LIFE PROCESS - NUTRITION

What is life process ?

All the living organisms including human beings perform a number of activities
such as nutrition, respiration, excretion, growth and reproduction. These activities
are characteristics of living organisms, and through such activities they maintain
their lives. These maintenance functions of living organisms are known as life
processes.
Definition :- The basic functions performed by living beings to sustain themselves
are called life processes.
Chemical reactions which take place within cells or organisms during various vital
activities are called biochemical reactions.
Metabolism is a word used to describe the sum total of all the chemical and
physical changes that are constantly taking place in living matter and are
necessary for life. The word metabolite refers to a substance which undergoes
various changes during metabolism.
For example, carbon dioxide and water are metabolites used in the process of
photosynthesis. The metabolic pathways are of two types :
(i) Anabolic pathways or biosynthetic pathways in which biosynthesis of organic
compounds occurs, or in other words, complex substances are synthesized from
simpler ones ; for example photosynthesis. In anabolic pathways or processes of
anabolism energy is used (endothermic reactions)
(ii) Catabolic pathways in which the breakdown of complex organic substances
into simpler ones occurs (as in respiration) , while in catabolic pathways or
catabolism, energy is released (exothermic reactions).
Criteria to define something is alive :-
1. Nutrition :- The processes by which the organisms obtain and utilise the
nutrients (food).
Nutrients are inorganic as well as organic substances which the organisms
obtain from their surroundings in order to synthesize their body constituents and
use them as a source of energy
2. Respiration :- The process that involves breakdown of respiratory substrates
through oxidation and release of usable energy.
3. Transport :- The process in which the substances absorbed or synthesized in
one part of the body are carried to other parts of the body.
4. Excretion :- The process involved in removal of the excess or toxic wastes
from the body.
5. Control and coordination :- The process which helps the living organisms to
receive information from the surroundings and behave accordingly in order to
survive in the changing environment around them.
6. Growth and development :- Permanent increase in the size of the organisms
is called growth. The whole series of changes which an organism goes through
during its life cycle, is called development.
7. Movement and Locomotion

There are various types of nutrients on the basis of function they perform :- e.g.
Energy foods :_ Carbohydrates and fats.
Body building foods :_ Proteins and mineral salts.
Regulating foods :_ Vitamins and minerals.
Modes of nutrition :_Method of obtaining food by the organism is called mode
of nutrition.
(A) Autotrophic nutrition (Holophytic) :_ The mode of nutrition in which the
organisms prepare (or synthesize) their own organic food by using inorganic raw
material (CO2 & H2O). They are also called autotrophs.
e.g. Plants, Photosynthetic and chemosynthetic bacteria and cyanobacteria etc.

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 (B) Heterotrophic nutrition :_ The mode of nutrition in which the organisms
derive their nutrition from other organisms. They take ready made organic food
from other dead or living plants or animals. The living organisms showing
heterotrophic nutrition, are called heterotrophs.
e.g. All animals, fungi, many bacteria and some non-green plants (insectivorous
plants) and man.

Types of heterotrophic nutrition :_ Depending upon the mode of obtaining

food, the heterotrophic nutrition is of following types :
(i) Holozoic nutrition (Holo-Complete + Zoon-animal) The mode of nutrition in
which all animals take in complex solid food material is called holozoic nutrition. It
contains the following steps :-
(i) Ingestion :- Taking in complex organic food through mouth opening.
(ii) Digestion :- Change of complex food into simple diffusible form by the action
of enzymes.
(iii) Absorption :- Passing of simple, soluble nutrients into blood or lymph.
(iv) Assimilation :- Utilization of absorbed food for various metabolic processes.
(v) Egestion :- Expelling out the undigested food. e.g. All animals including
vertebrates and Invertebrates.
(ii) Saprotrophic (Sapro - Rotten ; Trophos - Feeder) Nutrition :_ In this type of
nutrition the organisms obtain their food from decaying organic substances.
Organisms are also called saprotrophs. e.g. Bacteria, Fungi.
(iii) Parasitic nutrition (para-other) :_ The mode of nutrition in which one
organism (called parasite) derives its food from another living organism (Host) is
called parasitic nutrition. e.g. Tape worm, Plasmodium, Liver flukes, Cuscuta etc.
Classification based on food habit, animals are divided into three categories :-
(a) Herbivores :_ Animals that depend on green plants are known as herbivores.
e.g. Goat, Cow, Deer, Rabbit.
(b) Carnivores :_ Animals which eat flesh of other animals as food are called
carnivores. e.g. Lion, Tiger.
(c) Omnivores :_ Animals which eat both plants and animals as food are known
as omnivores. e.g. Rat, Pigs, Crows, Cockroaches and Humans.
Ingestion and Digestion Differences:

Characteristics of Autotrophic Nutrition Heterotrophic nutrition

(1) Source of Energy Sunlight or chemical energy Readymade food
(2) Mode of Nutrition Photosynthesis or Chemosynthesis Feeding upon dead or
living plants or animals
(3) Occurrence Found in green plants, Found in Animals, fungi, Blue-green
algae, certain Most of the bacteria Bacteria
Differences between Autotrophic & Heterotrophic nutrition

Differences between holozoic and saprotrophic nutrition :-

A mutually beneficial relationship between two organisms is called mutualism or
symbiotic relationship ; where both organisms involved gain a benefit from
their interaction with each other, essentially "helping" one another to survive and
thrive
A classic example is the relationship between bees and flowers - bees collect
nectar to make honey while pollinating the flowers, which helps them reproduce.
Lichens (a combination of algae and fungi), where the fungi provides shelter
while the algae provides food.
Nutrition in unicellular organisms (ExampleAmoeba) :-
Food - Amoeba is a holozoic and omnivorous animal. It feeds upon microscopic
organisms like bacteria, Paramecium, Diatoms, Algae and dead organic matter.
Mechanisms. Nutrition in Amoeba involves the following steps:
(i) Ingestion:- Amoeba has no mouth, so ingestion may occur at any point of body
surface but generally it occurs at the advancing end of the body. Ingestion occurs
with the help of pseudopodia. The opening of food cup gradually becomes
narrower and narrower, and finally closes. So the food is finally enveloped and
taken inside a food-vacuole (called phagosome) along with a drop of water.
(ii) Digestion:- Amoeba shows intracellular and vacuolar digestion. In the
cytoplasm, food vacuole fuses with lysosomes containing digestive enzymes. In
this , the complex and non-diffusible nutrients are changed into simple and
diffusible nutrients. Medium inside the food vacuole is first acidic but later
becomes alkaline, (as in the alimentary canal of man).
(iii) Absorption and assimilation :_ In absorption, the diffusible nutrients pass
through vacuolar membrane into cytoplasm by diffusion and are then distributed
to all the body parts by streaming movements of cytoplasm called cyclosis. Due
to this, the size of food vacuole gradually decreases. In the cytoplasm, a part of
the absorbed food is oxidised to produce energy, most of simple nutrients are
combined to synthesize complex compounds.
(iv) Egestion :_ Amoeba has no anus, so egestion may occur at any point on the
body surface.

Digestive system of human :- Human digestive system consists of the

alimentary canal and digestive glands and it involves mastication, swallowing,
digestion of food and elimination of undigested matter.
It consists two parts :-
[A] Alimentary canal:_ The alimentary canal is basically a long tube extending
from the mouth to the anus. It is differentiated into following parts.
(1) Mouth :_ It is a transverse slit bounded by movable lips. The lips serve to
close and open mouth, holding the food in between and also help in speaking.
(2) Buccopharyngeal cavity / Mouth cavity : Mouth leads into the mouth cavity
or oral or buccal cavity. The roof of mouth cavity is formed by palates i.e., hard
and soft palate, the floor by tongue and the sides by the cheeks. The other
conspicuous structures are the teeth and salivary glands.
(a) Tongue :_ The floor of the mouth cavity is occupied by muscular, large,
mobile tongue. It remains attached on its under surface to the floor by fold of
mucous membrane called the lingual frenum. The tongue is covered with mucous
membrane and its upper surface is raised into lingual papillae which contain
microscopic taste buds.
(i) Lingual papillae :- Our tongue has a rough uppper surface due to three types
of lingual papillae filiform, fungiform and circumvallate.
(ii) Taste buds :- Tongue is an organ of taste, richly supplied with sensory
nerves which end in taste buds in the papillae of the upper surface. The taste
buds for sweet taste are located on the anterior end of the tongue, for bitter taste
at the posterior end, for sour taste on its sides and for salty taste on a small part
just behind the anterior end of the tongue.
Functions of tongue :-
(i) It acts like a spoon during ingestion of food.
(ii) It brings food under teeth for mastication
(iii) It moves food in buccal cavity for mixing of saliva.
(iv) It helps in swallowing food.
(v) It cleans teeth by removing small food particles from their surface.
(vi) It helps in speaking.
(vii) It is the main organ of taste.
(viii) It keeps the mouth moist by the secretion of both mucus and serous or
water like fluid.
(ix) In dogs during panting it helps in thermoregulation by quick evaporation of
water of saliva.
(x) In some mammals tongue is used to clean skin by licking.
(b) Teeth :_ Thecodont (Teeth present in bony socket), Heterodont (Teeth are of
four types) and diphyodont (Teeth that come two time in life). Teeth are of
following types :
How can the dental caries be prevented ?
(i) Avoid sugar rich foods.
(ii) Regular brushing of teeth after meals.
(iii) Vigorous chewing of fibrous food.
(iv) Consumption of water containing 1 ppm of fluoride.
(c) Palate :- The septum like structure which separates nasal path from oral path.
The hard palate is the anterior part of the roof of mouth cavity. It is supported by
palatine and maxillary bones that is why it is known as hard palate. There are no
premaxillary bones present in our hard palate. The lower surface of hard palate
covered with mucous membrane of mouth cavity is raised into transverse ridges
called palatine rugae which serve to grip the food firmly. Soft palate is the
posterior muscular part having no skeletal support. It carries a fleshy cone
shaped projection called uvula which hangs down from it in the middle line. Uvula
serve to block the internal nares during swallowing by rising up, preventing entry
of food in the nasal cavities.
(iii) Pharynx : The buccal cavity opens into a short narrow chamber called
pharynx or throat. Pharynx is incompletely divided into three parts by soft palate
the nasopharynx dorsal to the soft palate, oropharynx below the soft palate and
laryngopharynx into which both these parts communicate round the freely
hanging uvula. The oropharynx and laryngopharynx are associated with
swallowing. The laryngopharynx communicates with oesophagus through gullet
and with larynx through glottis. The glottis is guarded by an elastic and muscular
flap called epiglottis which closes glottis during swallowing to prevent food from
entering into wind pipe. Thus pharynx serves two ways (i) as a passage between
nose and wind pipe (trachea) (ii) as food passage between mouth cavity and
oesophagus. Resonance of voice also occurs due to pharynx.
(iv) Oesophagus (food pipe) :_ It conducts the food by peristalsis. The
oesophagus is a collapsible muscular tube 25-30 cm long and about 25-30 mm
thick, leading from the pharynx to stomach. It runs down the neck, behind
trachea and through thorax, finally piercing the diaphragm to open into stomach.
The upper 1/3rd part is composed of voluntary muscles and the lower 2/3rd of
involuntary muscles. The muscular coat has a peristaltic action for driving the
food towards the stomach. There are no digestive glands but only mucous glands
in oesophagus.
(v) Stomach :_ It is a thick, muscular and J-shaped sac present on the left side
of upper part of abdomen. Beneath diaphragm lying to the left side of abdomen is
sickle-shaped stomach. It is the widest part of alimentary canal, size and shape
of which varies according to the contents and sex. The stomach of a woman in
general is more slender and smaller than that of a man. It can be distinguished
into three regions Fundic part, Body part and Pyloric parts. Pyloric part is the
lower end of stomach which narrows down like a funnel and curves to the right
like 'J' leading into duodenum. The exit is guarded by a pyloric sphincter or
pylorus. The partly digested paste like food is forced into intestine through pyloric
sphincter, due to peristaltic waves of stomach.
Functions of Stomach :-
(1) Temporary storage of food.
(2) Partial digestion of food by gastric juice.
(3) Churning of food.
(4) The stomach regulates flow of partially digested food into the small intestine.
Intestine :- It distinguished into two parts :- (a) Small Intestine (b) Large Intestine
(a) Small intestine :_ It is a long (about 6 meter) narrow (average diameter 4
cm), tubular and coiled part. It is differentiated into anterior duodenum, middle
jejunum and posterior ileum. It is mainly concerned with completion of digestion
and absorption of food.
(i) Duodenum : This proximal part starts after pyloric end of stomach. It is about
25 cm long lying against the posterior abdominal wall. It is curved like 'C' or a
horseshoe and ends behind the stomach. A common bile duct and a pancreatic
duct opens in middle of 'C' of duodenum by a common aperture over a raised
area called ampulla of vater.
(ii) Jejunum : The Jejunum (a latin word meaning empty) is so called because it
is always found empty after death.
(iii) Ileum : It is the last part of small intestine.
Small intestine designed to absorb digested food as :
(i) It is lengthy about 6 meters.
(ii) Inner lining has two types of folds called villi and microvilli.
(iii) Each villus has blood capillaries and a lymph capillary.
(b) Large intestine :- It is shorter (about 1.5 meter) and wider (Average diameter
6 cm) than small intestine. It is differentiated into caecum, colon and rectum. It is
the site of aborption of water from digested food. It helps in formation and
temporary storage of faeces. Caecum is vestigeal in human beings.
Anus :- It lies at the base of trunk and is for egestion.
[B] Digestive glands:- They secrete digestive juices which contain digestive
enzymes. These are of following types.
(i) Salivary glands :- In man, there are three pairs of salivary glands. These
secrete saliva which contains a digestive enzyme called ptyalin or Salivary
amylase.
Saliva is an antiseptic as it kills germs and bacteria due to presence of an
enzyme called Lysozyme. Saliva makes the food soft, slippery and helps in
digestion of starch due to presence of salivary amylase enzyme. Our mouth
starts watering on eating food of our interest. This water is basically the saliva
secreted by the salivary gland which get activated on eating or seeing or thinking
of a food. Involuntary contraction & relaxation movement is called peristalsis.
(ii) Gastric glands :- Gastric glands are present in the wall of stomach and
secrete gastric juice.
(iii) Liver :- It is lobed and reddish-brown coloured largest gland of body present
in the right side of upper part of the abdomen. It synthesize and secretes bile
juice. Gall bladder is present below the right lobe of liver. It stores and secretes
bile.
(iv) Pancreas :- It is yellow- coloured gland present just behind the stomach. It
secretes pancreatic juice. Pancreatic duct carries pancreatic juice to small
intestine.
(v) Intestinal glands :- These lie in the wall of small intestine and secrete
intestinal juice.

[C] Physiology of nutrition :-

(i) Ingestion :- Man is omnivorous in feeding and is holozoic. Ingestion involves
carrying the food to the mouth with the help of hands and cutting of food with
incisors or canines depending upon the nature of food.
(ii) Digestion :- In man, digestion is started in buccal cavity and completed in
intestine.
(a) In buccal cavity :- Here, food is chewed with the help of premolars and
molars which increases the rate of action of salivary amylase. Food is mixed with
saliva of salivary gland. Starch Maltose
(b) In stomach :- Food is mixed with gastric juice which contains mucus,
hydrochloric acid, pepsin, rennin and a weak lipase enzyme. Mucus, lubricates
the food and protects the inner lining of the stomach from the action of acids.
Functions of Hydrochloric acid
(i) Stops the action of salivary amylase in stomach.
(ii) Kills the bacteria present in the food.
(iii) Activates pepsin.
(iv) Provides acidic medium.
Pepsin hydrolyses proteins into proteoses and peptones.
Lipase enzymes hydrolyses small amounts of fats into fatty acids and glycerol.
Curdling of milk is done by the enzyme rennin. (Rennin is not found in human
beings, it found only in cattles)
(c) In small intestine :- The small intestine is the site of the complete digestion
of carbohydrates, proteins and fats. Food is mixed with three digestive juices, bile
juice, pancreatic juice and intestinal juice.
Bile juice provide alkaline medium and emulsifies fats [conversion of larger fat
globules into smaller fat droplets] but is a non enzymatic digestive juice so has
no chemical action on food.
Pancreatic juice contains trypsin, pancreatic amylase and pancreatic lipase
enzymes which digest the peptones, starch and fats into peptides, maltose and
fatty acids.
Intestinal juice contains aminopeptidase, intestinal amylase, maltase, sucrase
and lipase enzymes:_

(iii)Absorption :- Absorption of the digested food occurs through the epithelial

surface of the villi & microvilli of small intestine. Inner surface of small intestine is
raised into 4 millions of finger-like folds called villi. Each cell of villus is with
electron microscopic processes called microvilli. Each villus is with blood
capillaries and a lymph capillary.
(iv) Assimilation:- It is a process by which absorbed nutrients are utilized to
resynthesize complex molecules like carbohydrates, proteins and fats inside the
cells.
(v) Egestion :- Removal of waste products from the body is known as egestion.
1. Emulsification :- Emulsification is the phenomenon of physically breaking of
large sized fat globules into large number of fat droplets by the bile-salts of the
bile juice. This increases the surface area for digestion of fats by the lipase
enzyme.
2. Enzymes are classified into 3 groups :-
(a) Amylolytic enzymes _ Carbohydrate digestion
(b) Proteolytic enzymes _ Protein digestion
(c) Lipolytic enzymes _ Lipid digestion
3. Alimentary Canal :- The digestive canal where the entire process of digestion
is accomplished, called alimentary canal. It is the site for ingestion, digestion,
absorption and egestion of food material. In man it is about 78 meter long. The
alimentary canal of herbivores is longer than the alimentary canal of carnivores,
because herbivores have to digest the cellulose, which is difficult to digest.
4. Mucus in stomach :- Mucus is a viscous secretion. The mucus also forms a
thick coating over the mucosal cells and prevents them from the harmful effects
of HCl and pepsin.
5. Pepsin is the chief proteolytic enzyme.
6. Castle's Intrinsic factor :- This intrisic factor is secreted by fundic glands of
the stomach mucosa. It combines with vitamin B12 [which is known as extrinsic
factor]. The vitamin B12 from this combined complex can easily be extracted and
absorbed by the intestinal mucosa. Intrinsic factor, thus, helps in the absorption
of vitamin B12.
7. Colitis :- An inflammation of the colon and rectum is called colitis.
Inflammation of the mucosa reduces absorption of water and salts, producing
watery, bloody faces and in severe cases, dehydration and salt depletion.
8. Digestion of proteins in man starts from stomach. In buccal cavity there is no
digestion of proteins because saliva contains no proteolytic (protein digesting)
enzyme.
Nutrition in plants. Green plants are autotrophic. They synthesize their own
food by the process of photosynthesis. Autotrophic plants are able to produce
food so they are known as producers.
Photosynthesis :- Photosynthesis is a process by which green plants synthesize
organic food (carbohydrate) from carbon dioxide and water using solar energy by
chlorophyll pigments. The sugar produced is stored in the form of starch in
plants.
Importantce of photosynthesis :- Photosynthesis is an anabolic process in
nature for providing food supply to the living organisms. It purifies the
atmospheric air, by consuming CO2 and evolving oxygen. The over all equation
of photosynthesis is :_

Requirements for photosynthesis :- (1) Sunlight (2) Photosynthetic pigment (3)

Carbondioxide (4) water CO2 and water work as raw materials which are
obtained from the atmosphere and the soil respectively.
1. Sunlight :- Sun is a natural source of light for photosynthesis. Sunlight is an
electromagnetic spectrum. Photosynthetic pigments absorb only visible/white
light from electromagnetic spectrum. White light (380 nm to 760 nm) is composed
of wavelength of seven different colours violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow,
orange and red (VIBGYOR).
2. Photosynthetic pigment :- These are chlorophylls carotenoids (carotenes
and xanthophylls) and phycobilins. These pigments absorb only visible light. Chl-
a and b absorb only blue and red light and reflect green light.
3. Carbondioxide : All the plants need carbondioxide to form carbohydrates. The
carbon dioxide is obtained by the plants from the atmospheric air. In the
terrestrial plants, the CO2 enters into the cells of leaves through tiny pores called
stomata which always remain present on the surface of leaves.
4.Water + dissolved minerals like nitrogen, phosphorus etc., are taken up by
the roots from the soil. Water comes from the soil, through the xylem tissue in
roots and stems.
Stomata :- These are tiny pores or microscopic aperture guarded by two kidney
shaped or bean shaped guard cells.
Functions :- (i) Massive amount of a gaseous exchange take place in the leaves
through stomata. Exchange of gasses also occurs across the surface of stem,
root and leaves.
(ii) Large amount of water is lost through stomata.
Guard cells :- These are kidney shaped cells which cover single stoma. They
contain chloroplast also. Function :- They regulate the opening and closing of the
stoma and also perform photosynthesis.

Opening and Closing of Stomata :- When the guard cells swell due to the entry
of water, the stomata gets opened. But when the guard cells shrink due to the
loss of water, the stomata gets closed. Desert plants take up CO2 at night and
prepare an intermediate which is acted upon by the energy absorbed by the
chlorophyll during the day and form glucose. In aquatic plants, CO2 is obtained
from the water where it remains present in dissolved form. Such plants absorb
carbondioxide in solution form, all over their surface from the surrounding water.
4 Water : Water is always needed by the plants for its use during photosynthesis.
Inside the chloroplasts of the leaves, the water molecules split into hydrogen and
oxygen with the help of light energy of solar light. Some mineral salts like N, P, K,
Fe, Mg required by the plants are also transported to different parts of the plant
along with the water. Nitrogen is an essential element used in the synthesis of
proteins and other compounds (chlorophyll, DNA and RNA). Nitrogen is taken up
in the form of inorganic nitrates or nitrites which have been prepared by symbiotic
bacteria from atmospheric N2.
Site of Photosynthesis :- Green plastid (Chloroplast or Kitchen of the cell).
When we observe the cross section of a leaf under microscope, we can see the
mesophyll cells full of green dots. These green dots are chloroplasts containing
chlorophylls.

Chloroplasts :- They are green coloured plastids. Their green colour is due to
the presence of green pigments the chlorophylls. Each developed chloroplast
has two distinct areas - grana and stroma.
Grana (Singular-granum) :- The light reaction of photosynthesis takes place in
this part of chloroplast. In a granum large number of lamellae remain arranged
like a stack of coins. These lamellae are called as thylakoids, which contain
chlorophyll pigments.
Stroma :- It forms the matrix of the chloroplast. The dark reactions of
photosynthesis take place in stroma.
Mechanism of photosynthesis During photosynthesis following events occur :-
(i) Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll.
(ii) Conversion of light energy into chemical energy and spliting of water molecule
into hydrogen & O2
(iii) Reduction of CO2 to carbohydrates. All these events can be categorised into
two main phases :-
(A) Light phase (B) Dark phase
(A) Light reaction :- This step occurs inside thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts.
In this step firstly absorbtion of solar energy by chlorophyll molecules takes
place. During light reaction, light energy breaks up water molecules into
hydrogen and oxygen and this process is called photolysis of water. Light energy
converts into chemical energy in the form of ATP and NADPH2. Oxygen is
released as a by product of light reaction occuring during photosynthesis.
(B) Dark reaction :- In this step synthesis of carbohydrates from carbondioxide
takes place. It is not light dependent hence it is called as dark reaction. This
reaction occurs inside stroma of chloroplasts where light energy is not captured.
During this reaction, the chemical energy formed during light reaction (ATP and
NADPH2) is utilised for the fixation and conversion of carbon dioxide into a
simple carbohydrate, that is glucose. The glucose molecules thus formed are
further converted by the cellular machinery into various chemicals required by the
plants. Difference between light and dark reactions.
Factors affecting photosynthesis :_ (a) Light (b) Water (c) Temperature (d)
CO2 (e) Oxygen
(a) Light The source of light for planet earth is sun, although some marine algae
also utilise the light of moon. Out of the total solar energy, only 2% solar energy
is used in photosynthesis. The quality and intensity of light also affects
photosynthesis. Quality Red and blue lights are most effective in photosynthesis.
But the rate of photosynthesis is maximum in red light. There is no
photosynthesis in presence of green light because green parts of plants reflect
whole of the green light. Intensity The increase in intensity of light increases
photosynthesis. Intensity of sunlight µ Rate of photosynthesis At very high light
intensity the photosynthesis is decreased due to photo-oxidation of the
constituents (solarization).
(b) Water Water is an essential raw material in photosynthesis. Only 1% of the
absorbed water is utilised in photosynthesis. Less availability of water reduces
the rate of photosynthesis. Under water deficient conditions the stomatal aperture
remains closed to reduce the loss of water by transpiration. As a consequence
the entry of CO2 is also stopped into the leaves.
c) Temperature The rate of photosynthesis increases by increase in temperature
upto 40°C. Above this temperature, there is a decrease in the photosynthesis.
Similarly, low temperature also inhibits photosynthesis. The temperature affects
photosynthesis by affecting the activity of enzymes. We know that the dark
reaction of photosynthesis involves several enzymes. These enzymes function at
a specific range of temperature. Low temperature lowers the activity of enzymes
and high temperature causes inactivation of enzymes.
(d) Carbon-dioxide Atmosphere is the main source of CO2 for terrestrial plants.
In atmosphere CO2 is present at the tune of 0.03%. The rate of photosynthesis
increases by increasing the concentration of CO2. But after a certain limit, the
excess concentration of CO2 proves to be toxic to the cells.
(e) Oxygen Over concentration of oxygen stops photosynthesis. It increases the
rate of respiration manifold and disturbs the excited condition of the chloroplast.
In these conditions photosynthesis is not possible.
Previous Year Questions
Q1: A stomata closes when:(1 M) (i) it needs carbon dioxide for photosynthesis.
(ii) it does not need carbon dioxide for photosynthesis. (iii) water flows out of the
guard cells. (iv) water flows into the guard cells. The correct reason(s) in this
process is/are: (a) (i) only (b) (i) and (iii) (c) (ii) and (iii) (d) (ii) and (iv)
Ans: (c) Stomata are small openings on the surface of leaves that allow gases to
enter and exit the plant. They close when the plant doesn't need carbon dioxide
for photosynthesis (which is when it's not producing food) and when water flows
out of the guard cells (which helps the plant conserve water). Therefore, the
correct answers are (ii) and (iii).
Q2: State one role of each of the following in the human digestive system: (2
Marks) (i) Hydrochloric acid (ii) Villi (iii) Anal Sphincter (iv) Lipase
Ans: (i) Hydrochloric acid: Creates an acidic environment that helps enzymes
work and kills harmful microorganisms. (ii) Villi: Increases the surface area of the
intestine, enhancing the absorption of nutrients. (iii) Anal Sphincter: Controls the
release of waste from the body through the anus. (iv) Lipase: Breaks down fats
into smaller molecules, aiding in their digestion.
Q3: (i) Why is respiratory pigment needed in multicellular organisms with large
body sizes? (3 Marks) (ii) Give reasons for the following: (a) Rings of cartilage
are present in the throat. (b) Lungs always contain a residual volume of air. (c)
The diaphragm flattens and ribs are lifted up when we breathe in. (d) Walls of
alveoli contain an extensive network of blood vessels.
Ans: (i) In large animals, diffusion alone cannot deliver enough oxygen
throughout the body. Instead, respiratory pigments are essential because they:
Absorb oxygen from the air in the lungs. Transport oxygen to tissues that need it.
Release oxygen where it is required. In humans, the main respiratory pigment is
haemoglobin, found in red blood cells, which has a strong affinity for oxygen.
Carbon dioxide is mostly carried in a dissolved form in the blood. (ii) Reasons: (a)
Rings of cartilage in the throat prevent the air passage from collapsing. (b) Lungs
retain a residual volume of air to allow time for oxygen absorption and carbon
dioxide release. (c) When we breathe in, the diaphragm flattens and the ribs lift,
making the chest cavity larger, which draws air into the lungs. (d) The walls of
alveoli contain many blood vessels to facilitate gas exchange.
Q4: Which of the following statement(s) is (are) true about the human heart? (1
Mark) (CBSE 2024) (A) Right atrium receives oxygenated blood from lungs
through pulmonary artery. (B) Left atrium transfers oxygenated blood to left
ventricle which sends it to various parts of the body. (C) Right atrium receives
deoxygenated blood through vena cava from upper and lower body. (D) Left
atrium transfers oxygenated blood to aorta which sends it to different parts of the
body. (a) (A) (b) (A) and (D) (c) (B) and (C) (d) (B) and (D)
Ans: (c) (A) is incorrect because the right atrium receives deoxygenated blood
from the body through the vena cava, not oxygenated blood from the lungs. The
pulmonary artery carries deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the lungs,
not to the right atrium. (B) is correct because the left atrium transfers oxygenated
blood to the left ventricle, which then pumps it to various parts of the body
through the aorta. (C) is correct because the right atrium receives deoxygenated
blood through the vena cava from the upper and lower parts of the body. (D) is
incorrect because it is the left ventricle, not the left atrium, that transfers
oxygenated blood to the aorta, which then sends it to different parts of the body.
Therefore, the correct answer is (c) (B) and (C).
Q5: Photosynthesis takes place in the leaves and the food prepared by it reaches
other parts of the plants. Name the process involved and explain it. (1 Mark)
Ans: The process is translocation. It involves the movement of food, mainly
sugars like sucrose, from the leaves (where photosynthesis occurs) to other parts
of the plant through the phloem. This ensures all parts of the plant receive
nutrients for growth, storage, and energy.
Q6: Which of the following statement (s) is (are) true about human heart? (1
Mark) (A) Right atrium receives oxygenated blood from lungs through pulmonary
artery. (B) Left atrium transfers oxygenated blood to left ventricle which sends it
to various parts of the body. (C) Right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from
different parts of the body through vena cava. (D) Left atrium transfers
oxygenated blood to aorta which sends it to different parts of the body. (a) (B)
only (b) (A) and (D) (c) (B) and (C) (d) (B) and (D)
Ans: (c) The correct statements about the human heart are (B) and (C). The left
atrium does transfer oxygenated blood to the left ventricle, which then pumps it to
the body. The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from the body through
the vena cava, while (A) is incorrect because the right atrium actually receives
deoxygenated blood, not oxygenated, and (D) is misleading as the left atrium
transfers blood to the left ventricle, not directly to the aorta.
Q7: Case/Source based questions. (4 & 5 Marks) Human digestive system is a
tube running from mouth to anus. Its main function is to breakdown complex
molecules present in the food which cannot be absorbed as such into smaller
molecules. These molecules are absorbed across the walls of the tube and the
absorbed food reaches each and every cell of the body where it is utilised for
obtaining energy. (a) Name the glands present in the buccal cavity and write the
components of food on which the secretion of these glands act upon. (b) Two
organs have a sphincter muscle at their exit. Name them. (c) What will happen if:
(i) mucus is not secreted by the gastric glands. (ii) Villi are absent in the small
intestine. OR (c) “Bile juice does not contain any enzyme, yet it has important
roles in digestion.” Justify the statement.
Ans: (a) Salivary glands; Starch / Carbohydrate (b) Stomach, Anus (c) The
consequences of specific conditions are: (i) If mucus is not secreted by the
gastric glands, the inner lining of the stomach will be unprotected from acid,
leading to potential damage. (ii) If villi are absent in the small intestine, the
absorption of digested food will be significantly reduced. OR (c) Emulsification of
fats. Acidic medium has to be made alkaline for the pancreatic enzymes to act.
Q8: In human beings, when the process of digestion is completed, the (i)
proteins, (ii) carbohydrates, and (iii) fats are respectively finally converted into: (1
Mark) (CBSE 2024) (a) (i) Amino acids, (ii) glucose and (iii) fatty acids (b) (i)
Amino acids, (ii) glucose, (iii) fatty acids and glycerol (c) (i) Glucose, (ii) fatty
acids and glycerol, (iii) amino acids (d) (i) Sugars, (ii) amino acids, (iii) fatty acids
and glycerol
Ans: (b) During digestion in humans: Proteins are broken down into amino acids.
Carbohydrates are converted into glucose. Fats are transformed into fatty acids
and glycerol. The correct answer is (b) as it accurately describes the final
products of these macronutrients after digestion.
Q9: We need to water the soil in plants on a regular basis. But it ultimately
reaches the leaves of the plant. Explain how this takes place. (1 Mark)
Ans: Water reaches the leaves through the xylem. Roots absorb water from the
soil by osmosis. Water moves upward through the xylem due to transpiration pull,
capillary action, and cohesion of water molecules. This ensures water supply to
the leaves for photosynthesis and other processes.
Q10: The process in which transport of soluble products of photosynthesis takes
place in plants is known as: (1 Mark) (CBSE 2024) (a) Transpiration (b)
Evaporation (c) Conduction (d) Translocation
Ans: (d) The process of transporting soluble products of photosynthesis in plants
is called translocation. This involves: Moving substances like sugars from the
leaves, where they are produced, to other parts of the plant. Utilising the phloem,
a type of vascular tissue, for this transport. Delivering essential nutrients,
including amino acids, to storage organs such as roots, fruits, and seeds.
Facilitating movement in both upward and downward directions through sieve
tubes and companion cells. Translocation is vital for distributing energy
throughout the plant, ensuring that all parts receive the necessary nutrients for
growth and development.
Q11: (a) Sometimes while running, the athletes suffer from muscle cramps.
Why? How is the respiration in this case different from aerobic respiration? OR
(b) Write the other name given to lymph. State its two functions. (3 Marks)
Ans: (a) i. The formation of lactic acid in muscles leads to cramps. ii. Aerobic
respiration occurs with oxygen, while cramps result from anaerobic respiration,
which happens without oxygen. iii. End products of aerobic respiration are carbon
dioxide, water, and energy, whereas anaerobic respiration produces lactic acid
and energy. OR (b) Tissue fluid / Extracellular fluid Functions: i. Carries digested
and absorbed fats from the intestine. ii. Drains excess fluid from extracellular
space back into the blood. iii. Fight against infections.
Q12: (a) Design an experiment to demonstrate that carbon dioxide is essential
for photosynthesis. Write the observation and conclusion of the experiment. (3
Marks) (CBSE 2024) OR (b) (i) In the experimental set-up shown above in
diagram (I) atmospheric air is being passed into lime water with a syringe while in
diagram (II) air is being exhaled into lime water. The time taken for the lime water
to turn milky in both the test tubes is different. Give reason. (ii) Draw the diagram
of an open stomatal pore and label (I) Guard cells, and (II) Chloroplast on it.
Mention two functions performed by stomata.

Ans: (a) Take two healthy potted plants, A and B of nearly the same size. Keep
them in darkness for three days. (Destarch the plant) Place a watch glass
containing potassium hydroxide by the side of potted plant A but not in potted
plant B. Cover both the plants with separate bell jars and seal the bottom of the
jars with Vaseline. Keep both the plants in sunlight for two hours. Pluck one leaf
each from both the plants and test for the presence of starch with iodine solution.
Observation: The leaf of the potted plant A with KOH did not turn blue-black,
indicating that starch was not present. The leaf of the potted plant B turns blue.
Conclusion: KOH absorbs CO2 so photosynthesis did not occur in potted plant A.
OR (b) (i) In set up (I) lime water turns milky in more time as compared to set up
(II) because the air we exhaled contains high percentage of CO2 as compared to
atmospheric air. (ii) Two labellings: (I) Guard Cells (II) Chloroplast Two
functions performed by stomata: Gaseous exchange Transpiration

Q13: In human respiratory system, when a person breathes in, the position of
ribs and diaphragm will be: (1 Mark) (CBSE 2024) (a) lifted ribs and curve/dome
shaped diaphragm. (b) lifted ribs and flattened diaphragm. (c) relaxed ribs and
flattened diaphragm. (d) relaxed ribs and curve/dome shaped diaphragm.
Ans: (b) The correct answer is (b) lifted ribs and flattened diaphragm. When a
person breathes in, the diaphragm contracts and flattens, while the ribs are lifted
upward and outward. This movement creates more space in the chest cavity,
allowing air to fill the lungs.
Q14: For Q. Nos., two statements are given - One labelled as Assertion (A) and
the other labelled as Reason (R). Select the correct answer to these questions
from the codes (a), (b), (c) and (d) as given below: (1 Mark) (CBSE 2024)
Assertion (A): The rate of breathing in aquatic organisms is much faster than in
terrestrial organisms. Reason (R): The amount of oxygen dissolved in water is
very high as compared to the amount of oxygen in air.
(a) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true and Reason (R) is the correct
explanation of the Assertion (A).
(b) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true, but Reason (R) is not the correct
explanation of the Assertion (A).
(c) Assertion (A) is true, but Reason (R) is false.
(d) Assertion (A) is false, but Reason (R) is true.
Ans: (c) The correct answer is (c) Assertion (A) is true, but Reason (R) is false.
Aquatic organisms do breathe faster than terrestrial organisms because they
need to extract enough oxygen from water, which has less oxygen available than
air. Therefore, while the assertion is correct, the reason given is incorrect
because it states that water has a high amount of dissolved oxygen, which is not
true compared to air.
Q15: In a nerve cell, the site where the electrical impulse is converted into a
chemical signal is known as: (1 Mark) (CBSE 2024) (a) Axon (b) Dendrites (c)
Neuromuscular junction (d) Cell body
Ans: (c) Neuromuscular junction (a) Axon: The axon transmits electrical impulses
away from the cell body but does not convert them into chemical signals. (b)
Dendrites: Dendrites receive electrical signals from other nerve cells but do not
convert them into chemical signals. (c) Neuromuscular junction: The correct
answer, as this is where the electrical impulse is converted into a chemical signal
during neurotransmission. (d) Cell body: The cell body contains the nucleus and
other cell structures but does not convert electrical impulses into chemical
signals. The correct answer is: (c) Neuromuscular junction Q16: Study the
diagram given below and answer the questions that follow: (3 Marks) (CBSE
2024) (i) Name the defect of vision represented in the diagram. Give reason for
your answer. (ii) List two causes of this defect. (iii) With the help of a diagram
show how this defect of vision is corrected.

Ans: (i) Hypermetropia or Far-sightedness. Reason – Image is formed behind

the retina. Near point for the person is farther away from the normal near point
(25 cm)
(ii) Focal length of the eye lens is too long. The eyeball has become too small.

(iii) N = Near point of a hypermetropic eye N’= Near point of a normal eye
Q1: Opening and closing of stomata is due to (1 Mark) (a) High pressure of
gases inside the cells (b) Movement of water in and out of the guard cells (c)
Stimulus of light in the guard cells (d) Diffusion of CO2 in and out of the guard
cells.
Ans: (b) The opening and closing of stomata are indeed regulated by the
movement of water in and out of guard cells. Here’s a brief explanation of how it
works: Mechanism of Stomatal Movement: Guard Cells and Stomata: Stomata
are small openings on the surfaces of leaves and stems that allow for gas
exchange (CO2, O2, and water vapor) between the plant and the atmosphere.
Each stoma is flanked by a pair of guard cells, which control the opening and
closing of the stoma. Opening of Stomata: When guard cells take up water by
osmosis, they become turgid (swollen). The turgidity of guard cells is primarily
driven by the active transport of potassium ions (K⁺) into the guard cells. This
lowers the water potential inside the guard cells, causing water to enter by
osmosis. As the guard cells swell, they bow outward, causing the stomatal pore
to open. Closing of Stomata: When the guard cells lose water, they become
flaccid (less swollen). The loss of turgor pressure in the guard cells is usually due
to the active transport of potassium ions (K⁺) out of the guard cells. This raises
the water potential inside the guard cells, causing water to exit by osmosis. As
the guard cells lose turgor and shrink, the stomatal pore closes.
Q2: Assertion (A): The inner walls of the small intestine have finger like
projections called villi which are rich in blood. (1 Mark) (2023) Reason (R): These
villi have a large surface area to help the small intestine in completing the
digestion of food. (a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation
of (A). (b) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is not the correct explanation of (A).
(c) (A) is true but (R) is false. (d) (A) is false but (R) is true.
Ans: (c) Assertion (A): This statement is true. The small intestine is lined with villi,
which are small, finger-like projections rich in blood vessels. These vessels help
absorb nutrients from digested food into the bloodstream. Reason (R): This
statement is false. While it is true that the villi increase the surface area of the
small intestine, their primary role is to aid in the absorption of nutrients, not in the
digestion of food. Digestion is primarily completed by enzymes within the small
intestine. Conclusion: (A) is true, but (R) is false.
Q3: Water in the root enters due to (1 Mark) (2023) (a) The function of the root
to absorb water (b) Difference in the concentration of ions between the root and
the soil (c) Excess water present in the soil (d) Diffusion of water in the roots
Ans: (b) Roots absorb water from the soil through a process called osmosis. This
process occurs because of a difference in ion concentration between the roots
and the soil. As a result, water moves into the roots to balance this concentration
difference.
Q4: As compared to terrestrial organisms, the rate of breathing in aquatic
organism is (1 Mark) (2023) (a) Faster because they need more oxygen for their
survival (b) Faster because the amount of dissolved oxygen in water is fairly low
(c) Slower because the amount of dissolved oxygen in water is fairly low (d)
Slower because the capacity of water of dissolving atmospheric air is limited
Ans: (b) In aquatic organisms, the rate of breathing is higher. These organisms
utilize oxygen dissolved in water. The amount of dissolved oxygen in water is
relatively low compared to the oxygen available in the air. Therefore, aquatic
organisms need to breathe faster to obtain sufficient oxygen for their survival.
Q5: Observe the following diagram and identify the process and its significance
from the following options: (1 Mark) (2023) (a) Evaporation : maintains water
contents in leaf cells. (b) Transpiration : creates a suction force which pulls water
inside the plant. (c) Excretion : helps in excreting out waste water from the plant.
(d) Translocation : helps in transporting materials from one cell to another.
Ans: (b) Transpiration is a vital process in plants that involves the loss of water
vapour from the aerial parts, primarily leaves. This process plays a crucial role in
several ways: Water Movement: It creates a suction force that pulls water from
the roots through the xylem. Nutrient Transport: Transpiration aids in the upward
movement of water and dissolved minerals from the roots to the leaves.
Temperature Regulation: It helps maintain optimal temperatures within the plant.
During the day, when the stomata are open, transpiration becomes the main
driving force for water movement. At night, root pressure assists in this transport.
Overall, transpiration is essential for maintaining the plant's hydration and
nutrient supply.
Q6: The process in which loss of water in the form of vapours from the aerial
parts of plants takes place is X, which helps in Y. Here, X and Y respectively are
(1 Mark) (2023) (a) Transpiration and photosynthesis (b) Transpiration and
temperature regulation (c) Translocation and movement of soluble products of
photosynthesis in phloem (d) Translocation and absorption of water and minerals
from soil by roots.
Ans: (b) Process (X): Transpiration Transpiration is the process where water is
lost in the form of vapours from the aerial parts of plants, primarily through the
stomata in the leaves. Significance (Y): Temperature Regulation Transpiration
helps in temperature regulation by cooling the plant. As water evaporates from
the leaf surfaces, it dissipates heat, thus maintaining optimal temperature
conditions for various physiological processes, including photosynthesis.
Q7: Assertion (A) : The walls of atria are thicker than those of the ventricles. (1
Mark) (2023) Reason (R) : Ventricles have to pump blood into various organs at
high pressure. (a) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true and Reason (R) is
the correct explanation of the Assertion (A) (b) Both Assertion (A) and Reason
(R) are true, but Reason (R) is not the correct explanation of the Assertion (A) (c)
Assertion (A) is true, but Reason (R) is false. (d) Assertion (A) is false, but
Reason (R) is true.
Ans: (d) Assertion (A): The walls of atria are thicker than those of the ventricles.
This statement is false. In reality, the walls of the ventricles are thicker than those
of the atria. Ventricles have thicker muscular walls because they pump blood out
of the heart to the lungs and the rest of the body, which requires more force
(pressure). Reason (R): Ventricles have to pump blood into various organs at
high pressure. This statement is true. Ventricles indeed pump blood into the
arteries and throughout the body at high pressure to ensure blood reaches all
organs and tissues. Therefore, while Reason (R) correctly explains the
physiological need for thicker ventricular walls due to high-pressure pumping,
Assertion (A) is incorrect because the ventricular walls are thicker than atrial
walls, not the other way around.
Q8: Two green plants are kept separately in oxygen-free containers, one in the
dark and the other in sunlight. It was observed that plants kept in the dark could
not survive longer. Give a reason for this observation.
Ans: The plant kept in the dark could not survive longer because: It cannot
perform photosynthesis, which is essential for producing food. Photosynthesis
requires light to convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose and oxygen.
Without light, the plant lacks the energy needed for this process, leading to its
inability to produce the oxygen necessary for respiration. As a result, the plant in
the dark cannot sustain itself and eventually dies.
Q9: List the events that take place during the process of photosynthesis in the
proper sequence. (2 Marks) (2023)
Ans: The three events that occur during the process of photosynthesis are; (i)
Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll. (ii) Conversion of light energy to
chemical energy (in the form of ATP and NADPH) and splitting of water
molecules into hydrogen and oxygen. (iii) Reduction of carbon dioxide to
carbohydrates (carbon assimilation).
Q10: (i) How does Paramecium obtain its food? (3 Marks) (2023) (ii) List the role
of each of the following in our digestive system: (a) Hydrochloric acid (b) Trypsin
(c) Muscular walls of the stomach (d) Salivary amylase
Ans: (i) In Paramecium, a unicellular protozoan, the hair-like outgrowth cilia are
present on the entire surface and help collect the food. They sweep the food
inside the body through the oral groove. (ii) (a) Role of hydrochloric acid: It helps
to maintain the acidic pH in the stomach required for activation of the enzyme
pepsin that digests proteins in the stomach. (b) Role of trypsin in our digestion
system: Trypsin breaks down protein into smaller peptides in the duodenum of
the small intestine. It helps in digesting dietary protein by breaking the chain of
amino acids. It also activates some proenzymes present in pancreatic juice. (c)
Role of muscular walls in the stomach in our digestive system: The muscular
walls in the stomach contract periodically and thereby help in the churning and
mixing of the food with the digestive enzymes and HCI. It helps in chemical
digestion. (d) Role of salivary amylase in our digestive system: Salivary amylase
found in saliva breaks down the starch and converts it into the simplest sugar.
Q11: (a) With the help of an activity, explain the action of saliva on the food we
eat. (3 Marks) (2023) (b) Why is bile juice important in the process of digestion?
Ans: (a) The action of saliva on food can be demonstrated through a simple
activity: Take two test tubes, A and B. In test tube A, add one teaspoon of boiled
rice. In test tube B, add one teaspoon of boiled rice that has been chewed for 3
to 5 minutes. Add 3.4 mL of water to both test tubes. Add a few drops of iodine
solution to each test tube. Results: In test tube A, the rice changes colour due to
the absence of enzymes. In test tube B, there is no colour change because the
amylase enzyme in saliva breaks down the starch into simple sugars. (b) Bile
juice plays a crucial role in digestion: It breaks down fats into fatty acids, making
them easier to absorb. Bile also provides an alkaline fluid that neutralises the
acidic food from the stomach.
Q12: What is the other name of 'tissue fluid'? Write its two functions. (2 Marks)
Ans: Tissue fluid is also called lymph. The functions of tissue fluid are: (i) It
carries digested and absorbed fat from the intestine. (ii) It drains excess fluid
from extracellular space back into the blood.
Q13: What will happen if: (2 Marks) (2023) (a) Xylem tissue in a plant is
removed. (b) We are injured and start bleeding?
Ans: (a) If the xylem is removed, transport of water and minerals from the soil
would not occur, which leads to the wilting of leaves and, ultimately, the death of
the plant. (b) In case of any injury, when bleeding occurs, platelets circulate
around the body and form a mesh-like network or clot at the site of injury.
Q14: (i) What is double circulation? (3 Marks) (2023) (ii) Why is the separation of
the right side and the left side of the heart useful? How does it help birds and
mammals?
Ans: (i) Double circulation is a system where blood passes through the heart
twice during one complete cycle. It consists of two main pathways: Systemic
circulation: Carries oxygen-rich blood from the heart to the body. Pulmonary
circulation: Transports deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs for
oxygenation. (ii) The separation of the heart into right and left sides is beneficial
because: It prevents mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood. This
separation allows for a more efficient supply of oxygen to the body. Birds and
mammals, being warm-blooded, have high energy needs and require a constant
oxygen supply. Mixing blood could lead to inefficient oxygen delivery, which is
critical for their complex metabolism. In summary, the distinct sides of the heart
ensure that oxygen-rich blood is effectively circulated to all body parts,
supporting the energy demands of these animals.
Q15: Write one specific function of each of the following organs in relation to
excretion in human beings: (2 Marks) (2023) (i) Renal Artery (ii) Urethra (ii)
Glomerulus (iv) Tubular part of nephron
Ans: (i) Renal artery: Carries blood from the aorta to the kidneys for filtration. (ii)
Urethra: Transports urine from the bladder to the outside of the body. (iii)
Glomerulus: Filters blood to initiate the formation of urine. (iv) Tubular part of
nephron: Enables selective reabsorption of essential substances like glucose,
amino acids, salts, and water into the blood.
Q16: Explain in brief two ways by which leaves of a plant help in excretion. (2
Marks)
Ans: Leaves of a plant assist in excretion in the following ways: Stomata: Most
carbon dioxide is released through tiny openings called stomata in the leaves.
Transpiration: Plants lose excess water through a process known as
transpiration, which is the evaporation of water from the leaf surface. Waste
Storage: Many waste products are stored in leaves, which are eventually shed,
allowing the plant to excrete these materials.
Q17: An organism which breaks down the food material outside the body and
then absorbs it is: (a) a plant parasite, Cuscuta (b) an animal parasite,
Tapeworm (c) a bacteria, Rhizobium (d) a fungi, Rhizopus (1 Mark)
Ans: (d) (i) Rhizopus is a fungus that performs extracellular digestion. It secretes
digestive enzymes outside its body to break down food material into simpler
substances, which are then absorbed. (ii) Cuscuta is a plant parasite that
absorbs nutrients directly from the host plant. (iii) Tapeworm is an animal
parasite that lives inside the host's body and absorbs pre-digested nutrients. (iv)
Rhizobium is a nitrogen-fixing bacterium associated with legume roots; it does
not break down food outside the body for absorption. Therefore, (d) a fungi,
Rhizopus is correct, as it digests food material outside its body and then absorbs
it.
Q18: Consider the following statements about small intestine and select the one
which is NOT correct: (a) The length of the small intestine in animals differ as it
depends on the type of food they eat. (b) The small intestine is the site of
complete digestion of food. (c) The small intestine receive secretions from liver
and pancreas. (d) The villi of the small intestine absorb water from the
unabsorbed food before it gets removed from the body via the anus. (1 Mark)
Ans: (d) (a) This statement is correct. The length of the small intestine varies
among animals depending on their diet. Herbivores generally have longer small
intestines than carnivores to allow more time for digesting plant material. (b) This
statement is correct. The small intestine is the primary site for the complete
digestion of food, where nutrients are broken down and absorbed. (c) This
statement is correct. The small intestine receives secretions from the liver (bile)
and the pancreas (pancreatic enzymes) that aid in digestion. (d) This statement
is incorrect. The main function of the villi in the small intestine is to absorb
nutrients, not water. Water absorption primarily occurs in the large intestine, not
the small intestine. Therefore, the correct answer is (d), as it is the statement that
is NOT correct.
Q19: Name the type of blood (oxygenated/ deoxygenated) transported by each of
the following mentioning the path i.e., from one organ (which place) to another
(which place). (A) Vena cava (B) Pulmonary artery (3 Marks) (CBSE 2023)
Ans: (A) Vena cava: The vena cava consists of two main veins: Superior vena
cava: Carries deoxygenated blood from the upper body and arms to the right
atrium. Inferior vena cava: Transports deoxygenated blood from the legs and
abdominal area to the right atrium. (B) Pulmonary artery: It carries deoxygenated
blood from the right ventricle to the lungs. In the lungs, the blood becomes
oxygenated.
Q20: (A) State the role of ATP in cellular respiration. (B) What ensures sufficient
exchange of gases in plants? (C) State the conditions on which the direction of
diffusion of gases in plant depend upon. (3 Marks)
Ans: (A) ATP in Cellular Respiration: ATP is the energy currency of cells. Most
ATP is produced in the mitochondrial matrix during cellular respiration. Each
glucose molecule can generate around 32 ATP molecules. (B) Gas Exchange in
Plants: Plants exchange gases through stomata. Large intercellular spaces
ensure all cells contact air. Carbon dioxide and oxygen are exchanged by
diffusion. (C) Conditions Affecting Gas Diffusion: The direction of diffusion
depends on environmental conditions. It also relies on the needs of the plant. At
night, carbon dioxide is mainly released; during the day, oxygen is produced.
Feature Holozoic nutrition Saprotrophic nutrition 1. Nature of food Solid food
(Whole plant or animal Liquid food (Dead and decaying organic or their parts) is
ingested matter) is ingested 2. Site of digestion Inside the body form Outside the
body as enzymes are released on the food material that convert solid food into
simple soluble Examples Most of the Animals Fungi _ Yeast, Slime moulds,
Bacteria. Animals which depend upon the blood of other animals known as
sanguivores. e.g. Bedbug, Mosquito, Leech etc. Some organisms take in
predigested food through their body wall by the process of diffusion. This process
of nutrition is known as osmotrophic nutrition. e.g. Tapeworm, Trypanosoma.
Define (i) saprophytic nutrition (ii) parasitic nutrition,
(iii) holozoic nutrition. Give one example of each type.
1)Saprotrophs are those organisms which feed on dead organic matter and this
mode of nutrition is commonly referred to as the saprophytic mode. Saprotrophic
organisms have no chlorophyll and hence, cannot make their own food. For
example- mushroom, yeast.

2)Parasitic- Organisms that derive nutrients by living in or on their host are

known as parasites and the mode of nutrition is known as parasitic mode of
nutrition. For example- Cuscutta.

3)Holozoic:- There are organisms (like amoeba) who take in their food in solid or
in a liquid form and digest it inside their body. This mode of nutrition is known as
holozoic nutrition.
Match the organisms given in column I with the processes given in column II:

Case: Neena was writing a project report on modes of nutrition in different

organisms. Heterotrophic organisms display three modes of nutrition i.e.,
saprophytic, parasitic and holozoic. In the holozoic mode of nutrition, a study on
the digestive system of different animals showed that the length of the food pipe
or oesophagus in different animals are different. The study showed that
herbivores have a longer small intestine as compared to carnivores.Help Neena
to complete her report by answering the following question:Which of the following
follows parasitic mode of nutrition?Yeast Tapeworm Earthworm
Amoeba
The correct option is B Tapeworm

Parasitic mode of nutrition is the mode in which nutrients are obtained from
another organism which serves as the host while the organism which receives
the nutrition is known as the parasite. The host has no advantage in this form of
nutrition as the parasite lives on the host’s body and feeds off it. Some examples
of organisms which follow parasitic mode of nutrition are lice, tapeworms, fleas
etc.