which increase
the surface area for absorption, Moreover, in each villus there is an elaborate network of blood capillaries
and an unbranched lymph vessel called lacteal.
• Glucose, fructose, galactose, amino acids, minerals and vitamins from the digested food diffuse through
the internal lining of ileum into the blood running through capillary network of each villus.
• All the blood vessels that collect blood from alimentary canal join to form the hepatic portal vein.
• It carries blood along with digested food to the liver.

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• Fatty acids and glycerol from the chyle diffuse into the lymph running in lacteal which finallypours it into
the blood stream.

Fig.Asection of small intestinal mucosa showing villi

• After the absorption of digested food the remaining part of chyle in the form of liquid reaches the large
intestine.
Absorption of water in large intestine
• Almost liquid - like undigested materials pass into the large intestine.
• Water from the undigested material is absorbed into the blood through the internal lining of colon.
• The undigested material is converted into semi-solid faeces.
• Semi-solid faeces are pushed into the rectum fom where they are passed out of the body through the
anus. The process of passing out faeces is called egestion or defaecation.

ASSIMILATION OF FOOD :
• Conversion of digested food into the living protoplasm of cells is called assimilation.
• Digested food is supplied to every cell by the blood stream.
• From the digested food which reaches anycell, most of the glucose is oxidized during metabolic activities.
• The remaining monosaccharides are converted into polysacharides, the amino acids are converted into
proteins and fatty acid and glycerol into fats.

EGESTION
• Removal of undigested food out of the body is called egestion or defaecation.
• Undigested materials in the form of faeces are eliminated from the body.
• Undigested food- Which mainly consists of cellulose and other plants fibres.
• Dead bacteria- Intestine harbours many symbiotic bacteria which synthesise amino acids and some
vitamins likevitamin K.
• Mucus and dead mucosal cells from the gut wall- The gut lining is constantly shed off or wears off
and is replaced by new cells.
• Bile pigments and its derivatives give colour to faeces.

SOME DISEASES
1. Peptic Ulcer:Alesion on the inner membrane of the stomach, because of higher acidityof gastric juice.
2. Dental Caries: Gradual softening of enamel and dentine. Bacteria acts on sugars and produce acid
which demineralises the enamel.
Masses of bacterial cells together with food particles stick to the teeth to form dental plaque.

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RESIRATION

Metabolism :
• The sum total of all the vital activities is called as metabolism.
• Vital activities refer to all the physiochemical activities of a cell.
• It has two aspects :
(i) Anabolism : It includes metabolic process by which complex cellular compounds are synthesized from
simpler compounds, .e.g. Photosynthesis
(ii) Catabolism : It includes metabolic processes by which larger molecules are broken down into simpler
molecules, e.g. Respiration.
• Respiration is an important catabolic process responsible for the production of energy.
Definition :
• Respiration is a multistep, enzyme mediated biochemical process of oxidative breakdown of organic
compounds inside living cells releasing small packets of energy at various steps.
• It is, therefore, a catabolic and exergonic process.
• Energy liberated during oxidative breakdown of respiratory substrate is partly stored inATP (adenosine
triphosphate). The rest is dissipated as heat.
C6H12O6 + 6O2 enzymes
  6CO2 + 6H2O + 38ATP out of 686 kcal/2870 kJ.
Recent Equation :
C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O enzymes
  6CO2 + 12H2O + 38ATP out of 686 kcal/2870 kJ.

Differences Between Respiration and combustion

Respiration Combustion
1. Cellular It is a cellular process which It is a non-cellular process.
occurs inside living cells.
2. Temperature Temperature does not rise above Combustion produces
40°C. temperature of 600-2000°C.
3 Control It is under biological control It is an uncontrolled process.
4. Steps It is a multistep reaction. It is single step involved
5. Enzymes A number of enzymes take part No enzyme is involed.
in reaction.
6. Energy It is released in small packets in It is released in large amount in
several steps. one step.
7. Heat and About 50% of energy is liberated Whole energy is produced as heat
Light as heat. Light is not produced. and light.
8. Storage of 50% of liberated energy is stored There is no storage of energy.
Energy as ATP molecules.
9. Intermediates Several intermediates are No intermediates are produced.
produced.
10.Oxidation It is terminal where oxygen Oxidation is direct where every
combines with hydrogen of oxidisable atom oxidized without
reduced coenzymes. relation to presence of hydrogen.

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ACTIVITY :–
Carbon Dioxide is produced during respiration.

Procedure :– Pour freshly prepared lime water into a test tube upto its one third. Blow air from mouth
into the lime water with the help of a glass tube. Pour a similar amount of lime water in another test tube.
Blow air into it with the help of small air pump or syringe fitted with a fine rubber tubing.
Observation :– Lime water turns milkywithin no time when air is blown from mouth. It takes a lot of air
and a long period for lime water to turn milky when fresh air is blown into it.
Inference :– Lime water turns milky onlywhen carbon dioxide mixed with it to form calcium carbonate.
Air blown from mouth is actually breathed out air. Since it turns lime water milky within no time, the
exhaled air contains good concentration of carbon dioxide. It is several times more than normally present
in air because fresh air blown in lime water takes a long time to turn it milky. Therefore, carbon dioxide
is produced during respiration.

RESPIRATION AND PHOTOSYNTHESIS

• Respiration and photosynthesis are the two antagonistic and complementaryprocesses in plants involving
gaseous exchanges. The substrates in one process are the end-products of the other process.
Respiration
C6H12O6 + 6O2 Photosynthesis
6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy

Figure : Schematic diagram to show the flow of energy

in plants during photosynthesis

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Differences between Photosynthesis and Respiration

Photosynthesis Respiration
1. Metabolism. Photosynethesis is a synthetic Respiration is a breakdown or catabolic process.
or anabolic
2. Energy Relation. It is an endergonic process It is an exergonic process.
3 Energy Conversion. It converts light energy It liberates chemical energy which is used as such
into chemical energy. or changed into other forms of energy.
4. Timing. Photosynthesis occurs during the Respiration occurs all the time.
daytime when light is available.
5. Cells. It occurs only in green cells. It occurs in all types of living cells.
6. Carbon Dioxide. It absorbs carbon dioxide. Respiration liberates carbon dioxide.
7. Oxygen. Photosynthesis liberates oxygen. Respiration consumes oxygen.
8. Raw Material. They are carbon dioxide and There is no storage of energy.
water.
9. End products. They are glucose, other End products are carbon dioxide and water.
organic substances and oxygen.
10. Weight. There is net gain of weight Oxidation is direct where every oxidisable atom
oxidized without relation to presence of
hydrogen.

Remember :
The low light intensity at which the rate of photosynthesis equals the rate of respiration is called
compensation point.At this point the gas evolved in one process is just sufficient for the other process
i.e. photosynthesis and respiration balance each other and there is no gaseous exchange.

RESPIRATION IN PLANTS :
• Like other living organisms, plants also exchange gases with their environment.
• However, plants do not posses any transport system for the gases.
• Different parts of plants exchange gases independently. The gases move entirely by diffusion.
• Respiration is rapid in meristematic regions (stem tips, root tips, cambia), floral buds, growing fruits and
germinating seeds.
• It is slower in mature regions.
(a) Young Roots :–
• Air occurs in soil interspaces.
• Root hairs as well as epiblem cells of the young roots are in contact with them.
• They are also permeable to metabolic gases.
• Oxygen of the soil air diffuses through root hair–epiblema cells and reaches all internal cells of the young
root.
• Carbon dioxide produced by root cells diffuses in the opposite direction.
• In water–logged conditions, soil air becomes deficient. In the absence of oxygen, metabolic activity of
the root declines and the plant may wither.

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Figure : Epiblema and root hair take part in

exchange of gases directly in young roots
(b) Older Roots and Stems :–
• In older roots and stems, the surface tissues are impermeable to gases.
• They have permanently open pores called lenticels.
• Each lenticel contains a mass of looselyarranged complementarycells that enclose a numberof intercellular
spaces.
• Exchange of gases occurs through them.

(c) Leaves and Young Stems :–

• Leaves and young stems are ideally suited to quick exchange of gases.
• The organs have a covering of nearly impermeable epidermis for reducing loss of water.
• The epidermis bears a number of aerating pores called stomata.

Figure : Section of leaf to show intercellular spaces and stomata.

• Each aerating or stomatal pore is bordered by a pair of guard cells.

• In most of the plants, the guard cells are kidney or bean shaped with inner walls being thicker and less
elastic then the outer walls.
• Guard cells contain chloroplasts which are absent in other epidermal cells.
• Opening and closing of stomata are regulated.

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RESPIRATION IN ANIMALS :
Respiratory organs :–
• Various animals possess different organs for the exchange of gases. (Except endoparasites, such as,
Taenia (tape worm),Ascaris, etc. which respire anaerobically, most of the animals respire aerobically.)
• These respiratory organs found in different animals are designed to suit their habitat.
• The following organs act as respiratory organs in different animals.
(a) General body surface :
• In lower organisms, such as, protists, sponges, cnidarians (Protozoa, Hydra, Planaria, etc.) exchange
of gases occurs through the body surface via the cell membrane by simple diffusion.

Figure : Cell surface exchange of gases in Amoeba

(b) Skin or body surface :

• The skin or general body surface or epidermis acts as respiratory organ in some animals, such as,
annelids and amphibian that live in semiaquatic habitat.
• This type of respiration in which exchange of gases occurs through the skin is called cutaneous respiration.

Figure : Cutaneous exchange of gases in Earthworm

(c) Tracheae (air tubes) :

• Terrestrial arthropods, such as, insects, millipedes and centipedes have thick impermeable integument
to minimize loss of water from their body surface by evaporation.
• They have evolved a complex system of whitish, shining, intercommunicating air tubes called tracheae.
• The exchange of gases with the help of tracheae is termed tracheal respiration.

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(A) (B)

Figure : Tracheal respiratoty system in Cockroach.

A. Tracheal system. B. Branches of trachea

Gills :–
• Aquatic animals, such as, prawns, mussels, fishes and tadpoles, breathe water.
• They draw oxygen dissolved in water and release carbon dioxide into water.
• The organs used for breathing water are called gills.
• The exchange of gases in the gills is known as branchial respiration.

Figure : Gill respiration in Fish.A. gill chamber with operculum removed.

B. gill filaments. C. gill lamellae.

Activity :
Study of Branchial Respiration in Fish
Observe a fish in the aquarium. Find out that it is regularly opening and closing its mouth as well as
operculum. Place a few small crystals of potassium permanganate carefullyin front of the mouth of a fish.
They enter the mouth of the fish. Coloured water is observed to come out from the lower part of
operculum indicating that water regularly enters the mouth, passes into gill chambers and comes out
through opening of operculum.
In gill chambers exchange of gases occurs between water and blood capillaries contained in gill lamellae.
Count the number of times the fish opens and closes its mouth per minute. Compare it with your breathing
rate. It is very rapid because water has low oxygen content than the content of oxygen present in air.

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Figure : Exchange of gases in alveolus.

LUNGS
• Land animals, namely, reptiles, birds and mammals breathe atmospheric air with lungs.
• Their skin is not respiratory because it is impermeable to minimise the loss of water by evaporation.
• The amphibians also have lungs for pulmonaryrespiration. But, they have cutaneous respiration too with
their permeable skin.
• Amphibians and reptiles have sac-like lungs with small infoldings that increases surface area for gas
exchange.
• Birds and mammals have spongy lungs, consisting of millions of microscopic, capillary-surrounding air
sacs. This maximizes the respiratory surface.
• Depending upon the oxidation of food in the presence or absence of oxygen, respiration is of two types:
1. Aerobic respiration
2. Anaerobic respiration
• Both types of respiration have a common pathway called glycolysis.
• Glycolysis does not need oxygen and takes place in the cytoplasm.
• During glycolysis, the glucose molecule is broken down to 2 molecules of pyruvic acid.
• Further breakdown of pyruvic acid depends on the presence or absence of oxygen.
• In the presence of oxygen (aerobic respiration), the pyruvic acid enters the Kreb’s cycle and is broken
down to carbon dioxide and water.
• In the absence of oxygen (anaerobic respiration), pyruvic acid is broken down to ethyl alcohol or lactic
acid.

1. Anaerobic Respiration
• Anaerobic respiration occurs in the absence of oxygen and is catalysed by enzymes present in the
cytoplasm.

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• It results in incomplete oxidation of food (glucose).

• It takes place in lower organisms like yeast, certain bacteria and fungi.
• It also occurs in higher plants and animals under certain conditions, when O2 is limiting.
• In humans, during vigorous muscular exercise, when the demand of O2 is more than what is supplied by
respiration, muscle cells start respiring anaerobically temporarily.
• It is less efficient than aerobic respiration as only2ATPmolecules are released from one glucose molecule.
• During anaerobic respiration, glucose is first broken down to 2 molecules of pyruvic acid by glycolysis.
• Further breakdown of pyruvic acid continues but differs in plants and animals as they contain different
enzymes.
a. In yeast, bacteria (microbes) and plants, pyruvic acid is broken down to ethyl alcohol and carbon
dioxide is released. In these, anaerobic respiration is also known as fermentation.

b. In animals, pyruvic acid is broken down to lactic acid.

• The lactic acid produced accumulates in the muscles and causes muscle fatigue. During resting period,
when oxygen becomes available, slowly lactic acid is removed from the muscles.

2. Aerobic Respiration
• Aerobic respiration needs the presence of oxygen and occurs in mitochondria.
• The food (glucose) is completely broken down to carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O).
• It occurs in all higher organisms (both plants and animals).
• It is highly efficient in comparison to anaerobic respiration and releases 38 ATP molecules from one
glucose molecule.
• Aerobic respiration is completed in two major phases given below:
A. Anaerobic phase or glycolysis :
• It is the first phase and does not require oxygen.
• It takes place in the cytoplasm.
• The glucose molecule is broken down to 2 molecules of pyruvic acid.
B. Aerobic phase :
• It is the second phase that takes place in the presence of oxygen.
• It takes place in mitochondria.
• The pyruvic acid molecules formed during glycolysis are completely broken down to carbon dioxide and
water.
• It is also called as Krebs cycle.

An overall equation of aerobic respiration :

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RESPIRATORY SYSTEM OF MAN

• All the organs in an animals that provide free O2 and help in the removal of CO2 collectively constitute
the respiratory system. When the respiratory organs are lungs, it is called pulmonary respiration.
• In man pulmonary respiration is present. The respiration in man and other animals having pulmonary
respiration can be studied in two parts :
1. Respiratory tract 2. Respiratory organs
1. RESPIRATORYTRACT
• The path through which O2 reaches up tothe lungs and CO2 is removed from the lungs is called respiratory
tract. In man it consists of :
(a) Nose, (b) Pharynx, (c) Larynx, (d) Trachea (e) Bronchi.
(a) The Nose :– It consists of two nostrils which are lined with hair and mucous to filter dust and other small
particles.

Do you know :
Nose breathing is better than mouth breathing as in the nose occurs
(i) filtration of air by the hair. The dust particles and other large particles are not allowed to enter the
lungs.
(ii) Sterilization of air by trapping the bacteria and other pathogens in mucus.
(iii) Moistening of air by the addition of mucus and
(iv) Warming of air radiating heat.

(b) The Pharynx :– The nose opens into the pharynx which leads into two tubes, i.e., larynx and oesophagus,
through glottis and gullet respectively. The glottis is guarded by a flaplike epiglottis. It does not allow
anything other than air to enter into the larynx.
Pharynx serves as a common path both for the air and food.
(c) The larynx (Voice box) : It is the upper slightly swollen part of trachea or wind pipe. It is more
prominent in men as compared to women and is called “Adam’s apple”. In the larynx is present a pair of
vocal cords which help in the production of sound. Hence, it is also called voice box. During swallowing
of food or liquid, the larynx moves upwards, so that its opening – glottis is closed by epiglottis and food
does not enter into the larynx.
(d) The trachea : The trachea or wind pipe is a long, narrow, whitish tube. It extends through the neck. It
enters the thorax where it divides into a pair of branches called primary bronchi. The walls of trachea
are supported by “C”-shaped cartilagenous rings that keep it always distended.
(e) The primary bronchi : These are a pair of tubular structures formed as a result of bifurcation of the
trachea. These are right and left primary bronchi that enter into the corresponding lung. These are also
supported by cartilagenous rings.

2. RESPIRATORY ORGANS :
The Lungs :
• The respiratory organs in man are a pair of lungs.
• These are thin walled, elastic, spongy, pinkish, triangular and highly distensible structures known as left
and right lungs.
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• The lungs occupy most of the thoracic cavity.

• They are well protected by bony thoracic cage.
• Each lung is enclosed in a double–walled pleural sac.
• In between the two layers is present a fluid called pleural fluid.

Figure. Human respiratory system.

• The pleural fluid is secreted by the pleural sac and performs the following functions:
(i) It protects the lungs from any kind of mechanical injury and shock.
(ii) It lubricates the lungs for free expansion and relaxation.
(iii) It keeps the lungs moist for proper functioning.
• Each lung is a conical triangular structure.
• The upper pointed side is called apex and the lower broad side is called base.
• The left lungis slightlysmaller than the right lung.
• The left lung is differentiated into two lobes with the help of furrows.
• Each primary bronchus, after entering into the corresponding lung, divides repeatedly to form a network
of very fine tubes.
• The primary bronchus divides into secondary bronchi that give rise to tertiary bronchi.
• The tertiary bronchi divide into bronchioles which give rise to alveolar ducts that open into blind end sacs
called alveoli.

Figure. Branching of bronchion the lungs.

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PHYSIOLOGY OFRESPIRATION :
• The process of respiration is a complex and continuous process. It is completed in four steps :
(1) Breathing (2) External respiration
(3) Internal or tissue respiration, and (4) Cellular respiration.
1. Breathing :
• Have you felt that your thorax alternately expands and contracts.
• When it is expanding you are drawing fresh air into the lungs and when it is becoming normal, you are
releasing foul air from lungs.
• This movement of fresh air from outside into the lungs through respiratorytract and foul air in the opposite
direction is called breathing.
• The process of breathing is an apparent and mechanical part of respiration.
Mechanism of breathing :
• Breathing is brought about by changing the volume of thoracic cavity, where lungs are present.
• The mechanism of breathing can be studied in two steps :
(a) Inspiration (Inhalation) and
(b) Expiration (Exhalation)
(a) Inspiration or (Inhalation)
Movement of fresh air into the lungs is called inspiration. During inspiration volume of the thoracic cavity
is increased by the combined movements of sternum, ribs and diaphragm. The sternum and ribs move
upwards, forwards and outwards.

Figure. Process of breathing in man.

• Expansion of the thoracic cavity results in the expansion of lungs.

• Due to the increase in the volume of lungs pressure inside decreases as compared to the atmospheric
pressure.
• Therefore, fresh atmospheric air, which is at higher pressure, rushes into the lungs through the respiratory
tract to equalize the pressure.
• Exchange of O2 and CO2 will take place between the alveoli and blood. Now the lungs will be full of foul
air.

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(b) Expiration (or Exhalation)

• The movement of foul air from the lungs to outside is called expiration or exhalation.
• During expiration volume of the thoracic cavity is decreased by the inward and downward movements
of the ribs and sternum and by upward bulging of the diaphragm.
• All these movements are brought about by the simple relaxation of muscles that were contracted during
inspiration.
• An adult man breathes 12–14 times per minute at rest.

Do you know
• If diffusion were to move oxygen in our body, it is estimated that it would take 3 years for a molecule
of oxygen to get to our toes from our lungs.Aren’t you glad that we have haemoglobin?
• Process of breathing and swallowing of food cannot go together.
• Rate of breathing is minimum when a person is sleeping.
• Painful breathing is called dyspnoea.
• Cessation of breathing is called apnoea.
• Normal comfortable breathing is called eupnoea.
• In the lungs of man are present 750 million alveoli.
• Total surface area of the alveoli is about 100 m2 which is 50 times more than the external surface area.

2. External respiration :
• Exchange of O2 and CO2 between the inhaled air and blood through the surface of respiratory
organ is called external respiration.
• Exchange of gases takes place because of higher partial pressure of O2 in the inhaled air and that of CO2
in the blood supplied to the lungs.
• As a result O2 diffuses into the blood from the alveoli of lungs and CO2 in the opposite direction.
• Exchange of gases always takes place in the solution form. That is why, surface of respiratory organ is
always kept moist.
Transportation of O2 :
• The O2 that diffuses into the blood from the lungs is transported to various body tissues in the following
form :
(i) About 97% of the O2 that diffuses into the blood combines with haemoglobin of RBCs forming an
unstable compound, oxyhaemoglobin.
(ii) The remaining 3% O2 dissolves into water of plasma.

3. Internal or Tissue respiration :

• Exchange of O2 and CO2 between the blood and body tissues is called internal or tissue respiration.
• The O2 form the blood diffuses into the body tissues whereas CO2 from tissues to the blood because of
higher concentration of CO2 in the body tissues, produced due to cellular respiration.

4. Cellular Respiration :
• As this process is at cellular level so it is called cellular respiration.
• As this process is at cellular level so it is called cellular respiration.
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• It takes place in three steps :

• It refers to the oxidation of food taking place inside the cell.
• It takes place in three in 3 steps :
(i) Glycolysis (ii) Krebs Cycle (iii) Electron Transport System

(i) Glycolysis :
• Glycolysis also called EMP (Embden Meyerhof Parnas) pathway , site-cytoplasm of cell.
(i) In this cycle glucose is converted into pyruvic acid in presence of many enzymes and co-enzymes.
(ii) Oxygen in not required during glycolysis.
(iii) 1 molecule of glucose gives rise to 2 molecules of pyruvic acid.
(iv) In this process 4 molecules ofATPare formed among them 2ATPmolecules are utilized thus net gain of
ATP is two molecules.
(v) 2NAD molecules are reduced to 2NADPH2 , which later produces 6ATP molecules.
(vi) Overall production ofATP in glycolysis is 2ATP + 6ATP = 8ATP
(vii) There is no production of CO2 during this process.

NOTE : After glycolysis, pyruvic acid is converted into acetyl Co-Awith the release of CO2 and the process is
called as 'oxidative decarboxylation'. It occurs in mitochondria of the cell. Besides this 6ATP are also
formed during this step.

(ii) Krebs Cycle :

Site : Mitochondria of cell
(i) Also called aerobic oxidation.
(ii) Discovered by Sir Hans Kreb.
(iii) Another name TCA cycle (tricarboxylic acid cycle) or Citric acid cycle.
(iv) It brings about the conversion of pyruvic acid, fatty acids, fats and amino acids into CO2 and water by
oxidation.
(v) It is the common path for oxidation of carbohydrates, fats, proteins.
(vi) It accounts for 24ATP molecules.
(vii) It starts with acetyl Co-A which is then converted into several intermediate compounds with the release
of NADPH2, FADH2, ATP, hydrogen atoms and then Acetyl Co-Ais regenerated back.
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(iii) Electron Transport System or ETS :

• In this hydrogen atoms produced during oxidation of various intermediates during Kreb cycle are first
broken into protons and electrons.
• These protons and electrons after passing through a series of coenzymes and cytochromes combine with
oxygen to form water molecules.
• During these series of events 1NADPH2 releases 3ATP molecules and 1FADH2 gives 2ATP molecules
which were produces during kreb cycle and glycolysis.

Do you know :
The net gain ofATP molecules during respiration in 38ATPmolecules among them,
8ATPfrom glycolysis
6ATP from conversion of pyruvic acid into acetyl CO.A
24ATP from kreb cycle
besides this CO2 and H2O are also released.

MECHANISM OF GASEOUS EXCHANGE BETWEEN TISSUES AND BLOOD :

• When the air enters into the lungs through nostrils, trachea and bronchi it enters into the bronchioles,
from bronchioles it moves into thin walled alveolar sacs or alveoli.
• Alveoli are rich in blood capillaries, at this place oxygen from air diffuses into the blood and reaches to
all the cells and tissues of body this oxygen now diffuses into the cell and is utilized for the oxidation of
food and production of energy in mitochondria as a result of this carbon dioxide is produced in cells, due
to this increased concentration of CO2, it diffuses into the blood and is brought back to alveoli and
expelled out of the lungs through trachea and nostrils.

Control of Respiration :
• Respiration is controlled by the respiratory centre situated in medulla oblongata of brain.
(i) Breathing occurs involuntarily.
(ii) Under normal conditions rate of breathing is 12-14 times per minute. During vigorous exercise the
demand for oxygen increases due to which rate of breathing increases by about 20-25 times.
(iii) The total area for gas exchange covered through 300 million alveoli is about 36-72 m2 in each lung.
(iv) Respiratory quotient : It is defined as the ratio of the volumes of CO2 liberated and O2 used during
respiration.

Some Respiratory Disorders :

• Emphysema : It occurs due to infection, smoking etc. It occurs due to obstructions in bronchioles
caused by breaking of alveolar septa. Bronchodilator and O2 therapy are used, for curing this disease.
• Asthma : Air passages are narrowed and lead to obstruction in breathing.
• Pneumonia : Lymph and mucous accumulate in alveoli and bronchioles. It occurs due to bacterial and
viral infection.
• Bronchitis : Swelling in living membranes of respiratory tract due to excessive smoking.
• Tuberculosis : Bacterial infection in lungs.
• Pleurisy : Inflammation of lung membrane called as pleurisy.
• Sudden contraction of diaphragm along with loud closure of glottis causes Hiccough.
• Sudden and violent expulsion of air through mouth and nose is called a sneezing.

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Difference Between Aerobic and Anaerobic Respiration

Aerobic Respiration Anaerobic Respiration

1. Method. It is the common method of It occurs permanently only in a few organism.

respiration (Inhale and exhale). In others it may occur as a temporary measure
to overcome shortage of oxygen.
2. Steps. It is completed in 3 steps – There are two steps – glycolysis and anaerobic
glycolysis, Krebs cycle and terminal breakdown of pyruvic acid.
oxidation.
3. Oxygen. It requires oxygen. Oxygen is not required.
4. Breakdown. Respiratory substrate is Respiratory substrate is incompletely broken
completely broken down. down.
5. End Products. They are inorganic. Atleast one end product is organic. Inorganic
products may or may not be present.
6. Toxicity. End products show little The organic end product is generally toxic.
toxicity.
7. Occurance. It occurs partly in Anaerobic respiration is carried out entirely in
cytoplasm and partly in mitochondria. cytoplasm. Mitochondria are not required.
8. E.T.C. An electron transport chain is ETC is not required.
required.
9. Energy. In release 686 kcal or 2870 kJ Energy liberated is 36-50 kcal or 150-210 kJ
of energy per mole of glucose. per mole of glucose.
10. ATP. The liberated energy issued in The liberate energy is used in synthesis of
forming 36-38 ATP molecule per mole 2ATP mole.
of glucose.

CIRCULATION AND TRANSPORTATION

• The circulatory system may differ in various animals but carries out the same basic functions.
1. Transport of nutrients. :- It transports all the soluble food compounds from the area of absorption
(like intestine inman) to different parts of the bodyforstorage, assimilation or synthesis of new components.
2. Transport of waste products :- It transports all the excretory products produced as a result of cellular
activities from all over the body to the organs of excretion (like kidney in mammals).
3. Transport of intermediate metabolites :- It transports all the by products or intermediate products
from the tissue they are produced to the organ where they can be fully metabolised (like lactic acid
produced in muscles is transported to liver for oxidation).
4. Transport of hormones :- Since hormones are produced by ductless endocrine glands, they are
transported through the circulating fluid to their target organs.
5. Uniform distribution of heat :- Since circulatory fluid connects all parts of the body it picks up heat
from one part and disspates it on the surface bringing about the uniform distribution.
6. Transport of water, inorganic ions and various chemicals is also done by circulating fluid so as to
maintain auniform distribution.
7. Defence against diseases :- The circulating fluid contains phagocytes which engulf and digest bacteria
and play an important role in defending the body against disease.
8. Transport of respiratory gases :- In some animals the circulatory fluid contains respiratory pigments
which may be dissolved in plasma like in snails, crustaceans or cephalopods or present in cells like in all
vertebrates including man. The O2 is transported from respiratory organs to tissus while CO2 is carried
from tissues to respiratory organs. Some animals like insects have a tracheal system for respiration and
circulating system is not directly associated with respiration. More so it lacks any respiratory pigments.

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CLOSED CIRCULATORY SYSTEM IN VERTEBRATES

• Vertebrates have a highly specialised closed circulatory system that consists of blood vessels - arteries,
arterioles, capillaries, venules and veins containing blood and heart that pumps blood and drives it rapidly
into the blood vessels.
• Vertebrates also have lymphatic system which helps in the activities of blood vascular system.
• There are two circulatory systems in humans:
(i) Blood circulatory system
(ii) Lymphatic circulatory system

Blood Circulatory System in Human Beings

It comprises –
•Blood • Blood Vessels •Heart or Pumping organ

BLOOD
• Blood is fluid connective tissue which comprises of

Plasma Cells
• Fluid part of blood in which corpuscles or cells are suspended.
• It contains water and dissolved substances such as proteins, nutrients, nitrogenous waste etc.
• Plasma transport food, carbon dioxide and nitrogenous waste in dissolved form.
• Blood contains:
1. Erythrocytes/RBC (Red Blood Cell) having iron containing pigment haemoglobin for transport of
oxygen to various parts of body as oxyhaemoglobin.
2. Leukocytes/WBC or white blood cell helps in fighting against infections byshowing phagocytosis and
producing antibodies against germs. So, WBCs are called natural soldiers of human body.
3. Platelets or blood dust are cell fragments that helps in blood clotting.

KNOW MORE
Mature RBC (Erythrocytes) lacks nucleus and other organelles in mammals.

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Table : Blood Transfusion

Blood Group Antigen Present Antibody present Can donate to blood Can Receive blood
on RBC in Plasma type type
A A B A and AB A and O
B B A B and AB B and O
AB A and B None AB only All (A, B, AB and O)
O None A and B All (A, B, AB and O) O only
• Rh factor is discovered by Landsteiner & Veiner in 1940 in Rhesus monkey.
• No natural Rh antibodies are found in blood of man but if Rh+ blood is mixed with Rh– blood then
antibodies formation starts i.e. antibodies against Rh antigens are produced in Rh– blood.
• Marriage of Rh+ man & Rh– women is prohibited because due to this first birth is safe while second is
fatal. This disease is called erythroblastosis foetalis.
• Nowadays IgG preparation is given to each Rh– women after 1st birth for prevention.

Blood Vessels
1. Types of blood vessels :-
• As the oxygenated blood is pumped by muscular heart, it flows through arteries which are thick walled.
• Arteries branch out into arterioles and then capillaries. From capillaries the deoxygenated blood flows
through venules, then to veins and is finally poured back into the heart.
Arteries
• Each artery consists of three layers. Outermost layer is made up of collagen fibres, middle layer of
smooth muscles and elastic fibres and an inner layer of squamous epithelium.
• Walls of arteries are thick and elastic so as to withstand the high pressure of blood coming from heart.
Because of their elasticity they can stretch and expand.
• Arteries which are further away from heart have a thicker layer of smooth muscles in the middle layer
and are innervated by nerves from sympathetic nervous system so as to regulate their diameter.
• Arteries receive blood directly from heart and larger arteries branch repeatedly into smaller arteries and
then to arterioles.
Arterioles
• Arteries branch further to form smaller vessels called arteriole.
• They have only smooth muscle fibres in their middle layer, innervated bysympathetic nervous system.
• On stimulation, the contraction and relaxation of these muscles can alter their diameter and hence can
decrease or increase the blood flow through a particular organ.
• Arterioles branch further into a capillary network.

Fig.- Various blood vessels and direction of

flow of blood between them

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Capillaries.
• They are numerous and smallest of the blood vessels. Each capillary is about 7-10 m in diameter.
• They are extremely thin walled and the wall consists of only a layer of endothelium
• The endothelium is verypermeable and allows diffusion of dissolved substances in and out of capillaries.
It does not allow macromolecules and plasma proteins to pass out of the capillaries.
• Sphincter muscles may be present at the points where capillaries arise from the arterioles. They contract
and relax thereby regulating the decreased or increased flow of blood through capillaries.
Venules
• After exchange of materials in tissues and organs, the capillaries join together to form venules.
• The pressure in venules is very less. They collect the blood and pass it on to veins.
Veins
• Like arteries, the veins also have three layers of tissues. They have much thinner walls than arteries.
They have less of muscle and elastic tissue in the middle layer.
• Their lumen (inner diameter through .which blood flows) is far greater than arteries
• They have semilunar valves (Fig.) which allow the blood to flow in one direction only i.e towards the
heart. The valves prevent the back flow of blood.
• In certain parts (arms and legs) the contractions of skeletal muscles around the veins help to push the
blood towards heart.
• Veins (except pulmonary vein) pour the deoxy-genated blood into the heart.

Table : Comparison of Arteries, Veins and Capillaries

Artery Vein Capillary

(i) Cross section

(ii) Tunica media Muscle layer is thick and Muscle layer is thin, with few Tunica media is
elastic smooth muscles and much absent. Onlyone layer
less elastic tissue. of squamos epithelium
called endothelium is
present.
(iii) Lumen Small Big Verysmall
(iv) Semilunar Absent Present all along the length Absent
Valves to prevent back flow of
blood.
(v) Direction of Take the blood away from Take the blood towards the Blood flows from
heart. heart. arterioles to venules.
(vi) Blood pressure Pressure is high and pulsative. Pressure is low and non- Pressure is extremely
pulsative. low and non-pulsative.
(vii) Blood flow Blood flows rapidly with Blood flows smoothly without Blood flows smoothly
jerks. jerks. without jerks.
(viii) Kind of blood Oxygenated blood except Deoxygenated blood except Blood changes from
in pulmonary artery. in pulmonaryvein. oxygenated to
deoxygenated.
(ix) Location Mostly deep seated Mostlysuperficial Form a net work all
over the body and in
the organs.

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HEART
Heart is muscular involuntary organ, which is as big as our fist. It is made up of cardiac muscles which
work rhythmically. Heart is situated in middle of chest cavity but it is tilted towards left. Heart is divided
into chambers. Number of chambers varies in different animals:
Fishes - 2 chambered heart (1 auricle, 1 ventricle)
Amphibian & most reptiles - 3 chambered heart (2 auricles, 1 ventricle)
Birds and mammals - 4 chambered heart (2 auricles, 2 ventricles)
Note : (Crocodile - 3 and half chambered heart)

Fig. Kinds of Heat and Circulation in Vertebrates

• Structure of Heart: Blood circulatory system  discovered by William Harvey.

• Outer covering pericardium
• External structure
Upper two chambers - auricles.
lower two chambers - ventricles.
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• Auricles and ventricles are separated by atria ventricular sulcus.

• Atria / auricles are separated by inter auricular septum. Left atrium is smaller than right atrium.
• Superior vena cava, inferior vena cava, coronary sinus open into right atrium.
• Superior vena cava collect blood from upper body part, inferior vena cava collects blood from
lower body regions, coronary sinus collects blood from wall of heart.

• Ventricles  left ventricle is longer & narrower than an right, left ventricle has thickest wall.
Ventricles are separated by inter-ventricular septum.
• Pulmonary trunk arises from right ventricle & divides into right & left pulmonary arteries that carry
deoxygenated blood to lungs. Opening of inferior vena cava is guarded by eustachian valve.
• At the base of pulmonary trunk & aorta semi-lunar valves are present.
• In right atrium adjoining to interatrial septum an oval depression, the fossa ovalis is present.
• At fossa ovalis the two atria are in communication with each other during foetal life but in adult it
persists as depression. Bicuspid or mitral valve found between L.A and L.V.
• Tricuspid valve found between R.A and R.V.
• Attached to flaps of bicuspid & tricuspid valve are special chordae tendineae which are joined
to other end of ventricular wall because of papillary muscles.
• Chordae tendineae prevent valves from collapsing back into atria during powerful ventricular
contraction.

Working of Heart
• Heart is myogenic that means heart beat is initiated by a patch of heart muscle.
• Path of conduction of Impulses :
S.A node (sinoatrial node / pacemaker)  situated in R.A near opening of superior vena cava.

A.V node (atrioventricular node or pacesetter)  situated in RA near or base of interartrial
septum

Bundle of his  present in ventricles

Purkinje fibre  found in wall of heart
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• Cardiac cycle  cardiac cycle consists of one heart beat. Time taken in one cycle is 0.8 sec.
Out of which artrial systole is of 0.1 sec
Ventricular systole is of 0.3 sec.
Complete diastole is of 0.4 sec.

• ECG - A graphic record of the spread of the cardiac impulse through the heart is called
electrocardiogram, process refer as electrocardiography.
• Heart Beat : Rhythmic expansion and contraction of heart is called heart beat. The relaxation is
called diastole while the contraction is known as systole. The rate of heart beat is 70-72 / min in
adult human males and 80/min in females. Heart beat is listened with the help of stethoscope.
• Heart Sounds:
There is low pitched sound of longer duration called lubb and a high pitched sound of shorter
duration known as dupp.
(i) The first sound “LUBB” is produced when the atrio-ventricular valves get closed sharply at the
start of ventricular systole.
(ii) The second sound “DUPP” is produced when at the beginning of ventricular diastole, the
semilunar valves at the roots of aorta and. pulmonary artery get closed.

Flow of Blood
• Vena cava brings de-oxygenated blood to right atrium.
• When right atrium is filled with blood it contract causing tricuspid valve to open. Blood is pushed
into right ventricle.
• When right ventricle is filled, it contract and push blood into pulmonary artery (Tricuspid close,
Pulmonary SLV open).
• Pulmonary artery carry blood to lungs for oxygenation (Pulmonary SLV prevents back flow).
• Oxygenated blood returns to heart by pulmonary vein.
• Pulmonary vein brings oxygenated blood to left auricle.
• Left auricle contract, blood passed to left ventricle (Bicuspid open).
• Left ventricle put blood into aorta, the largest artery (bicuspid close, aortic SLV open) which
supplies to tissues.

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Double circulation –

• It was first discovered by William Harvey (1578-1657). Circulatory system of most terrestrial
animals consists of two phase’s. Blood passes from heart twice in one complete cycle, and it is
called double circulation.
• It involves (a) Pulmonary circulation (b) Systemic circulation. Former is related to right side of
heart and later related to left side of heart.
• Double Circulation prevents mixing of oxygenated blood present in left side and deoxygenated
blood present in right side of heart.
Note : Fish have a single circulation system because they lack lungs and their heart has only two
chambers with deoxygenated blood.

BLOOD PRESSURE
• Blood pressure (BP) is the pressure exerted by circulating blood upon
the walls of arteries, and is one of the principal vital signs. Contraction
of heart called systole and relaxation called diastole. During each
heartbeat, BP varies between a maximum (systolic) when heart
contracts (120 mm Hg) and a minimum (diastolic) pressure when heart
expands (80 mm Hg). Blood Pressure is measured with help
SPHYGMOMANOMETER.
Figure: A Sphygmomanometer
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Figure : Steps of Measurement of Blood Pressure

• Constriction of arterioles, results in increased resistance to blood flow. This cause high blood
pressure or hypertension. Hypertension can cause rupture of an artery and internal bleeding.
Maintenance System : Platelets helps in plugging the injured site and preventing excess blood
flow.
Platelets or blood dust keeps on circulating in blood. At injury site, they come in contact with air
and release a chemical known as thromboplastin, which triggers following changes:
Injured Tissue  Blood platelets  Release Thromboplastin
Thromboplastin
Prothrombin (Inactive)  Thrombin (Active)
 Ca  
Thrombin
Fibrinogen (Soluble)  Fibrin (Insoluble)
 Ca  
Fibrin  Red blood Corpuscles  Blood clot

LYMPH CIRCULATORYSYSTEM :
• It includes – lymph, lymph nodes and lymph vessels & capillaries
1. Lymph some amount of plasma, proteins and blood cells escape into intercellular space in the tissues to
form the tissue fluid or lymph. Lymph (Blood - RBC) is an extra cellular, colourless fluid which moves in
lymphatic system (Runs parallel to veins, towards heart).
Functions of Lymph
(a) Carry digested and absorbed fat from intestine back into blood.
(b) It contains lymphocytes which help in killing germs.
2. Lymph nodes are kidney shaped structure. They are rich in lymphocytes.
3. Lymph vessels and capillaries – Tubular structure in which lymph flows, these vessels open into large
veins of the body.

TRANSPORT IN PLANTS :
• Plants transport system helps in movement of food energy stored in leaves and raw materials from
roots to various parts of plant.
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• They perform conduction with help of vascular tissues (xylem and phloem).
Transport in plant

Xylem Phloem
Transportation of water + minerals Translocation of food & hormones
• Xylem is a complex permanent tissue that performs unidirectional transport and comprise of
following components :
Xylem Tracheids
Vessels Dead
(unidirectional) Xylem fibers
Xylem parenchyma Living

• Ascent of Sap (upwards movement of water and mineral in Xylem from root to various
parts of plant)
• Vessels and tracheids in xylem of root, stem and leaves are interconnected to form a continuous
system.
• Root absorbs water from soil through root hairs.
• There are various theories to explain movement of water from roots to upper parts of plant.
• Most accepted theory of ascent of sap is cohesion tension theory.
• Dixon and Jolly proposed that water is pulled up in plant by tension (negative pressure) from
above. This suction pressure is created by transpiration
• Water is continually being lost from leaves by transpiration.
• Loss of water in the leaves exerts a pull on the water in the xylem ducts and draws more water
into the leaf.
• A water molecule clings to each other by hydrogen bond (cohesion) which maintains strength in
column.
• Because of the critical role of cohesion, the transpiration-pull theory is also called the cohesion
theory.
• The rate of ascent of water is 10 – 75 cm/min.

Translocation of food :
• Food synthesized mainly in leaves and hormones synthesized at tip of root and shoots are
transported by Phloem.
• Phloem uses energy for bidirectional transfer. It comprise of

Phloem Sieve element

Companion cell Living
(Bidirectional) Phloem parenchyma
Phloem fibres dead
• Translocation of Food is best explained by Munch hypothesis.
• Food is produce in leaves (source) and used by other parts like root (sink).
• Sucrose is transferred into sieve tube of phloem using ATP.
• This increase osmotic pressure of tissue causing water to move inside phloem.
• In the phloem, there is a continuous input of solute from source tissues (high pressure) and a
continuous efflux at the sink (Low pressure).
• This input and output at the two ends will maintain a pressure differential that will keep liquid
flowing.
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• Thus, the driving force for solute transport is a pressure gradient between the source and
sink regions. Speed of food transport is 60 – 100 cm / hour.

Difference in Xylem and Phloem

Xylem Phloem
Mainly transport water and minerals Mainly translocate food
Most part is dead. Most part is living
Flow is unidirectional (Roots to Apex) Flow is Bidirectional(Leaves to all parts)
No energy required (Physical force Energy is required
involved)
Located Superficially Located Deeply

EXCRETION

Introduction :
• The different chemical activities in the body produce many by-products several of which are wastes.
• These waste products if allowed to accumulate will turn out to be toxic and affect the physiological
activities of the body.
• These wastes have to be expelled out or it may eventually result in the death of the organism.
Definition :
• The removal of harmful and unwanted toxic waste products of metabolism is known as excretion.
• Excretory System is a system of organs and tissue that take part in separation, collection &Avoiding
the waste produced.
Osmoregulation :
• The process by which the water content and the ion concentration is regulated and kept constant in the
cells is known as osmoregulation.
• This process results in maintaining the osmotic pressure in the blood and tissue fluids.
• The two physiological processes, excretion and osmoregulation are interconnected as they both are
responsible for bringing about homeostasis in the body.

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• The physiological mechanisms involved are intimately bound with each other, so much so, in higher
vertebrates like mammals, kidneys perform both functions, excretion and osmoregulation.
• The terms secretion and egestion are often confused with excretion. Hence it is important to understand
clearly what they mean.

Secretion :
• Secretion is the production of useful chemical substances like hormones, enzymes or other molecules by
the cells of glands like the bile, endocrine glands like the islets of Langerhans or unicellular glands like the
epithelial mucosal lining of the large intestine.

Substances Excreted in Animals :

• The metabolic wastes which are excreted by animals may be grouped as follows:

1. Respiratory Waste Products :

• Carbon dioxide and water are the by-products of catabolism of all varieties of foodstuffs.
• In lower animals carbon dioxide is eliminated directly into the environment through the body surface.
• In higher animals it is excreted out along with the exhaled air through the lungs.
• Excess water is excreted in the form of urine and sweat.

2. Nitrogenous Waste Products :

• Nitrogen containing waste products are derived from the deamination of the excess amino-acids consumed
in the food and also from the breakdown of the proteins and nucleic acids.
• The following are the nitrogenous waste products produced by animals:
(i)Ammonia :
This is the main nitrogenous compound produced due to oxidative or deamination of amino acids during
protein metabolism.Ammonia is highly toxic and it is important that it is expelled out of the body as and
when it is formed as it can cause severe harm to the organism. i.e. ammonotelism. Eg. Fish,Amphibia.
(ii) Urea :
In higher animals ammonia combines with carbon dioxide in the liver and forms a less toxic substance
called urea which is periodically flushed out of the system of the animal. Man eliminates nitrogenous
waste in the form of urea. i.e. ureotelism. Eg. Human, animal (goat, dog and cow).
(iii) UricAcid :
This is non-toxic and almost insoluble in water.Thus excretion of uric acid takes place with minimum loss
of water. In man small quantities of uric acid is excreted in urine. In birds and reptiles, uric acid is
excreted as a thick white paste or in the form of pellets. This enables these animals to conserve water. i.e.
uricotelism. Eg. Reptiles andAves.

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(iv) Amino Acids :

Excess amino acids or proteins in higher animals are broken down into ammonia which are converted
into less toxic substances like urea and uric acid in the liver. But in lower animals like molluscs and
echinoderms the excess amino acid gets removed without undergoing any change

Excretion in Unicellular Organisms :

• Specific excretory organs are absent.
• Waste products (e.g.,Ammonia, CO2) generally pass out from the surface of the body into surrounding
water bysimple diffusion.
• Fresh water unicellular forms also posses an osmoregulatory organelle called contractile vacuole, e.g.,
Amoeba, Paramoecium.
• Contractile vacuole collects water and some wastes from the body, swells up (undergoes diastole),
reaches the surface and bursts (undergoes systole) to release its contents to the outside.
• Osmoregulation is required in fresh water forms as fresh water has a tendency to enter their bodies due
to higher internal osmotic concentration.

Excretion in Multicellular Organisms :

• Sponges and coelenterates do not have specific excretory organs as water bathes almost all their cells.
• Excretory structures appear for the first time in flatworms (platyhelminthes). Theyare flame cells.
• Nephridia are excretory organs of annelids, green glands in crustaceans, maphighian tubules in insects,
and kidneys in molluscs.
• Kidneys form a urinary system in vertebrates.
• Some accessoryexcretoryorgans of vertebrates includinghuman beings are skin, lungs and large intestine.

Table : Excretory Organs of different Animal groups

S.No. Animal Groups Excretory Organs
1 Protozoans (e.g. Amoeba, Paramoecium) Plasma membrane
2. Sponges (e.g. Sycon) Plasma membrane of each cell.
3. Cnidaria (e.g. Hydra) Plasma membrane of each cell.
4. Platyhelminthes (e.g. Planaria) Flame cells (Solenocytes)
5. Nemathelminthes (e.g. Ascaris) H-shaped excretory system of canals and
renette cells.
6. Annelids (e.g. Neries, Earthworm) Nephridia; chloragogen cells (yellow cells)
in earthworm.
7. Arthropods
(a) Prawn Antennar / Green glands Malpighian tubules
(b) Most insects Malpighian tubules, coxal glands,
(c) Scorpion and Spiders hepatopancreas and nephrocytes.
8. Molluscs (e.g. Unio, Pila) Kidney. In Unio, kidney are called as organ
of Bojanus.
9. Echinoderms (e.g. Starfish) Dermal branchiae and tube feet.
10. Hemichordates (e.g. Balanoglossus) Glomerulus.

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Excretion and Osmoregulation in Man :

• Man is a highly evolved vertebrate and so the excretory organs are well developed.
Excretory Organs

Accessory excretory Organs Main excretory Organs

Lung Skin Liver Kidney

Main Excretory Organ Kidneys :

• The kidneys are the principal excretory organs in man through which the nitrogenous metabolic wastes
are eliminated in the form of urine.

Human Excretory System

Do you know :
• The kidneys function as a pair of filters through which about one litre of blood circulates each minute.
• The entire blood in the body passes through them in 5 - 6 minutes. In a day it filters 1800 litres of blood
which is 400 times the blood volume.
• Tea, coffee and alcohol are beverages that increase the formation of urine. They are termed diuretics.
• The human kidney contains more than 1.2 million nephrons.
• When a kidney is damaged or diseased, the other kidney is able to compensate for it. So a person can
lead a normal life with only one kidney.
• A normal adult excretes 1 - 1.8 litres of urine per day.
• An artificial kidney(dialysing machine) is used for dialysis. When the kidneys of a patient stop functioning,
life can be prolonged through dialysis.
• Kidney transplants have had good success rates and have given fresh lease of life to patients.

External Structure of kidneys :

• The kidneys are reddish brown, bean-shaped organs situated in the abdominal cavity, one on either side
of the vertebral column in the lumbar region of the body.

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• They lie asymmetrically, the right kidneybeing lower than the left as the right side of the abdominal cavity
is occupied by the liver.
• Each kidney is 10 cm long, 6 cm wide and 4 cm thick and weighs 200 - 250 g in adults.
• Athin, tough, fibrous whitish capsule envelops each kidney.
• The outer surface of each kidney is convex while the inner surface is concave.
• Associated with the kidneys are the following:
1. Renal Artery :
The renal artery enters the kidney at the notch on the concave side called the hilus renalis. As it is a
branch from the aorta it brings oxygenated blood carrying toxic nitrogenous wastes into the kidneys.
2. Renal Vein :
The renal vein drains away deoxygenated blood which is free of toxic substances into the inferior vena
cava. This vein arises from the hilus of each kidney.
3. Ureter :
The ureter, a tube, runs from each kidney downwards into the lower part of the abdomen connecting
each kidney to the urinary bladder. Its function is to transport the urine from the kidneys to the urinary
bladder. The oblique entrance of the ureter into the bladder acts like a valve, preventing the back flow of
urine from the bladder into the ureter.
4. Urinary Bladder :
This is a large muscular storage sac that collects urine from both the kidneys through the ureters.As the
urine gets drained into the bladder its volume increases. The mouth of the bladder is guarded by a tight
ring of muscle called the sphincter which regulates the opening or closing of the bladder. When the
sphincter relaxes, urine is released out through the urethra.
5. Urethra :
This is a short muscular tube that carries urine at intervals from the urinary bladder to the outside. The
base of the urethra is also guarded by a sphincter which keeps the urethra closed except while passing
urine.

Internal Structure of kidney :

• A longitudinal section of the kidney shows three distinct regions:
1. Renal Cortex 2. Renal Medulla 3. Renal Pelvis
1. Renal Cortex :
This is the outer dark red layer. It contains the malphigian
corpuscles, the proximal and distal parts of the renal tubule.
2. Renal Medulla :
This forms the inner pale zone and contains the Henle's
loop and the collecting tubules, present in the form of
renal pyramids. The conical pyramids project into the
renal pelvis.
3. Renal Pelvis :
This is a large funnel-shaped region behind the renal
medulla. Urineflows into the renal pelvis throughminute
openings at the tips or papillae of the pyramids. The
urine that is collected is passed down to the ureters into
the bladder.
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Each kidney consists of a large number of microscopic filtering units called nephrons. There are more
than 1,250,000 nephrons in each kidney. Each nephron is about 30 - 40 mm. in length, originating in the
cortex and extending into the medulla.

Microscopic Structure of a Nephron :

The nephron is the structural and functional unit of
the kidney. Each nephron functions as an
independent unit and produces a miniscule quantity
of urine. The nephron can be differentiated into the
followingregions.

Malpighian Corpuscle :
• This consists of two parts :
1. Bowman's Capsule :
This is a cup - shaped structure which is double
walled in the hollow of which is a net work of
capillaries called the glomerulus. (This is a knotted
mass of blood capillaries formed by the afferent
arteriole (incoming) and the efferent arteriole
(outgoing) ).
2. Renal Tubule :
This is the remainingpart ofthe nephron, continuous
with the Bowman's capsule. It is lined with ciliated
epithelium and differentiated into the following
regions :
(a) Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT) :
This is the region behind the Bowman's capsule and consists of a coiled tube that descends to form the
Henle's loop. The proximal convoluted tubule is present in the cortex region.
(b) Henle's loop :
• This is continuous with the proximal convoluted tubule and is U-shaped having a narrow descending limb
and a thick ascending limb. This part of the nephron descends from the cortex into the medulla region.

Nephron

Malpighian carpuscle Renal tubule Collective tubule

Bowman's capsule Glomerulus Kidney

Proximal convoluted Henle's loop Distal convoluted

tubule tubule

• Distal ConvolutedTubule(DCT)This is another coiled and twisted tubule that continues from the ascending
limb of loop of Henle found in the renal cortex.

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(c) Collecting Tubule :

• The distal convoluted tubule continues to form the collecting tubule.
(d) Collecting Ducts :
• Several collecting tubules fuse to form large collecting ducts which pass downwards from the cortex to
the medulla region.

Do you know :
• Ducts of Bellini Several collecting ducts join to form the larger ducts of Bellini in the medulla region.
• Running through the pyramids theyfinallyopen in the renal pelvis draining all the urine collected from the
various nephrons.
• The renal pelvis is an expanded region which opens into the ureter.
• Vasa Rectae : The efferent arteriole that exits from the glomerulus does not merge into a vein but
breaks up into a system of capillaries called vasa rectae or peritubular capillaries which envelop the
proximal convoluted tubule, the Henle's loop and distal convoluted tubule.
• These capillaries rejoin and drain into the venule.
• Venules join together to form the renal vein which drain blood from the kidneys.

Blood Flow In Kidney

Renal artery Afferent arteriole  Glomerulus  Efferent arteriole  Venule  Renal vein

Micturition (Urination) :
• Urge for micturition occurs when urinary bladder comes to have 300-400 ml of urine.
• The stretched bladder stimulates nerve endings to develop the reflex.
• However, urine can be retained in the urinary bladder till it gets filled upto maximum capacity, 700 – 800
ml.At this time the urge becomes painful.
• Voluntary micturition can be carried any time.
• Total amount of urine excreted per day is about 1.6 – 1.8 litres.
• The quantity increases with larger intake of fluids and decreases with lesser intake of them.

URINE
• It is a transparent fluid produced by urinary system.
• Urine has an amber colour due to presence of urochrome.
• Urine contains 96% water, 2.5% organic substances and 1.5% inorganic solutes.
• Reaction is acidic in the beginning but becomes alkaline on standing due to decomposition of urea to
form ammonia.
Water - 96%
Organic Substances – 2.5%, e.g., urea, uric acid, creatine, creatinise, water soluble vitamins, hormones,
oxalate.
Inorganic Solutes – 1.5%, e.g., sodium, chloride, phosphate, sulphate, magnesium, calcium, iodine.

Functions of Kidneys/Urinary or Excretory System :

(i) Waste Products - Excretion of nitrogenous and other waste products.
(ii) Toxix Chemicals - The system takes part in expelling toxic chemicals that happen to enter the body.
(iii) Water Balance - Maintenance of water balance in the bodyby producing dilute urine in excess when
water intake is high and concentrated urine in case of lesser water intake or excessive sweating.

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(iv) Excess Materials - Elimination of excess water soluble vitamins, drugs and other substances.
(v) Regulation of Salt Content - Regulation of salt content in body by excreting salts when in excess and
retaining them when deficient.
(vi) Maintenance of pH - pH of body fluids is maintained by excretion or non-excretion of H+ ion.
(vii) Regulation of Blood Pressure - By controlling the fluid content, kidneys regulate blood pressure.

ACCESSORY EXCRETORY ORGANS :

1. Skin - It contains sweat and sebaceous glands. Sweat glands excrete a fluid called sweat. Sweat consists of
water (99.5%), traces of lactic acid, amino acids, urea and salt. Sebaceous glands secrete oil or sebum
for lubricating hair. It has wax, sterols and other lipids.
2. Liver -
(i) Extra amino acids are deaminated and toxic ammonia is converted into less harmful urea in liver.
(ii) Liver degrades haemoglobin of worm out erythrocytes into bilirubin and biliverdin (bile pigments) for
elimination.
(iii) It passes cholesterol, lecithin, excess vitamins, drugs and toxic substances into bile for elimination.
3. Lungs - They eliminate carbon dioxide and some aromatic substances.
4. Large Intestine - It excretes heavy metals and toxins into faecal matter.

RENAL FAILURE AND TECHNOLOGY FOR SURVIVAL

• The kidney slowly deteriorates and stops functioning.
• The symptoms are water retention, acidosis, anaemia and increase in blood urea level.
• You have learnt how important the kidneys are for survival.
• Though kidney failure is not common, sometimes kidney infection, injury to kidneys or restricted blood
flow to kidneys result in kidneydamage and malfunctioning.
• In order to clean the blood of metabolic wastes and to maintain normal levels of water and mineral ions
in the body fluids, an 'artificial kidney' is employed as shown in the figure below.
• The procedure used in artificial kidney in place of the normal one is called dialysis.
• A matching kidney from another person may also be transplanted.

Artificial Kidney – Dialysis

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Do You Know :
• Principle of dialysis Blood is made to flow into the dialysis machine made of long cellulose tubes coiled
in a tank having a dialyzing solution.
• Waste substances diffuse out of blood into tank. The cleansed blood is pumped back into patient.

EXCRETION IN PLANTS :
• Plants do not produce nitrogenous wastes like urea and uric acid because extra amino acids and
nucleotides are not formed.
• They produce other types of waste products, called secondary metabolites, e.g., alkaloids, tannins,
aromatic oils.
• Excess of water is got rid off through transpiration. Excess of oxygen formed duringdayin photosynthesis
organs can be considered as waste.
• It passes out through diffusion.
• The other wastes of plant metabolism are as follows :
(i) Nitrogen Waste Products - Theyare byproducts of general metabolism.The common ones are alkaloids,
e.g., quinine, morphine, atropine.
(ii) OrganicAcids - They are metabolic intermediates. Some of them are without any other use. Rather on
accumulation they may prove toxic, e.g., oxalic acid.
(iii) Tannins - They are complex aromatic compounds which are formed as secondary metabolites.
(iv) Latex - It is an emulsion of varied composition which is exerted by special tubular cells called laticifers.
(v) Resins - They are oxidation products of aromatic oils.
(vi) Gums - They are degradation products of cell wall.
It saline habitates, the plants have to absorb excess salts that are required to be eliminated.
Mechanism :
Plants do not have any mechanism to collect, transport and throw out their waste products. They have
adopted varied strategies to protect their living cells from waste products.
(i) Old leaves - Waste products are stored in older leaves which soon fall off.
(ii) Old xylem - Resins, gums, tannins and other waste products are deposited in the old xylem which soon
becomes non-functional, e.g., heart wood.
(iii) Bark - Bark consits of dead cells which is peeled off periodically. Tannins and other wastes are deposited
in the bark. Incidentally, tannins are raw maerial for dyes and inks.
(iv) Central Vacuole - Most plant waste products are stored in central vacuole of their cells. They are
unable to influence the working of cytoplasm due to presence of a selectively permeable membrane
called tonoplast.
(v) Root Excretion - Some waste substances are actually excreted by the plants in the region of their roots.
(vi) Detoxification - The toxic oxalic acid is detoxified byformation of calcium oxalate which gets crystallised
into needle (raphides), prism (prismatic crystals), stars (sphaeraphides) and crystal sand. Excess of
calcium is also precipitated as calcium carbonate crystals, e.g., cystolish.
(vii) Salt Glands - They excrete exces salts obtained from the habitat. Hydathodes also have an excretory
function.

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TRY YOURSELF :
1. Oxygen evolved during photosynthesis comes from
(A) CO2 (B) H2O (C) Both (A) and (B) (D) None of these

2. The atmosphere contains CO2 by volume

(A) 0.1% (B) 0.5% (C) 0.03% (D) 0.3%

3. A cell that lacks chloroplast does not

(A) Evolve carbon dioxide (B) Liberate oxygen
(C) Require water (D) Utilize carbohydrates

4. Rate of photosynthesis is independent of

(A) Qualityof light (B) NO2 (C) Light duration (D) CO2

5. Most effective wavelength of light for photosynthesis is

(A) Red (B)Yellow (C) Green (D) Violet

6. Photolysis of water takes place in

(A) Calvin cycle (B) Glycolysis (C) Light phase (D) Dark Phase

7. Man needs carbohydrates as a source of energy and he can get this energy from
(A) Cellulose (B) Starch (C) Both (A) and (B) (D) None of these

8. Trypsin converts
(A) Fats into fatty acids (B) Starch and glycogen into maltose
(C) Proteins into peptones (D) Sucrose into glucose and fructose

9. Liver cells secrete

(A) Lipase (B) Bile and no enzyme (C) Trypsin (D)Amylase

10. Glycogen is stored in

(A) Liver and muscles (B) Liver only (C) Pancreas (D) Muscles only

11. Gastric juice contains

(A) HCl (B) Renin (C) Pepsin (D)All of these

12. Saliva contains

(A) Ptyalin (B) Renin (C) Trypsin (D)All of these

13. Human digestive juices lack

(A) Lactase (B) Cellulase (C)Amylase (D) Lipase

14. In alimentarycanal maximum absorption of water occurs in

(A) Rectum (B) Small intestine (C)Appendix (D) Stomach

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15. The appendix in man is

(A)Vestigial (B) Involved in bile storage
(C) Similar to stomach in shape (D) Involved in digestion of vegetable

16. Which one of the following does not contribute to the breathing movements in mammals?
(A) Diaphragm (B) Larynx (C)Abdominal muscles (D) Ribs

17. A person with high fever may breath faster than normal. This may be due to
(A)Additional requirement of O2 for the invaded germs
(B) High temperature of body
(C) Loss of appetite
(D) Mental worry of patient

18. A man respires about

(A) 40 times per minute (B) 72 times per minute
(C) 100 times per minute (D) 16–20 times per minutes

19. Tidal air in mammalian lungs is

(A) Total maximum air that can be drawn into lungs
(B)Air that normally goes in and comes out of lungs during breathing
(C)Air that is left in the lungs after normal expiration
(D)Air that can be expelled out from lungs forcibly after normal expiration.

20. The combination of haemoglobin with O2 in the blood is inhibited by

(A) Decreasing O2 concentration in blood (B) Increasing O2 concentration in blood
(C) Increasing CO2 concentration in blood (D) Introducing CO into blood

21. If a man from sea coast of Kerala goes to Mount everest.

(A) His breathing rate and heart beat will increase
(B) His breathing rate and heart beat will decrease
(C) His breathing rate will increase but heart beat will decrease
(D) His breathing rate will decrease but heart beat will increase

22. Heart is incompletely 4 chambered in

(A) Fishes (B)Amphibians (C) Reptiles (D) Birds

23. Valves are not found in

(A) Veins (B)Arteries (C) Heart (D)All of these

24. A person exercising hard shows the following except

(A) Decrease in blood glucose (B) Increase in lactic acid
(C) Increase in glycogen (D) None of these

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25. Circulatory system is open in

(A) Prawn (B) Toad (C) Lizard (D) Pigeon

26. Normal blood pressure (systolic/diastolic) is_______mm of Hg

(A) 120/80 (B) 160/80 (C) 120/60 (D) 180/80

27. Heart beat initiates from

(A) Sino auricular node (B) Bundle of his
(C) Purkinje fibers (D)Auriculo ventricular node

28. Snake/animals living in desert are :

(A) Ureotelic (B) Uricotelic (C)Ammonotelic (D) Both (A) & (B)

29. Urinary bladder opens into :

(A) Uterus (B) Ureter (C) Urethra (D) None of these

30. Reabsorption of water in the kidney is under control of :

(A)ADH (B)ACTH (C) LH (D) PSH

31. A normal adult excrete_____ urine per day :

(A) 1–2 liters (B) 13–14 liters (C) 20–30liters (D) 12–15 liters

32. Structural and functional unit of kidneyis :

(A) Glomerular (B) Loop of Henle (C) Malpighian body (D) Nephron

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1. Diaphragm becomes flat during inspiration and becomes convex during expiration.
2. Tidal volume : Volume of air inspired or expired in relaxed position. It is around 500 ml.
3. Residual volume : Air left in the whole respiratory tract after forceful expiration. It is 1.5 liters.
4. Total lung capacity : Maximum amount of air the lungs can hold after forceful inspiration. It is about 5-
6.0 litres.
5. Vital capacity : Maximum amount of air which can be breathed out through forceful expiration after a
forceful inspiration. It is 3.4-4.8 litres.
6. Vital Capacity is more in athletes, mountain dwellers, non smokers.
7. The total area for gas exchange provided by our 750 million alveoli in two lungs in 100 S. m.
8. In the cycle of inhalation and exhalation, repeated 15 to 18 times in a minutes about 500 ml of air is
breathed in and out. In 24 hours, we breath in 1500 litres of air.
9. Blood is the medium for the transport of oxygen from the respiratory organ to the different tissues and
carbon dioxide from tissues to the respiratoryorgans.As much as 97 percent of the oxygen is transported
from the lungs to the tissues in combination with hemoglobin and only2 percent is transported in dissolved
condition by the plasma.
10. A normal person has about 15 grams of hemoglobin per 100 ml of blood. One gram of hemoglobin binds
about 1.34 ml of O2. Thus, 100 ml of blood carries about 20 ml of oxygen.
11. Carbon dioxide is also transported by hemoglobin. When a respiring tissue release carbon-dioxide, it is
first diffused in the plasma. From here it diffuses into the red blood cells. Carbon-dioxide is transported
from the tissues to the lungs in the form of bicarbonates dissolved in water.
12. About 23% of carbon dioxide entering into the erythrocytes combines with the globin (protein) part of
haemoglobin to form carbaminohaemoglobin, which is transported to the lungs.
13. Carbon monoxide binds with hemoglobin about 230 times more readily than oxygen. When a person
inhales carbon monoxide, it diffuses from the alveolar air to the blood and binds to haemoglobin forming
carboxyhemoglobin. The latter is a relatively stable compound and cannot bind with oxygen molecules.
So, the amount of hemoglobin available for oxygen transport is reduced. The resulting deficiency of
oxygen cases headache, dizziness, nausea and even death.
14. Mountain sickness : It is also known as altitude sickness.At sea level the concentration of oxygen is
about 21% and the barometric pressure averages 760 mm Hg. As altitude increases, the concentration
remains the same but the number of oxygen molecules per breath is reduced.AT12,000 feet the barometric
pressure is only 483 mm Hg, so there are roughly 40% fewer oxygen molecules per breath. In order to
oxygenate the bodyeffectively, breathing rate (even while at rest) has to be increased.This extra ventilation
increases the oxygen content in the blood, but not sea level concentration. The fall in oxygenation of
blood produced the symptoms of mountain sickness. These symptoms include breathlessness, headache,
dizziness, nausea, vomiting, mental fatigue and a bluish tinge on the skin, nails and lips.
15. The abilityto perform the basic life processes distinguishes a living organism from a nonliving one.
16. Life processes are the vital processes carried out byliving organisms in order to maintain and sustain life.
Molecular movements are essential to carry out the various life processes.

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17. Specialised body parts perform the various life processes in multicellular organisms. No such organs are
present in unicellular organisms.
18. Energy required to carry out the different life processes, is obtained from carbon-based food sources
through nutrition.
19. Depending on the mode of obtaining nutrition, organisms are classified as autotrophs or heterotrophs.
a. Autotrophs can prepare their own food from simple inorganic sources like carbon dioxide and water.
(eg- green plants, some bacteria)
b. Heterotrophs cannot synthesize their own food and is dependent on the autotrophs for obtaining complex
organic substances for nutrition. (eg. – animals)
20. Green plants prepare their food by the process of photosynthesis. Here, they utilize CO2, H2O and
sunlight, with the help of chlorophyll, giving out O2 as a byproduct.
21. In the light reaction of photosynthesis, light energy is absorbed and converted to chemical energy in the
form ofATP.Also water molecules are split into hydrogen and oxygen.
22. Photosynthesis involves light-dependent reaction having non-cyclic and cyclic photophosphorylation
and dark reaction where energy is utilised.
23. In 1941, by using Van Niel’s hypothesis and the rare isotope of oxygen 18O, water labelled with I8O
was used. The experiment proved that all oxygen evolved comes from water only and hence the
modified equation of photosynthesis is written as given.

24. In sulphur bacteria, he found that sulphur was released, not oxygen meaning that CO2 was not split
rather H2S was broken down, and hydrogen reduced the CO2.

25. By 1950 it was well established that both the reactions occur in separate areas, the light reaction takes
place on the chloroplast membranes and the dark reaction in the stroma region.
26. Desert plants as an exception, opens stomata in night to absorb CO2 and form intermediate compound
i.e. malate which is stored in vacuole. During day it is converted into sugar.
27. The parasite, the one that draws nourishment often lacks digestive system as it feeds on nutrients already
in solution form or digested form, from the host as in the case of gut parasites like tapeworm and round
worm.
28. Commercially for curdling of milk the Rennet tablets are used which contain renin extracted from the
calf gastric mucosa.
29. Carbon dioxide is reduced to carbohydrates in the dark phase of photosynthesis.
30. Plants carryout gaseous exchange with surrounding through stomata.
31. Heterotrophs may be herbivores, carnivores, parasites or saprophytes.
32. In Amoeba, digestion occurs in the food vacuole, formed by the engulfing of food by its pseudopodia.
33. In humans, digestion of food takes place in the alimentary canal, made up of various organs and glands.
34. In mouth, food is crushed into small particles through chewing and mixed with saliva, which contains
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35. On swallowing, food passes through pharynx and oesophagus to reach stomach. The gastric juice contains
pepsin (for digesting proteins), HCl and mucus.
36. Liver secretes bile which emulsifies fat.
37. Pancreatic juice contains enzymes amylase, trypsin and lipase for digesting starch, proteins and fats
respectively.
38. In the small intestine, carbohydrate, proteins and fats are completely digested into glucose, amino acids,
and fatty acids and glycerol respectively.
39. The villi of small intestine absorb the digested food and supply it to every cell of the body.
40. The undigested food is egested from the body through anus.
41. During respiration, the digested food materials are broken down to release energy in the form ofATP.
42. Depending on the requirement of oxygen, respiration may be
a. Aerobic - occurring in presence of oxygen or
b. Anaerobic – occurring in absence of oxygen.
43. The end-products are lactic acid or ethanol + CO2, in anaerobic respiration or CO2 and water in
aerobic respiration. Large amount of energy is released in aerobic respiration as compared to anaerobic
respiration.
44. Plants release CO2 at night and oxygen during the day.
45. Terrestrial organisms use atmospheric oxygen for respiration whereas aquatic organisms use the dissolved
oxygen in water.
46. In humans, air takes the following path on entering the nostrils.
Nostrils  Nasal passage  Pharynx  Larynx  Trachea  Bronchus  Bronchiole Alveolus.
47. The alveoli of lungs are richly supplied with blood and are the sites where exchange of gases (O2 and
CO2) occurs between blood and atmosphere.
48. In humans, the respiratory pigment haemoglobin, carry oxygen from lungs to different tissues of the
body.
49. Acetyl Co-A is a important molecule in metabolism. It main function is to convey the carbon atom with
in acetyl group to the citric acid cycle to be oxidized to produced energy.
50. In humans, the circulatory system transports various materials throughout the body and is composed of
the heart, blood and blood vessels.
51. Human heart has 4 chambers – 2 atria (right and left) and 2 ventricles (right and left). Right half of the
heart receives deoxygenated blood whereas the left half receives oxygenated blood.
52. Cockroach has 13 hearts.
53. Ventricular walls are much thicker than atrial walls.
54. Arteries carry blood from heart to different parts of the body whereas veins deliver the blood back to the
heart. Arteries are connected to veins by thin capillaries, wherein materials are exchanged between
blood and cells.
55. Humans show double circulation and complete separation of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.
56. Blood platelets are essential for clotting of blood at the place of injury and thus preventing blood loss.
57. Lymphatic system consists of lymph, lymph nodes, lymphatic capillaries and lymph vessels which drain
into larger veins. Lymph is also important in the process of transportation.

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58. In plants, water is transported through the xylem tissue, from roots to the aerial parts of the plant. Root
pressure and transpiration pull are the major forces involved in pulling water up the xylem.
59. Translocation of food is carried out through phloem tissue from leaves and storage organs to other parts
of the plant. This process requires energy from ATP.
60. During excretion, the harmful metabolic nitrogenous wastes generated are removed from the body.
61. In humans, a pair of kidneys, a pair of ureters, urinary bladder and urethra constitutes the excretory
system.
62. Nephrons are the basic filtration units of kidneys. They carry out filtration, selective reabsorption and
tubular secretion to form urine in kidney, which is then passed out through the urethra, via the ureters and
urinary bladder.
63. Plants do not have an excretory system and carries out excretion in various ways like transpiration,
releasing wastes into surrounding soil, losing the leaves and storing in cell vacuoles and in old xylem.
64. Ornithine cycle – Ornithine cycle is the process of converting ammonia into urea by combining with
CO2 in liver.

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[NCERT Questions]
Q.1 Why is diffusion insufficient to meet the oxygen requirements of multi-cellular organisms like
humans?
Ans. Multicellular organisms such as humans possess complex body designs. They have specialised cells and
tissues for performing various necessary functions of the body such as intake of food and oxygen. Unlike
unicellular organisms, multicellular cells are not in direct contact with the outside environment. Therefore,
diffusion cannot meet their oxygen requirements.

Q.2 What criteria do we use to decide whether something is alive?

Ans. Anyvisiblemovement such as walking,breathing,orgrowingisgenerallyusedto decidewhether something
is alive or not. However, a living organism can also have movements, which are not visible to the naked
eye. Therefore, the presence of life processes is a fundamental criterion that can be used to decide
whether something is alive or not.

Q.3 What are outside raw materials used for by an organism?

Ans. An organism uses outside raw materials mostly in the form of food and oxygen. The raw materials
required by an organism can be quite varied depending on the complexity of the organism and its
environment.

Q.4 What processes would you consider essential for maintaining life?
Ans. Life processes such as nutrition, respiration, transportation, excretion, etc. are essential for maintaining
life.

Q.5 What are the differences between autotrophic nutrition and heterotrophic nutrition?
Ans.
Autotrophic nutrition Heterotrophic nutrition
(i) Food is synthesised from simple inorganic Food is obtained directly or indirectly from
raw materials such as CO2 and water. autotrophs. This food is broken down with
the help of enzymes.
(ii) Presence of green pigment (chlorophyll) is No pigment is required in this type of
necessary. nutrition.
(iii) Food is generally prepared during day time. Food can be prepared at all times.
(iv) All green plants and some bacteria have this All animals and fungi have this type of
type of nutrition. nutrition.

Q.6 Where do plants get each of the raw materials required for photosynthesis?
Ans. The following raw materials are required for photosynthesis :
• The raw material CO2 enters from the atmosphere through stomata.
• Water is absorbed from the soil by the plant roots.
• Sunlight, an important component to manufacture food, is absorbed by the chlorophyll and other green
parts of the plants.

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Q.7 What is the role of the acid in our stomach?

Ans. The hydrochloric acid present in our stomach dissolves bits of food and creates an acidic medium. In this
acidic medium, enzyme pepsinogen is converted to pepsin, which is a protein-digesting enzyme.

Q.8 What is the function of digestive enzymes?

Ans. Digestive enzymes such as amylase, lipase, pepsin, trypsin, etc. help in the breaking down of complex
food particles into simple ones. These simple particles can be easily absorbed by the blood and thus
transported to all the cells of the body.

Q.9 How is the small intestine designed to absorb digested food?

Ans. The small intestine has millions of tiny finger-like projections called villi. These villi increase the surface
area for more efficient food absorption. Within these villi, manyblood vessels are present that absorb the
digested food and carry it to the blood stream. From the blood stream, the absorbed food is delivered
to each and every cell of the body.

Enlarged view of a villus

Q.10 What advantage over an aquatic organism does a terrestrial organism have with regard to
obtaining oxygen for respiration?
Ans. Terrestrial organisms take up oxygen from the atmosphere whereas aquatic animals need to utilize oxygen
present in the water.Air contains more O2 as compared to water. Since the content of O2 in air is high,
the terrestrial animals do not have to breathe faster to get more oxygen. Therefore, unlike aquatic animals,
terrestrial animals do not have to show various adaptations for better gaseous
exchange.

Q.11 What are the different ways in which glucose is oxidized to provide energy in various
organisms?
Ans. Glucose is first broken down in the cell cytoplasm into a three carbon molecule called pyruvate.
Pyruvate is further broken down by different ways to provide energy.
The breakdown of glucose by different pathways can be illustrated as follows.

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In yeast and human muscle cells, the breakdown of pyruvate occurs in the absence of oxygen whereas
in mitochondria, the breakdown of pyruvate occurs in the presence of oxygen.

Q.12 How is oxygen and carbon dioxide transported in human beings?

Ans. Haemoglobin transports oxygen molecule to all the body cells for cellular respiration. The haemoglobin
pigment present in the blood gets attached to four O2 molecules that are obtained from breathing. It thus
forms oxyhaemoglobin and the blood becomes oxygenated. This oxygenated blood is then distributed to
all the body cells by the heart. After giving away O2 to the body cells, blood takes away CO2 which is
the end product of cellular respiration. Now the blood becomes de-oxygenated.
Since haemoglobin pigment has less affinity for CO2, CO2 is mainly transported in the dissolved form.
This de-oxygenated blood gives CO2 to lung alveoli and takes O2 in return.

Transportation of O2 and CO2 in blood.

Q.13 How are the lungs designed in human beings to maximize the area for exchange of gases?
Ans. The exchange of gases takes place between the blood of the capillaries that surround the alveoli and the
gases present in the alveoli. Thus, alveoli are the site for exchange of gases. The lungs get filled up with
air during the process of inhalation as ribs are lifted up and diaphragm is flattened. The air that is rushed
inside the lungs fills the numerous alveoli present in the lungs. Each lung contains 300-350 million alveoli.
These numerous alveoli increase the surface area for gaseous exchange making the process of respiration
more efficient.

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Q.14 What are the components of the transport system in human beings? What are the functions of
these components?
Ans. The main components of the transport system in human beings are the heart, blood, and blood vessels.
• Heart pumps oxygenated blood throughout the body. It receives deoxygenated blood from the various
body parts and sends this impure blood to the lungs for oxygenation.
• Being a fluid connective tissue, blood helps in the transport of oxygen, nutrients, CO2, and nitrogenous
wastes.
• The blood vessels (arteries, veins, and capillaries) carry blood either away from the heart to various
organs or from various organs back to the heart.

Q.15 Why is it necessary to separate oxygenated and deoxygenated blood in mammals and birds?
Ans. Warm-blooded animals such as birds and mammals maintain a constant body temperature by cooling
themselves when theyare in a hotter environment and by warming their bodies when they are in a cooler
environment. Hence, these animals require more oxygen (O2) for more cellular respiration so that they
can produce more energy to maintain their body temperature.
Thus, it is necessary for them to separate oxygenated and de-oxygenated blood, so that their circulatory
system is more efficient and can maintain their constant body temperature.

Q.16 What are the components of the transport system in highly organised plants?
Ans. In highly organised plants, there are two different types of conducting tissues - xylem and phloem. Xylem
conducts water and minerals obtained from the soil (via roots) to the rest of the plant. Phloem transports
food materials from the leaves to different parts of the plant body.

Q.17 How are water and minerals transported in plants?

Ans. The components of xylem tissue (tracheids and vessels) of roots, stems, and leaves are interconnected
to form a continuous system of water-conducting channels that reaches all parts of the plant.
Transpiration creates a suction pressure, as a result of which water is forced into the xylem cells of the
roots. Then there is a steady movement of water from the root xylem to all the plant parts through the
interconnected water-conducting channels.

Components of xylem tissue

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Q.18 How is food transported in plants?

Ans. Phloem transports food materials from the leaves to different parts of the plant body. The transportation
of food in phloem is achieved by utilizing energyfromATP.As a result of this, the osmotic pressure in the
tissue increases causing water to move into it. This pressure moves the material in the phloem to the
tissues which have less pressure. This is helpful in moving materials according to the needs of the plant.
For example, the food material, such as sucrose, is transported into the phloem tissue usingATP energy.

Components of phloem tissue

Q.19 Describe the structure and functioning of nephrons.

Ans. Nephrons are the basic filtering units of kidneys. Each kidney possesses large number of nephrons,
approximately 1-1.5 million. The main components of the nephron are glomerulus, Bowman’s capsule,
and a long renal tubule.

Structure of a nephron
Functioning of a nephron :
• The blood enters the kidney through the renal artery, which branches into many capillaries associated
with glomerulus.
• The water and solute are transferred to the nephron at Bowman’s capsule.
• In the proximal tubule, some substances such as amino acids, glucose, and salts are selectivelyreabsorbed
and unwanted molecules are added in the urine.
• The filtrate then moves down into the loop of Henle, where more water is absorbed.
• From here, the filtrate moves upwards into the distal tubule and finally to the collecting duct. Collecting
duct collects urine from many nephrons.
• The urine formed in each kidney enters a long tube called ureter. From ureter, it gets transported to the
urinary bladder and then into the urethra.

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Q.20 What are the methods used by plants to get rid of excretory products?
Ans. Plants can get rid of excess of water by transpiration. Waste materials may be stored in the cell
vacuoles or as gum and resin, especially in old xylem. It is also stored in the leaves that later fall off.

Q.21 How is the amount of urine produced regulated?

Ans. The amount of urine produced depends on the amount of excess water and dissolved wastes present in
the body. Some other factors such as habitat of an organism and hormone such asAntidiuretic hormone
(ADH) also regulates the amount of urine produced.

Q.22 The kidneys in human beings are a part of the system for
(a) nutrition. (b) respiration. (c) excretion. (d) transportation.
Ans. (c) In human beings, the kidneys are a part of the system for excretion.

Q.23 The xylem in plants are responsible for

(a) transport of water. (b) transport of food.
(c) transport of amino acids. (d) transport of oxygen.
Ans. (a) In a plant, the xylem is responsible for transport of water.

Q.24 The autotrophic mode of nutrition requires

(a) carbon dioxide and water. (b) chlorophyll.
(c) sunlight. (d) all of the above.
Ans. (d) The autotrophic mode of nutrition requires carbon dioxide, water, chlorophyll and sunlight.

Q.25 The breakdown of pyruvate to give carbon dioxide, water and energy takes place in
(a) cytoplasm. (b) mitochondria. (c) chloroplast. (d) nucleus.
Ans. (b) The breakdown of pyruvate to give carbon dioxide, water and energy takes place in mitochondria.

Q.26 How are fats digested in our bodies? Where does this process take place?
Ans. Fats are present in the form of large globules in the small intestine. The small intestine gets the
secretions in the form of bile juice and pancreatic juice respectivelyfrom the liver and the pancreas. The
bile salts (from the liver) break down the large fat globules into smaller globules so that the pancreatic
enzymes can easily act on them. This is referred to as emulsification of fats. It takes place in the small
intestine.

Q.27 What is the role of saliva in the digestion of food?

Ans. Saliva is secreted by the salivary glands, located under the tongue. It moistens the food for easy
swallowing. It contains a digestive enzyme called salivary amylase, which breaks down starch into sugar.

Q.28 What are the necessary conditions for autotrophic nutrition and what are its by-products?
Ans. Autotrophic nutrition takes place through the process of photosynthesis. Carbon dioxide, water,
chlorophyll pigment, and sunlight are the necessary conditions required for autotrophic nutrition.
Carbohydrates (food) and O2 are the by-products of photosynthesis.

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Q.29 What are the differences between aerobic and anaerobic respiration? Name some organisms
that use the anaerobic mode of respiration.
Ans. Aerobic Respiration Anaerobic Respiration
1. Method. It is the common method of It occurs permanently only in a few organism.
respiration. In others it may occur as a temporary measure
to overcome shortage of oxygen.
2. Steps. It is completed in 3 steps – glycolysis, There are two steps – glycolysis and anaerobic
Krebs cycle and terminal oxidation. breakdown of pyruvic acid.
3. Oxygen. It requires oxygen. Oxygen is not required.
4. Breakdown. Respiratory substrate is Respiratory substrate is incompletely broken
completely broken down. down.
5. End Products. They are inorganic. Atleast one end product is organic. Inorganic
products may or may not be present.
6. Toxicity. End products show little toxicity. The organic end product is generally toxic.
7. Occurance. It occurs partly in cytoplasm Anaerobic respiration is carried out entirely in
and partly in mitochondria. cytoplasm. Mitochondria are not required.
8. E.T.C. An electron transport chain is ETC is not required.
required.
9. Energy. In release 686 kcal or 2870 kJ of Energy liberated is 36-50 kcal or 150-210 kJ per
energy per mole of glucose. mole of glucose.
10. ATP. The liberated energy issued in forming The liberate energy is used in synthesis of
36-38 ATP molecule per mole of glucose. 2ATP mole.

Anaerobic respiration occurs in the roots of some waterlogged plants, some parasitic worms, animal
muscles, and some micro-organisms such as yeasts.

Q.30 How are the alveoli designed to maximise the exchange of gases?
Ans. The alveoli are the small balloon-like structures present in the lungs. The walls of the alveoli consist of
extensive network of blood vessels. Each lung contains 300-350 million alveoli, making it a total of
approximately 700 million in both the lungs. The alveolar surface when spread out covers about 80 m2
area. This large surface area makes the gaseous exchange more efficient.

Alveoli and capillaries

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Q.31 What would be the consequences of a deficiency of haemoglobin in our bodies?

Ans. Haemoglobin is the respiratory pigment that transports oxygen to the body cells for cellular respiration.
Therefore, deficiency of haemoglobin in blood can affect the oxygen supplying capacity of blood. This
can lead to deficiency of oxygen in the body cells. It can also lead to a disease called anaemia.

Q.32 Describe double circulation in human beings. Why is it necessary?

Ans. The human heart is divided into four chambers - the right atrium, the right ventricle, the left atrium, and
the left ventricle.
Flow of blood in the heart
• The heart has superior and inferior vena cava, which carries de-oxygenated blood from the upper and
lower regions of the body respectively and supplies this de-oxygenated blood to the right atrium of the
heart.

Flow of blood in the heart

• The right atrium then contracts and passes the de-oxygenated blood to the right ventricle, through an
auriculo-ventricular aperture.
• Then the right ventricle contracts and passes the de-oxygenated blood into the two pulmonary arteries,
which pumps it to the lungs where the blood becomes oxygenated. From the lungs, the pulmonary veins
transport the oxygenated blood to the left atrium of the heart.
• Then the left atrium contracts and through the auriculo-ventricular aperture, the oxygenated blood enters
the left ventricle.
• The blood passes to aorta from the left ventricle. The aorta gives rise to many arteries that distribute the
oxygenated blood to all the regions of the body.

Schematic diagram of blood circulation in humans

• Therefore, the blood goes twice through the heart. This is known as double circulation.

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Importance of double circulation :

• The separation of oxygenated and de-oxygenated blood allows a more efficient supply of oxygen to the
body cells. This efficient system of oxygen supplyis veryuseful in warm-blooded animals such as human
beings.
• As we know, warm-blooded animals have to maintain a constant body temperature by cooling
themselves when theyare in a hotter environment and by warming their bodies when they are in a cooler
environment. Hence, they require more O2 for more respiration so that they can produce more energy
to maintain their body temperature. Thus, the circulatory system of humans is more efficient because of
the double circulatory heart.

Q.33 What are the differences between the transport of materials in xylem and phloem?
Ans. Transport of materials in xylem Transport of materials in phloem
(i) Xylem tissue helps in the transport of Phloem tissue helps in the transport of food.
water and minerals.
(ii) Water is transported upwards from Food is transported in both upward and
roots to all downward directions.
(iii) Transport in xylem occurs with the help Transport of food in phloem requires energy
of simple physical forces such as in the form of ATP.
transpiration pull.

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Q.34 Compare the functioning of alveoli in the lungs and nephrons in the kidneys with respect to
their structure and functioning.
Ans.

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SECTION–A

1. Artifical removal of metabolic wastes from the body is called as –

(A)Ultrafilteration (B)Dialysis (C)Osmoregulation (D) None of these

2. Human kidney resembles contractile vacuole of Amoeba in expelling out –

(A) Excess H2O (B) Salts (C) Glucose (D) Urea

3. The units of a mammalian kidney are –

(A) Nephrons (B) Seminiferous tubules
(C) Uriniferous tubules (D) Ureters

4. NH3 converted to urea in –

(A) Kidney (B) Liver (C) Spleen (D) Heart

5. Glomerular filtrate normallycontain –

(A) Glucose (B) NaCl (C)Amino acids (D)All of these

6. Man is –
(A) Uricotelic (B) Ureotelic (C)Ammonotelic (D) None of these

7. Which is not excretory organ?

(A) Skin (B) Kidney (C) Liver (D) Pancreas

8. Special excretory organ is lacking in :

(A) Earthworm (B)Amoeba (C) Man (D) Insects

9. Which of the following is not a excretory product in plant –

(A) Terpentine oil (B) Latex
(C) Glucose produced during photosynthesis (D) Oxygen

10. Sweat is an excretory waste because it contains

(A) N2 waste (B) excess H2O (C) Salts (D)All of the above

11. Urea cycle occur in

(A) Nephron (B) Spleen (C) Pancreas (D) Liver

12. Henle’s loop is short or absent in

(A) Fresh water fish (B) Birds (C) Mammals (D)All of the above

13. The white matter in a bird’s dropping is

(A) CaCO3 (B) CaSO4 (C) Uric acid (D) Urea

14. Identify the uricotelic animal

(A) Pisces (B)Amphibia (C) Man (D)Aves

15. Organic acids which may be poisnous to a plant are stored in –

(A) Vacuoles (B) Palisade cell (C) Mesophyll (D) Xylem vassels

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16. The urinary bladder of a man empties outside by means of

(A) Ureter (B) Urethra (C) Vagina (D) Glands

17. Which of the following needs large amount of water for excretion?
(A) Urea (B)Ammonia (C) Uric acid (D)Amino acids

18. Photosynthesis is maximum in which light

(A) Red light (B) Green light (C) Low light intensity (D) Highlight intensity

19. Cell organelle associated with conversion of light energy to chemical energy.
(A) Chloroplast (B) Mitochondria (C) Ribosome (D) ER

20. Stomata of desert plant/succulant plant are

(A) always open
(B) open during the day and close during the night
(C) Open during the night and close during the day
(D) Never open

SECTION-B
Fill in the blanks :
1. Glucose is broken down to provide energy in the form of ________.
2. The circulatory system consist of the ________, ________ and ________.
3. Plant store waste in the form of ________ and ________.
4. ________ help in ultrafilteration in kidney.

Multiple blanks :
5. Double circulatory system of blood flow includes two distinct and separate systems. This distinction is
shared by most vertebrates including amphibians, _____ and mammals.In contrast, fish have a single
circulation system because they lacks_______.
(A) Birds, Lungs (B) Reptiles, lungs (C)Artropoda, Lungs (D)Birds, Gills

SECTION–C
CHECK YOUR COMPATIBILITY
1. What is the importance of HCl? From where it is secreted?
2. Where & how the acidic food turns alkaline?
3. Why fishes have single circulation?
4. Why right kidneyis slightlylower in position?
5. Describe the step of respiration that take place in cytoplasm.
6. What is fermentation?
7. What is the significance of large inter-cellular spaces in the plants?
8. Why cramps relieve on treatment with hot water?
9. What is residual volume? How does it helps in exchange of oxygen.
10. What is the respiratory pigment in human? What is its function?

SECTION – D
PREVIOUS YEAR’S QUESTIONS
Very Short Answer Type Questions : (One Mark)
Q.1 Write other names of the following:
(a)Alveolar sac (b) Voice box [SAI-2015]
Ans. (a) Air-sacs (b) Larynx.

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Q.2 What is transpiration ? [SAI-2015]

Ans. The loss of water in the form of vapour from the aerial parts of the plant is known as transpiration.

Q.3 What is the function of valves present in auricles and ventricles ? [SAI-2013, 20I4]
Ans. The presence of these valves ensure that blood does not flow backward when the atria or ventricles
contract.

Q.4 What is meant by double circulation? [SAI-2012, 2014]

Ans. The circulation of blood through the heart twice during each cycle of blood circulation is known as
double circulation.

Q.5 What is the function of pancreas in the human digestive system? [SAI-2012, 2010, 2014]
Ans. Pancreas is a large gland whose exocrine region secretes digestive enzymes (trypsin for digesting protein
and pancreatic amylase for the breakdown of starch) and the endocrine region secretes hormone, insulin
and glucagon.

Short Answer Type Questions : (Two Marks)

Q.6 (i) Name any two substances that are selectively reabsorbed as the urine flows along the tube.
(ii) Name the part of the excretory system in which urine is stored for sometime. [SAI-2015]
Ans. (i) Glucose, amino acids, salts and major amount of water.
(ii) Urinary bladder.

Q.7 Give functions of all four chambers of human heart. [SAI-2011, 2014]
Ans. Functions:
Left atrium - Receives oxygenated blood from pulmonary vein.
Right atrium - Receives deoxygenated blood from vena cava
Left ventricle - Pumps oxygenated blood to all parts of body.
Right ventricle - Pumps deoxygenated blood to lungs.

Q.8 What is the significance of residual volume of air in the lungs? [SAI-2014]
Ans. During the breathing cycle, when air is taken in and let out, the lungs always contain a residual volume of
air so that there is sufficient time for oxygen to be absorbed and for the carbon dioxide to be released.

Q.9 What causes movement of food inside the alimentary canal? [SAI-2014]
Ans. The walls of alimentarycanal contain muscle layers. Rhythmic contraction and relaxation of these muscles
pushes the food forward. This is called peristalsis, which occurs all along the gut.

Q.10 Name the components of excretory system of human beings. [SAI-2014]

Ans. The excretory system of human beings includes a pair of kidney, a pair of ureters; a urinary bladder and
a urethra.

Short Answer Type Questions : (Three Marks)

Q.11 Name three life processes which are essential for maintaining life and briefly explain the functioning of
any one of them. [SAI-2015]
Ans. (a) Nutrition (b) Respiration (c) Excretion (d) Transportation (Any three)
Nutrition : It is a process of obtaining and utilising the food (nutrients), which are the source of energy.
The food is needed for growth, development, synthesis of proteins and other substances needed for the
maintenance of life (Metabolism).

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Q.12 Define the term enzyme. State the role of saliva in human digestive system. [SAI-2015]
Ans. Enzymes are biological catalysts which convert complex organic food materials into smaller molecules.
Saliva contains an enzyme called salivaryamylase that breaks down starch which is a complex molecule
to give sugar. It moistens the food, lubricates it and helps to move the food forward into alimentary canal.

Q.13 What do the following transport ?

(i) Xylem (ii)Phloem (iii) Pulmonaryvein (iv) Vena cava
(v) Pulmonary artery (vi)Aorta [SAI-2015]
Ans. (i) Water and minerals.
(ii) Food prepared in the leaves.
(iii) Oxygenated blood from lungs to heart.
(iv) Deoxygenated blood from cells and tissues of body to heart.
(v) Deoxygenated blood from heart to lungs.
(vi) Oxygenated blood from heart to different body parts / organs.

Q.14 List the events that occur during the process of photosynthesis. [SAI-2011, 2012]
Ans. (a)Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll.
(b) Conversion of light energy to chemical energy and splitting of water molecules into hydrogen and
oxygen.
(c) Reduction of carbon dioxide to carbohydrates.

Long Answer Type Questions : (Five Marks)

Q.15 (a) Draw a sectional view of the human heart and label on itAorta, Right ventricle and Pulmonary veins.
(b) State the functions of the following components of transport system?
(i) Blood (ii) Lymph [SAI-2014, 2015]
Ans. (a)

(b) (i) Blood: It transports food, oxygen and waste materials in human body.
(ii) Lymph: It carries digested and absorbed fat from intestine and drains excess fluid from
extracellular space back into the blood.

Q.16 What are stomata? What functions do they perform? With the help of a diagram explain opening and
closing of stomata. [SAI-2014, 2015]
Ans. Stomata are the tiny pores present on the surface of leaves.
Functions of stomata: (i) Exchange of gases, (ii) Transpiration
• Opening and closing of stomata occurs due to turgor changes in guard cells. When guard cells are turgid,
stomatal pore is open while in flaccid conditions, the aperture closes.

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SECTION – E
UNDERSTANDING BASED QUESTIONS
Q.1 When we breathe out, why does the air passage not collapse? [SAI-2014, 2015]
Ans. Because trachea (wind pipe) is lined by rings of cartilage which ensure that the air passage does not
collapse.

Q.2 Why is it necessary to separate oxygenated and deoxygenated blood in mammals and birds ?
[SAI-2014]
Ans. They have high energy requirement for maintaining their body temperature. This is possible only if
oxygenated and deoxygenated blood remain separated.

Q.3 Why is diffusion insufficient to meet the oxygen requirements of multicellular organisms like humans ?
[SAI-2015]
Ans. In the multicellular organisms, all the cells maynot be in direct contact with the surrounding environment.
Therefore, the diffusion is insufficient to meet the oxygen requirements in them. Instead, they need
specialised organs for breathing and exchange of gases.

Q.4 (a) In which forms nitrogen is taken by plants ?

(b) Which type of nutrition is present in bread mould? [SAI-2013, 2014]
Ans. (a) Nitrogen is taken-up from the soil in the form of inorganic nitrates or nitrites. Or it is taken-up as
organic compounds which have been prepared by bacteria from atmospheric nitrogen.
(b) Saprophytic (Heterotrophic) nutrition : They breakdown the food material outside the body and then
absorb it.

Q.5 How does aerobic respiration differ from anaerobic respiration? [SAI-2015]
Ans. Aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration
1. Oxygen is utilised for the 1. Oxygen is not required.
breakdown of respiratory substrate.
2. It takes place in cytoplasm 2. It takes place in cytoplasm only.
(glycolysis) and inside
mitochondria (Krebs cycle).
3. End products are carbon dioxide 3. End products are lactic acid or
and water. ethanol and carbon dioxide.
4. More energy is released. 4. Less energy is released.

Q.6 Why do fishes have two chambered heart and reptiles have three chambered heart? [SAI-2014]
Ans. Division of heart depends on the energy needs by an organism. Since these animals do not require high
energy to maintain their body temperature thus, they have two and three chambers respectively to meet
their minimum energy requirements. These animals tolerate some mixing of the oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood streams. Due to these reasons, the body temperature of these animals depends on
the temperature of the environment.

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SECTION-A
Multiple choice question with one correct answers :
1. Which among them is not correct equation of an anabolic process in plants
(A) C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O
(B) 6CO2 + 6H2O  C6H12O6 + 6O2
(C) 6CO2 + 12H2O  C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O
(D)All of these

2. Organelle responsible for anabolic process of food production in plant.

(A) Mitochondria (B) Peroxisome (C) Ribosome (D) Plastids

3. A major metabolic process taking place in germinating seed to

(A) Photosynthesis (B) Absorption of water
(C)Absorption of mineral (D) Respiration

4. Catabolism is
(A)Anabolism first than metabolism (B) Breakdown of the product of anabolism
(C) Formation of the product in a cell (D)All of the above

5. Growth in a plant is because of

(A) More anabolism than catabolism (B) More catabolism than anabolism
(C) Equal amount of anabolism and catabolism (D) More energy consumption

6. Photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) represents the following range of wavelength

(A) 400 – 700 nm (B) 500 – 600 nm (C) 450 – 950 nm (D) 340–450 nm

7. In chlorophyll which metal is present?

(A) Mn (B) Mo (C) Mg (D) S

8. Photolysis of water take place in

(A)Absorption (B)Transpiration (C) Respiration (D) Photosynthesis

9. Photolysis is
(A)Another name for photosynthesis (B)Another name for respiration
(C) Breakdown of glucose (D) Breakdown of water

10. During light reactions the following molecules are formation

(A)ATP (B) ATP & NADPH (C) NADPH (D) None

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11. Dark reaction of photosynthesis

(A) Takes place in dim light
(B) Takes place both in light and dark
(C) Is termed as dark reaction because it is inhibited by light
(D) Utilizes the assimilatory power formed in light reaction

12. In which form is food transported in plants

(A) Sucrose (B) Fructose (C) Glucose (D) Lactose

13. Some plant absorb CO2 at night. They are

(A) Water plant (B) Land plant (C) Desert plant (D) Both (A)&(B)

14. Magnesium is constituent of which pigment?

(A) Florigen (B) Chlorophyll (C) Haemoglobin (D) Enzyme

15. In photosynthesis
(A) CO2 is reduced while H2O oxidized (B) CO2 is oxidized white H2O reduced
(C) CO2 and H2O are oxidized (D) CO2 & H2O are reduced

16. In chloroplast, chlorophyll is present in the

(A) Stroma (B) Outer membrane (C) Inner membrane (D) Thylakoids

17. Phenomenon which converts light energy into chemical energy is

(A) Respiration (B) Photosynthesis (C) Transpiration (D) None of these

18. Chlorophyll is found in the chloroplast

(A) Grana (B) Pyrenoid (C) Stroma (D) None of these

SECTION-B
Assertion & Reason :
Instructions: In the following questions asAssertion (A) is given followed by a Reason (R). Mark your
responses from the following options.
(A) BothAssertion and Reason are true and Reason is the correct explanation of ‘Assertion’
(B) BothAssertion and Reason are true and Reason is not the correct explanation of ‘Assertion’
(C) Assertion is true but Reason is false
(D) Assertion is false but Reason is true

1. Assertion : Oxygen is absorbed by different organs in different organism.

Reason : All these organs have structure that increase surface area.

2. Assertion : It would take 3 year for a molecule of oxygen to get to our toes from our lungs.
Reason : Diffusion is movement from high to low concentration.

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SECTION-C
Match the following (one to one) :
Column-I and column-II contains four entries each. Entries of column-I are to be matched with some
entries of column-II. OnlyOne entries of column-I mayhave thematchingwith the some entries of column-
II and one entry of column-IIOnly one matching with entries of column-I
1. Column I Column II
(A) Bronchiole (P) Circulation
(B) Vena cava (Q)Absorption
(C) Glomerulus (R) Respiration
(D) Villi (S) Excretion

Match the following (one to many) :

Column-I and column-II contains four entries each. Entries of column-I are to be matched with some
entries of column-II. One or more than one entries of column-I may have the matching with the some
entries of column-II and one entry of column-II mayhave one or more than one matching with entries of
column-I
2. Column I Column II
(A) Lactic acid (P)Aerobic respiration
(B) Ethanol (Q)Anaerobic respiration
(C) CO 2 (R) Photosynthesis
(D) O2 (S) Transpiration

SECTION-D
Comprehension :
Photosynthesis is a process by which green plant make there own food in the presence of sunlight, water,
CO2 and chlorophyll. If we keep a water plant in a beaker, inverted by a funnel and a test tube placed
over having water than we can see bubble of gas accumulated at the bottom of the test tube. This gas
down ward displaces water.

Q.1 Name the process by which this gas is produced

(A) Respiration (B) Transpiration (C) Photolysis (D) None

Q.2 Which among them is not an aquatic plant?

(A) Hydrilla (B) Hydra (C) Vallisneria (D) Lotus

Q.3 Gas that helps in formation of ozone comes out during.

(A) Respiration (B) Photosynthesis (C)Absorption (D) Translocation

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