Bangladesh Army University of Science and Technology

Saidpur Cantonment, Saidpur

Department of Industrial & Production Engineering

Machine Shop Practice

IPE 1110

Level – 1, Term - I

Contact Hours- 3.0, Credits Hours- 1.5

Reports should contain:

1. Experiment number and name of the experiment.

2. Objectives of the experiment.
3. Theory.
4. Equipment’s used (With specification).
5. Necessary Figures.
6. Working procedure.
7. Precautions.
8. Discussion.
9. Applications.
10. Conclusion.

Notes for the students:

1. Every student should read the supplied sheet thoroughly and try to understand conceptually.
2. Reports must be competent with the required contents.
3. The discussion of the report should be different.
4. The students should be familiar with the measuring instruments beyond these experiments.
5. The students must always use apron and shoe in the laboratory.
6. Reports must be submitted on every next class after an experiment.
7. While working in a group each student should participate equally.

Students Evaluation:

Class Performance and Lab Test : 25%

Report Writing : 15%

Mid-term (Examination/ Project/ Assignment) : 20%

Final (Examination/ Project/ Assignment) : 30%

Viva-voce : 10%

Total : 100%

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 Bangladesh Army University of Science and Technology (BAUST),
Saidpur Cantonment, Saidpur.
Department: Industrial & Production Engineering
Course Title: Production Process Sessional
Course Code: IPE 1110

Lab Manual

Expt. No. Name of the experiment week Pages

01. Study of different types of hand tools used in machine shop. 01 04-08
Study of Lathe Machine and Its Various Operations in
02. 01 09-11
manufacturing parts.

03. Study of Milling Machine and its various operations in 01 12-19

manufacturing gears.
04. Study of Shaping Machine and its various operations in 01 20-24
manufacturing grooves.
05. Study of Drilling Machine and its various operations. 01 25-30
06. Study of Grinding Machine and its various operations. 01 31-37
07. To prepare a sand mold casting by using a double piece pattern. 01 38-41
08. Study and observation of different molding defects. 01 42-45
09. Study and Observation of Electric arc welding, Gas welding, 01 46-50
Metal Inert Gas (MIG) welding, and Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG)
welding.

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 Experiment No. 01

Name of the Experiment: Study of different types of hand tools used in machine shop.

Objectives:

i. To gather ideas about the different tools.

ii. To know about basic operations & functions of different tools.
iii. To know how to use hand tools properly.

Theory:

Hand tools are fairly simple tools which you use with your hands, and which are usually not powered. A
measuring instrument is a device to measure a physical quantity. In the physical sciences, quality
assurance, and engineering, measurement is the activity of obtaining and comparing physical quantities of
real-world objects and events.

Work materials, machine, tool, equipment used:

a. Hammer.
b. Mallet.
c. Screw driver.
d. Plier.
e. Wrench.
f. Hacksaw.
g. File.
h. Chisel.
i. Steel rule.
j. Outside caliper.
k. Divider.
l. Micrometer.
m. Vernier caliper.

Description:

i. Hammers:

Hammers were man’s earliest tools. Machinist’s hammers are classified as soft or hard hammers.

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 Figure-1: Plastic-faced soft & ball-peen hammer.

Figure-2: Straight-peen & cross-peen hammer.

ii. Mallet:

A mallet is a kind of hammer, often made of rubber or sometimes wood and usually has a relatively large
head. It is a tool of preference for wood workers using chisels with plastic, metal, or wooden handles, as
they give a softened strike with a positive drive.

Figure-3: A rubber mallet & wooden mallet.

iii. Screwdrivers:

A screwdriver is a hand tool that is designed to turn screws.

Figure-4: A stubby & heavy-duty square-shank screwdriver.

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 Figure-5: A Phillips & double-ended offset screwdriver.

iv. Pliers:

The word pliers is a plural name for a single tool. Pliers are made in many styles and are used to perform
as many different operations.

Figure-6: Combination & long nose pliers.

v. Wrenches:

A wrench is a steel made tool of many kinds, for turning nuts or bolts.

Figure-7: Single-ended & adjustable wrench.

vi. Hacksaw:

Hacksaw is a hand tool especially designed for cutting metal.

Figure-8: Adjustable pistol-grip hacksaw.

vii. Files:

A file is a hardened-steel cutting tool having parallel rows of cutting edges or teeth on its surfaces. On the
two wide surfaces, the rows are usually diagonal to the edge. One end of the file is shaped to fit into a
wooden handle.

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 Figure-9: Parts of a file.

viii. Chisel:

A chisel is a hand tool made from hexagon or octagon shaped tool steel, commonly called chisel steel, of a
size convenient for handling.

Figure-10: Flat cold chisel.

ix. Steel rule:

The most common steel rule used in a tool room made of tempered steel.

Figure-11: Steel rule.

x. Outside calipers:

Outside calipers are hand tools, used to measure outside diameters.

Figure-12: Outside calipers.

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xi. Divider:

A divider consists of a pair of steel legs adjusted by a screw and nut held together by a circular spring at
one end, in which is inserted a handle.

Figure-13: Spring divider.

xii. Micrometer:

The most common precision instrument is micrometer caliper, used for measuring outside diameter. It was
invented by Jean Palmer, a Frenchman, in 1848.

Figure-14: Micrometer caliper.

xiii. Vernier calipers:

In 1631, a Frenchman, Pierre Vernier invented a method of making accurate measurements by dividing
lined graduations into smaller divisions. This method has been adapted for use with other measuring
instruments, which added the name Vernier to identify their more accurate measuring capacity.

Figure-15: Parts of a Vernier calipers

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 Experiment No. 02

Name of the Experiment: Study of Lathe Machine and Its Various Operations in manufacturing parts.

Objectives:

i. To know about different parts of Lathe machines.

ii. To know about the functions of the main parts of the Lathe machine.
iii. To know various operations performed by a lathe machine.

Theory:

A lathe is a machine tool which spins a block of material to perform various operations such as cutting,
sanding, knurling, drilling, etc. or deformation with tools that comes in contact with the work piece to
create an object which has symmetry about an axis of rotation. Lathes are used in woodturning,
metalworking, metal spinning, and in glass working. Lathes can be used to shape pottery as well. Most
suitably metalworking lathes can be used to produce most solids of revolution, plane surfaces and screw
threads or helices.

Principle of Operations:

The lathe is a machine tool used principally for shaping articles of metal (and sometimes wood or other
materials) by causing the work piece to be held and rotated by the lathe while a tool bit is advanced into
the work causing the cutting action. The basic lathe that was designed to cut cylindrical metal stock has
been developed further to produce screw threads, tapered work, drilled holes, knurled surfaces, etc. The
typical lathe provides a variety of rotating speeds and a means to manually and automatically move the
cutting tool into the work piece.

Main parts and their function:

1. Headstock: Contains the spindle in two preloaded ball bearings.

2. Spindle: The spindle is inside the headstock and is driven with a belt running from the motor pulley to
a pulley on the rear end of the spindle shaft. The nose of the spindle is traded on the outside to receive
chucks and tapered on the inside to receive other accessories.
3. Chucks: A 3-jaw or 4-jaw chuck threads onto the spindle nose to hold your work, a drill chuck are
used on the tailstock to center drill your part.
4. Tool Post: Attaches to the lathe table and holds a 1/4" square cutting tool.
5. Cross Slide Table: Also sometimes spelled "cross slide," it is the table with two T-slots that holds the
tool post.

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6. Tail Stock Locking Screw: Locks the tailstock in place on the bed to keep it from moving. When
loosened, the tailstock can be slid up and down the bed.
7. Bed: The dovetailed steel bar that the saddle and tailstock are moved back and forth on.
8. Saddle: The part that supports the cross slide table and is moved up and down the bed using the lead
screw hand wheel.

Figure: Schematic view of the lathe machine

9. Lead Screw: The threaded screw under the bed that controls movement of the saddle. A "saddle nut"
underneath attaches the bed to the leadscrew. Turning the lead screw hand wheel moves the saddle
down the bed.
10. Lathe Base: The cast metal base upon which the lathe bed and headstock sit.
11. Draw bolt: Goes through the hole in the spindle to draw chucks and other accessories into the
headstock taper inside the spindle. A special washer locates it on center in the spindle hole.
12. Dead Centers: Morse arbors have a 60° point and are used to locate and hold work "between centers"
on the lathe. The morse arbor rotates with the headstock, but because the tailstock spindle does not
rotate, the rear morse arbor is called a "dead" center. This needs to be kept lubricated because it creates
friction with the moving part it is locating. Most machinists eventually replace this with a "live" center
that turns on a ball bearing.

Machining Parameters:

Cutting Speed:

The speed in surface feet per minute or meters per minute at which the metal may be machined efficiently.

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Lathe Cutting Speed:

It may be defined as the rate at which a point on the work circumferences travels past the cutting tool.
When work is machined in a lathe, it must be turned at a specific number of revolutions per
minute(r/min.), depending on its diameter, to achieve the proper cutting speed. Cutting speed is always
expressed in feet per minute (ft/min.) or in meters per minute (m/min.).

Lathe Feed:

The feed of a lathe may be defined as the distance the cutting tool advances along the length of work for
every revolution of spindle. Feed of the lathe is dependent on the speed of the lead screw or feed rod.
Speed is controlled by the change gears in the quick – change gear box.

Cutting Speed:

Cutting speed is how fast the metal comes into contact with the tool at the cutting point. On a lathe, it is
the rate at which the surface of the job passes the cutting tool. This takes into account the diameter of the
job. The general formula for a cutting speed is as follows:

Feed:

The feed of a lathe may be defined as the distance the cutting tool advances along the length of the work
for every revolution of the spindle.

Various operations performed on lathe machine:

1. Turning: Produces straight, conical, curved, or grooved work pieces.

2. Facing: Produces a flat surface at the end of the part.

3. Threading: To produce threads.

4. Drilling: To produce a hole.

5. Knurling: Produces a regularly shaped roughness.

Lathe Accessories:

1. Lathe centers: Supports Job, drilling, offset taper operation.

2. Lathe Dogs: It supports and allows workpiece to rotate during turning between centers

3. Steady rest: It holds the workpiece so that it becomes stable and couldn't move.

4. Follower rest: It follows Job and resists instantaneous deflection of long Jobs.

6. Mandrels: It helps to hold the job which is hollow shaft or cylindrical.

7. Taper turning attachments: It's used for internal tapering.

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 Experiment No. 03

Name of the Experiment: Study of Milling Machine and its various operations in manufacturing gears.

Objectives:
i. To know about the difference between milling and another machine.
ii. To gain knowledge on specialized milling machines including gear production, profiling, and
thread-milling machines as well as universal-type milling machines.
iii. To know about basic machine parts of the Milling machine.
iv. To know various operations in milling machine.
v.
Theory:

Milling machine is one of the most versatile conventional machine tools with a wide range of metal
cutting capability. Many complicated operations such as indexing, gang milling, and straddle milling etc.
can be carried out on a milling machine. Milling machines are among the most versatile and useful
machine tools due to their capabilities to perform a variety of operations.

Figure-01: Universal milling machine.

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Principal parts of milling machine:

Figure-2: Principal parts of milling machine.

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1. Table.
2. Spindle with Arbor-lock. Spindle nose.
3. Inner arbor support.
4. Start- stop level.
5. Overarm.
6. Outer arbor support.
7. Table trip plunger.
8. Backlash eliminator knob.
9. Table trip dogs.
10. Saddle.
11. Table feed lever.
12. Cross feed lever.
13. Rapid traverse lever.
14. Cross feed hand wheel.
15. Vertical feed hand crank.
16. Feed change crank.
17. Feed change dial.
18. Knee.
19. Vertical feed lever.
20. Knee oil filter.
21. Telescopic cutting fluid return.
22. Base.
23. Vertical trip dogs.
24. Knee clamp.
25. Column.
26. Table traverse hand wheel.
27. Speed change dial and crank.
28. Overarm positioning crank.

Main parts and their function:

a) Column: The column houses the spindle, the bearings, the gearbox, the clutches, the shafts, the
pumps, and the shifting mechanisms for transmitting power from the electric motor to the spindle at a
selected speed.
b) Knee: The knee mounted in front of the column is for supporting the table and to provide an up or
down motion along the Z axis.
c) Saddle: The saddle consists of two slide ways, one on the top and one at the bottom located at 90o to
each other, for providing motions in the X or Y axes by means of lead screws.
d) Table: The table is mounted on top of the saddle and can be moved along the X axis. On top of the
table are some T-slots for the mounting of workpiece or clamping fixtures.
e) Arbor: The arbor is an extension of the spindle for mounting cutters. Usually, the thread end of an
arbor is of left hand helix.

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Milling operations:

a) Face milling: Generally, at right angles to the axis of rotation of the cutter Milled surface is flat and
has no relationship to the contour of the cutter Combined cutting action of the side and face of the
milling cutter.

Figure-4: Face milling.

b) Slab milling: A milling operation that uses a cylindrical mill on an axis parallel to the worktable to
create a flat surface.

Figure-5: Slab milling.

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c) Slotting: A milling operation that cuts a narrow ridge into the surface of a work piece.

Figure-6: Slotting operation.

d) Slitting: A rotary tool-steel cutting tool with peripheral teeth, used in a milling machine to remove
material from the work piece through the relative motion of work piece and cutter.

Figure-7: Slitting operation.

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e) Side milling: Milling with a side-milling cutter to machine one vertical surface.

Figure-8: Side milling operation.

f) Form milling: A milling operation that uses a mill with a unique shape to create that shape into the
work piece.

Figure-9: Form milling operation.

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g) Straddle milling: Face milling of two parallel vertical surfaces of a work piece simultaneously by
using two side-milling cutters.

Figure-10: Straddle milling operation.

Methods of Milling

a) Up Milling: Up milling is also referred to as conventional milling. The direction of the cutter rotation
opposes the feed motion. For example, if the cutter rotates clockwise, the work-piece is fed to the right
in up milling.

b) Down Milling: Down milling is also referred to as climb milling. The direction of cutter rotation is
same as the feed motion. For example, if the cover rotates counterclockwise, the work-piece is fed to
the right in down milling.

The chip formation in down milling is opposite to the chip formation in up milling. The figure for
down milling shows that the cutter tooth is almost parallel to the top surface of the work piece. The
cutter tooth begins to mill the full chip thickness. Then the chip thickness gradually decreases.

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 Feed Motion Feed Motion

Figure: Up Milling and Down Milling

Simple Indexing on Milling Machine for manufacturing gears:

Rapid indexing, also known as direct indexing, is the simplest method of indexing. The front index plate
attached to the work spindle. The front index plate usually has 24 equally spaced holes. These holes can be
engaged by the front index pin, which is spring loaded and is moved in and out by means of a small lever.
Rapid indexing requires that the worm and worm wheel be disengaged so that the spindle can be moved by
hand. Numbers that can be divided into 24 can be indexed. Rapid indexing is used when a large number of
duplicate parts are to be milled. The number of holes to move in the index plate can be found by dividing
24 by the number of divisions required.

Number of holes to move =

Where N = required number of divisions.

Example: Indexing for a hexagon head screw. Because a hexagon head has six flats,

Caution: When the rapid indexing job has been completed, engage the worm and worm wheel in proper
mesh. Leave the index head set up for plain indexing.

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 Experiment No. 04

Name of the Experiment: Study of Shaping Machine and its various operations in manufacturing
grooves.

Objectives:
i. To know about important part of a Shaper machine.
ii. To know about construction of Shaper machine.
iii. To know about working principle of shaper machine.
iv. To know how to calibrate the distance traveled by the cutting tool, or the stroke of the ram, is the length
used for shaper speed calculations.

Theory:

The Shaping machine, commonly called the Shaper, it is a basic machine tool used in both production and
tool room work. The Shaper can machine a flat surface on a horizontal, vertical or angular plane. Many
types of work may be machined on a shaper, depending upon the tools used and the manner of adjusting
the various parts of the machine.

Principal part of Shaper machine:

1. Table support.
2. Table.
3. Vise.
4. Clapper.
5. Tool post.
6. Clapper box.
7. Tool lifter.
8. Ball crank.
9. Feed screw dial.
10. Tool slide.
11. Graduated head Swivel.
12. Ram.

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 Figure-1: Parts of Shaper machine.
The name of the parts that are shown in the above figure are:

i. Ram positioning shaft

ii. Rail clamp control
iii. Electric clutch and brake lever
iv. Start and stop buttons
v. Power cross feed selector
vi. Oil pressure gage
vii. Ram guard
viii. Gear shifter lever
ix. Back gear selector lever
x. Motor starter
xi. Stroke indicator dial
xii. Stroke adjusting shaft
xiii. Drive motor
xiv. Power rapid traverse lever
xv. Cross feed engagement lever
xvi. Oil sight gage
xvii. Column
xviii. Rail elevating manual control
xix. Cross feed manual control
xx. Cross rail
xxi. Cross feed screw
xxii. Base
xxiii. Apron
xxiv. Elevating screw
xxv. Cross rail chip guard
xxvi. Table support bearing.

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Main parts and their function:

a) Base:

It is a heavy and robust cast iron body. The base supports the column or pillar which supports all the
working parts such as ram, work-table, drive mechanism etc.

b) Column or Pillar:

The column is a ribbed casting of cellular construction. The ram slide ways are provided on the top of the
column while the table slide ways are machined on the front. The crank and slotted link mechanism that
drives the ram is contained within the column. The driving motor, variable speed gear box, levers, handles
and other controls of shaper are also contained in the column.

c) Ram:

Ram is a rigidly braced casting and is located on the top of the column. The ram slides back and forth in
dovetail or square ways to transmit power to the cutter. The starting point and the length of the stroke can
be adjusted using stroke positioning mechanism and the down feed mechanism.

d) Tool head:

It is the device which holds the tool. The tool head slides in a dovetail at the front of the ram by means of
T-bolt sand is fastened to the ram on a circular plate so that it can be rotated for making angular cuts. It
can swivel from 0° to 90° in a vertical plane. The tool head can be raised or lowered by hand feed for
vertical cuts on the work piece by its hand crank for precise depth adjustments.

e) Clapper Box:

The clapper box is needed because the cutter drags over the work on the return stroke. The clapper box is
hinged so that the cutting tool will not dig in. Often this clapper box is automatically raised by mechanical,
air, or hydraulic action.

f) Cross Rail:

The Cross rail is a heavy casting attached to the column at its front on the vertical guide ways. It carries
the horizontal table slide ways. The cross rail can be raised or lowered by means of an elevating screw in
order to compensate for different thicknesses of work.

g) Table:

It is made of cast iron and has box type construction. It holds and supports the work during the operation
and slides along the cross rail to provide feed to the work. T-slots are provided on its top and sides for
securing the work to it. The table is moved left and right, usually by hand, to position the work under the
cutter when setting up. Then, either by hand or more often automatically, the table is moved sideways to
feed the work under the cutter at the end or beginning of each stroke.

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h) Saddle:

The saddle moves up and down (Y axis), usually manually, to set the rough position of the depth of cut.
Final depth can be set by the hand crank on the tool head.

i) Tool holders:

Tool holders are the same as the ones used on at engine lathe, though often larger in size. The cutter is
sharpened with rake and clearance angles similar to lathe tools though the angles are smaller because the
work surface is usually flat. These cutters are fastened into the tool holder.

j) Work holding:

Work holding is frequently done in a vise. The vise is specially designed for use in shapers and has long
ways which allow the jaws to open up to 14" or more, therefore quite large work pieces can be held. The
vise may also have a swivel base so that cuts may be made at an angle. Work that cannot be held in the
vise (due to size or shape) is clamped directly to the shaper table in much the same way as parts are
secured on milling machine tables.

Quick Return Mechanism:

This is the most common type of shaper in which a single point cutting tool is given a reciprocating equal
to the length of the stroke desired while the work is clamped in position on an adjustable table. In
construction, the crank shaper employs a crank mechanism to change circular motion of a large gear called
“bull gear” incorporated in the machine to reciprocating motion of the ram. The bull gear receives power
either from an individual motor or from an overhead line shaft if it is a belt driven shaper. The shaping
machine is used to machine flat metal surfaces. The reciprocating motion of the mechanism inside the
shaping machine can be seen in the diagram. As the disc rotates the top of the machine moves forwards
and backwards, pushing a cutting tool. The cutting tool removes the metal from work which is carefully
bolted down.

Working Principle:
The job is rigidly fixed on the machine table. The single point cutting tool held properly in the tool post is
mounted on a reciprocating ram. The reciprocating motion of the ram is obtained by a quick return motion
mechanism. As the ram reciprocates, the tool cuts the material during its forward stroke. During return,
there is no cutting action and this stroke is called the idle stroke. The forward and return strokes constitute
one operating cycle of the shaper
Operations on Shaper:

Machining horizontal surface:

Set the vice jaws length perpendicular to the ram movement. Hold the job length-wise parallel to the tool
stroke so that maximum stroke of the tool may be utilized. Hold the appropriate tool in tool head. Set the
proper inclination of the tool and depth of cut. Give cross feed to the tool initially by hand till the cut start
and then employ power feed. Repeat the above said procedure.
Page 23 of 50
Machining vertical surface:

The tool is fed downward in vertical cutting so swivel the clapper box from the face of the work to be cut.
The tool is fed downwards by rotating the down feed screw by hand at the end of return stroke. On the
return stroke the tool swings away from the work and gives clearance, which prevents the work from being
scratched. Start cutting from highest point towards the bottom. Repeat the procedure for another cut.

Machining angular surfaces:

Set the swivel head to the required angel for shaping angular faces. The clapper box is to be swung away
from the face to be machined. The tool is to be fed by the slide hand wheel. The apron top is also swiveled
in the direction away from the surface to be machined. Feed the tool during return stroke. Repeat the
procedure to finish the work.

Some unusual work such as slotting operation, pocketing, T-Slot Cutting, Vee – Block Cutting, Grooving,
Spur Gear cutting using straight tooth, etc, can also be done, if needed, by developing and using special
attachments.

Work piece are commonly clamped to the table or held in vise on a shaper. Small quantities normally do
not justify fixtures. Forces are preferably directed against the fixed jaws of a vise for rigidity. A tool
should travel length wish over a surface if possible, in that way fewer strokes are needed and less time is
lost in return strokes.

A common practice is to scribe the outline of a surface along its edges on a work piece and adjust the
shaper tool to the line to machine the desired surface, the tool is adjusted to cut an irregular surface by the
operator manipulating the controls very small tolerances can be held on a shaper if sufficient skill and care
are exercised by the operator this may be the order 0.001 in. or less on dimensions and 0.001 in. in 6 in.
for square-ness and parallelism however, more usual and economical tolerances are 0.003 to 0.005 in. on
dimensions and 0.002 to 0.003 in 6 in. in for square-ness and parallelisms.

Page 24 of 50
 Experiment No. 05

Name of the Experiment: Study of Drilling Machine and its various operations.

Objectives:

iv. To know about different parts of Drilling machines.

v. To know about the functions of the main parts of the Drilling machine.

vi. To know various operations performed by a Drilling machine.

Theory:

The drilling machine is defined as a machine which is used to make a circular hole, a tool used to
drill the holes of different size and other related operations using a drill bit.

In drilling machine holes may be drilled quickly and at a low cost. The hole is generated by the
rotating edge of a cutting tool known as the drill which applies a large force on the work clamped
on the table. As the machine uses vertical pressure to originate a hole it is loosely called a “drill
press”.

Principle of Operations:

A drill press is preferable to a hand drill when the location and orientation of the hole must be
controlled accurately. A drill press is composed of a base that supports a column, the column in
turn supports a table. Work can be supported on the table with a vise or hold down clamps or the
table can be swiveled out of the way to allow tall work to be supported directly on the base.
Height of the table can be adjusted with a table lift crank than locked I place with a table lock.
The column also supports a head containing a motor. The motor turns the spindle at a speed
controlled by a variable speed control dial. The spindle holds a drill chuck to hold the cutting
tools (drill bits, center drills, deburring tools etc.)

Page 25 of 50
 Figure: Drilling Machine

Types of Drilling Machine:

There are various types of drilling machines. Among them the most used ones are:

1. Radial drilling machines: used on large workpieces, spindle mounts on radial arm allowing drilling
operations anywhere along the arm length.
2. Gang–drilling machines: independent columns each with different drilling operation work piece
slide from one column to next

Page 26 of 50
 Radial drilling machines Gang drilling machines

Parts of Drilling Machine:

Following are the main parts of drilling machine:

1. Base

2. Column

3. Table

4. Radial Arm

5. Drill head

6. Spindle speed and Feed mechanism.

Main parts and their function:

a) Base

The base is that part of the machine on which the vertical column is mounted. The base is made of casting.
A base supports the column and worktable with other attachments.

The top of the base is round column section type upright drilling machined and has T-slots on it so that
large workpieces and work holding devices may be set up and bolted to it. The base of the machine may
be mounted on a bench or on the floor.

Page 27 of 50
 b) Column

The Column is the vertical member of the machine which supports the table and the head containing all
the driving mechanism. It is a cylindrical casting mounted vertically at one end of the base and supports
the radial arm, which slides up and down.

An electric motor at the top of the column helps in the vertical adjustment of the arm by rotating a screw
passing through a nut attached to the arm.

c) Table

The table is mounted on the column and is provided with T-slots for clamping the work directly on its
face. A table is round or rectangular in shape.

d) Radial Arm

It is mounted on the column and extends horizontally over the base. It has guideways on which drill head
slides. The radial arm moves around the column.

e) Drill head

It is mounted on the redial arm and drives the drill spindle. In some of the drill machines, the drill head
may be adjusted up or down for accommodating different heights of the work in addition to the table
adjustment.

It encloses all the mechanism for driving the drill at a different speed and feeds. In lighter machines, the
driving motor is mounted at the rear end of the head counterbalancing the weight of the drill spindle.

Spindle speed and feed mechanism

The motor at the top of the drill head drives the horizontal spindle and the motion is transmitted to the drill
head through a group of bevel gears. With another group of gears, different spindle speed and feed are
obtained.

The main advantage of this types of drilling machine is that holes of variable sizes at any point and at any
angles can be drilled on the large-sized workpiece without moving the workpiece.

 Multiple speed of the spindle may be obtained as follows:

 By step cone pulley drive
 By step cone pulley drive with one or more back gears
 gearing

Page 28 of 50
Various operations that can be performed on a Drilling Machine

1. Drilling: In the drilling, we usually, produce a cylindrical hole inside the workpiece and
remove the material inside it. Here, the material is removed by the rotating edge of the cutting
tool. And that rotating edge is called a drill. Drilling does not produce a fine hole. The internal
surface of the hole is usually rough, and the hole is always bigger than the drill size.

2. Boring: Boring is a type of drilling operation in which we increase the diameter of the hole
which was previously produced. Boring is done due to the following reasons:

i. It is implemented for machining the internal surface of the hole which was produced by
the casting process.
ii. For correcting the roundness of the hole.
iii. For finishing the hole correctly and for making it of the required size.

3. Counterboring: In the counterboring, the end of the hole is enlarged cylindrically. A

counterbore works as a tool in the counterboring.

The counterbore consists of cutting edges. These cutting edges may be straight or spiral. The
cutting speed in the counterboring process is usually slow. Typically, this cutting speed is 25%
smaller than that of the speed in the drilling.

4. Reaming: The size of the hole after the drilling process may not be perfect. Most of the time,
its internal surface may not be finished properly.

Reaming is done to obtain the desired size of the hole. Also, the internal surface of the hole gets
appropriately finished with this process. Reamer is used for reaming. Reamer is a multi-point
cutting tool.

The important benefit of the reaming is that it can remove an extremely small amount of metal
approximately 0.375 mm

The spindle speed in reaming is half of that of the drilling process.

5. Countersinking: Countersinking is usually done to make a cone-shaped enlargement at the

end of the hole. The included angle of the conical surface may be º to 90º.

A countersink has multiple cutting edges on its conical surface.

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 Figure: Various types of drilling operations

Assignment:
a) Drill bit is a single point cutting tool or multi point cutting tool?
b) Difference between counter boring and counter sinking

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 Experiment No. 06

Name of the Experiment: Study of Grinding Machine and its various operations.

Objectives:

a. To know about different parts of Grinding machines.

b. To know about the functions of the main parts of the Grinding machine.

c. To know various operations performed by a Grinding machine.

Theory:

Grinding is a metal cutting operation like any other process of machining removing metal in
comparatively smaller volume. The cutting tool used is an abrasive wheel having many numbers
of cutting edges. The machine on which grinding the operation is performed is called a grinding
machine. Grinding is done to obtain very high dimensional accuracy and better appearance. The
accuracy of grinding process is 0.000025mm. The amount of material removed from the work is
very less.

Principle of Operations:

In a grinding machine, there is an electric motor which supplies the motion power to the grinding
wheel with the help of a belt and pulley.

So when we start the electric motor the motor rotates at a certain rpm (150-15000 RPM, it may
change according to the types of grinding machine) with the help of v-belt and cone pulley the
grinding wheel also starts rotating and we perform the operation. A grinding wheel is made with
abrasive grains bonded together. Each grain acts as a cutting tool, removing tiny chips from the
workpiece.

Types of grinding machines

According to the accuracy of the work to be done on a grinding machine, they are classified as
1. Rough grinding machines
2. Precision grinding machines

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Rough grinding machines

The rough grinding machines are used to remove stock with no reference to the accuracy of
results.
Excess metal present on the cast parts and welded joints are removed by rough grinders. The
main types of rough grinders are:

1. Hand grinding machine

2. Bench grinding machine
3. Floor stands grinding machine
4. Flexible shaft grinding machine
5. Swing frame grinding machine
6. Abrasive belt grinding machine

Precision grinding machines

Precision grinders are used to finish parts to very accurate dimensions. The main types of
precision grinders are:

1. Cylindrical grinding machines

2. Internal grinding machines
3. Surface grinding machines
4. Tool and cutter grinding machines
5. Special grinding machines

Surface grinding machine: Surface grinding is the process of producing and finishing flat
surfaces with a grinding machine. With special fixtures, angular and form surfaces can also be
ground. For all types of precision surface grinding, the grinding wheel revolves on a spindle and
the workpiece is brought in contact with the grinding wheel by means of a moving table. There
are four basic types of surface grinders.

There are four different types of surface grinders. They are:

1. Horizontal spindle and reciprocating table type

2. Horizontal spindle and rotary table type

3. Vertical spindle and reciprocating table type

4. Vertical spindle and rotary table type

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Parts of Grinding Machine:

The basic parts of surface grinding machine are:

a) Base
b) Hand Traversing Wheel
c) Cross Slide Handwheel
d) Work Table
e) Column
f) Wheel Head
g) Vertical Feed Hand Wheel
h) Wheel Guard
i) Abrasive Wheel
j) Coolant

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The functioning of above parts are as follows.

a) Base: It acts as a support for the entire assembly and also acts as an absorber of vibrations.

b) Hand Traversing Wheel: This traversing wheel is used to adjust the worktable in a
longitudinal direction i.e. the worktable can be moved in forward and backward direction by
means of Hand Traversing Wheel.

c) Cross Slide Handwheel: This hand wheel is used to adjust the worktable in up and down
direction so that the workpiece is to be placed in exact dimension w.r.t. the Grinding wheel.

d) Work Table: It is the place where the workpiece is to be held properly.

e) Column: It is the vertical column where wheel head, Wheel Guard and Abrasive Wheel are
mounted.

f) Wheel Head: It is the compartment which has to be moved up and down so that the grinding
wheel can touch the workpiece.

g) Vertical Feed Hand Wheel: This hand wheel is used to provide the feed to the wheel head in
a vertical direction which also indicates the depth of cut from the surface of the workpiece.

h) Wheel Guard: It acts as a cover on the grinding wheel to avoid the accidents.

i) Abrasive Wheel: This is the main tool which is used to remove the material from the surface
of the workpiece. It is coated with abrasives and thereby the accuracy obtained is very high.

j) Coolant: The Coolant used in Surface Grinding Process is used to cool the work region so
that heat cannot be dissipated into the workpiece and grinding wheel.

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Grinding Wheels

Grinding wheels are made up of thousands of abrasive grains. Each grain is actually a very small
cutting tool. As the abrasive grains come in con tact with the workpiece, they cut away very
small pieces of the material called chips. These are very similar to the chips produced by a
milling cutter.
The way a grinding wheel performs depends a good deal on how fast the wheel is turning and
how fast the workpiece passes under it. If either the workpiece or the wheel moves too fast, the
abrasive grains get very little chance to do any cutting. In this case, the wheel gives the
impression of being hard. If the workpiece or the wheel moves too slowly the abrasive grains cut
for a longer time. Then the wheel seems to be soft.
The right grinding wheel for a job is one that has:
1. The correct coarseness of abrasive grains.
2. Abrasive grains spaced far enough apart to remove the right amount and kind of chips
and to keep the wheel from clogging.
3. The proper bond to produce the desired smoothness of finish. A perfect grinding wheel
is one that continually sharpens itself. As each abrasive grain becomes dull, it breaks off
from the wheel to expose a new, sharp grain.
Grinding, like all other operations, produces heat. In production grinding, therefore, a continuous
supply of coolant is always used. Cutting fluids are useful in preventing heat formation and in
helping to carry the chips away.

Grinding Conditions

a. Table Speeds: Table speeds may range up to 150 surface feet per minute speed ranges are
used, under 35-sfpm and over 35 sfpm. Machines operating in the latter range are known as
high reciprocation machines.
b. Cross-feed: Feed is determined by the width of the wheel and the finish desired. Cross-feed
should not exceed one-half the wheel face per revolution. The lower the cross-feed for any
given width of wheel face, the greater the depth of cut that can be taken, When producing
extremely high finishes, lower than average cross feeds should be used.
c. Infeed: Infeed or depth of cut is controlled by the amount of metal to be removed, the finish
desired, and the power and rigidity of the grind ing machine. Depth of cut will determine, to
a great extent, the pressures that are built up between wheel and work during the grinding
operation. High working pressure creates heat and can result in distortion of the workpiece
and/or burning. Thin stock requires reduced infeeds and lighter cuts.

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d. Coolants: Surface grinding operations are performed dry or with coolants (Fig. 94-6).
Coolants are used to dissipate the heat generated during the grinding operation (Fig. 94-7A).
Particular attention must be given to the direction and flow of the coolant. The nozzle of the
coolant pipe should be adjusted so that coolant is directed into the contact area between the
wheel and the workpiece.
e. Wheel Speeds: Wheel speeds, for satisfactory operation on machines with table speeds of
approximately 35 sfpm, should range from 4,500 to 5,500 sfpm. Most grinders have a fixed
spindle speed of between 2,000 and 3,000 revolutions per minute (rpm). Wheel speed in
sfpm can be determined using the following formula:

Wheel speed = rpm of spindle X circumference of wheel (in feet).

Grinding machine operations

The process of grinding is the operation of removing excess material from metal parts by a
grinding wheel made of hard abrasives. The following operations are generally performed in a
grinding machine.

1. Cylindrical grinding

2. Taper grinding

3. Gear grinding

4. Thread grinding

1. Cylindrical grinding

Cylindrical grinding is performed by mounting and rotating the work between centres in a
cylindrical grinding machine. The work is fed longitudinally against the rotating grinding wheel
to perform grinding. The upper table of the grinding machine is set at 0° during the operation.

2. Taper grinding

Taper grinding on long workpieces can be done by swivelling the upper table. If the workpiece is
short, the wheelhead may be swivelled to the taper angle. Another method of grinding external
taper is to true the face of the grinding wheel by a diamond tool dresser to the required angle. In
this case, the table and the wheelhead are not swivelled.

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3. Gear grinding

The teeth of gears are ground accurately on gear grinding machines for their shape. Gear
grinding is done by the generating process or by using a form grinding wheel. The generating
process makes use of two saucer shaped grinding wheels. These wheels are used to grind two
faces of successive teeth.

4. Thread grinding

Thread grinding machines are used to grind threads accurately. The grinding wheel itself is
shaped to the thread profile. These formed grinding wheels have one or multi threads on them.

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 Experiment No.-07

Name of the experiment: To prepare a sand mold casting by using a double piece pattern.

Objectives:

1. To study about the properties of moulding sand.

2. To know about different types of pattern.
3. To know about the process of sand casting.

Theory:

Properties of moulding sand:

Moulding sand must possess some properties like permeability, flowability collapsibility,
adhesiveness, cohesiveness or strength and refractoriness. The properties are determined not only
by the chemical composition, but by the amount of clayey matter in the sand, by its moisture
content, and lastly by the shape and size of the silica sand grains.

Porosity: Molten metal always contains a certain amount of dissolved gases, which are evolved
when the metal freezes. Also, the molten metal ,coming in contact with the moist sand, generates
steam or water vapour .If these gases and water vapour evolved by the moulding sand do not find
opportunity to escape completely through the mould they will form gas holes and pores in the
casting. The sand must, therefore, be sufficiently porous to allow the gases or moisture present or
generated with in the moulds to be removed freely. When the moulds are poured. This property
of sand is called porosity or permeability.

Flowability: Flowability of moulding sand refers to its ability to behave like a fluid so that,
when rammed it will flow to all portions of a mould and pack all-round the pattern and take up
the required shape. The sand should respond to different moulding processes. Flowability
increases as clay and water content increases.

Collapsibility: After the molten metal in the mould gets solidified the sand mould must be
collapsible so that free contraction of the metal occurs, and this would naturally avoid the tearing
or cracking of the contracting metal.

Adhesiveness: The sand particles must be capable of adhering to another body, i.e.. they should
cling to the sides of the moulding boxes. It is due to this property that the sand mass can be
successfully held in a moulding box and it does not fall out of the box when it is removed.

Cohesiveness or Strength: This is the ability of sand particles to stick together. Insufficient
strength may lead to a collapse in the mould or its partial destruction during conveying, turning
over or closing. The closing may also be damaged during pouring the molten metal. The strength
of moulding sand must, therefore, be sufficient to permit the mould to be formed to the desired

Page 38 of 50
shape and to retain this shape even after the hot metal is poured in the mould. This property of
sand in its green or moist state is known as green strength. A mould having adequate green
strength will retain its shape and will not distort or collapse even after the pattern is removed
from moulding box. The strength of sand that has been dried or baked is called dry strength .It
must have then strength to withstand erosive forces due to molten metal, and retain its shape.

Refractoriness:-The sand must be capable of withstanding the high temperature of the molten
metal with out fusing. Moulding sands with poor refractoriness may burn on to the casting.
Refractoriness is measure by the sinter point of the sand rather than its melting point.

Foundry tools:

1. Molding Board.
2. Riddle.
3. Wooden Rammer.
4. Shovel.
5. Hand bellow.
6. Gate cutter.
7. Lifter.
8. Slick spoon.
9. Swab.
10. Vent wire.
11. Wooder palmar.
12. Runner.
13. Riser.
14. Wooder pattern.
15. Trowel.
Types of Pattern:
1. Single piece pattern
2. Split pattern
3. Loose piece pattern
4. Gated pattern
5. Match plate pattern
6. Sweep pattern
7. Cope and drag pattern
8. Shell pattern

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 Figure: Sand Casting Process

Molding Procedure:

To illustrate a few fundamentals in molding the following exercise is given:

1. Prepare enough sand to fill the flask when removed.

2. Place drag on molding board, joint side to the board, guide pins pointing downward.
3. Place pattern, large side down, in drag.
4. Riddle ½ in, sand over the pattern.
5. Fill drag with sand and peen all around with bench rammer, keeping at least 2" away from
pattern. Don’t ram over pattern.
6. Refill drag, peen all over, ram again and put off a lower.
7. Strike off excess sand to the level of drag using straight-edge.
8. Vent around and over pattern with vent wire.
9. Roll handfuls of loose sand over mold. Rub bottom board over sand in order to make it bear
evenly. This is absolutely necessary. If the bottom board does not fit snugly against the
sand; the mold will crack.
10. Roll drag over and remove molding board.
11. Place cope on drag, with binges and latches corresponding.
12. Shake parting compound over joint.
13. Flow parting compound off pattern with the billow.
14. Place gate pin 2 in from side of pattern.
15. Riddle ½ in sand over pattern.
16. Refill cope, peen all over, refill again and butt all aver.

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17. Fill cope with sand and peen all around close to flask.
18. Strike off and level with top of cope.
19. Vent over pattern with vent wire.
20. Remove gate pin and cut poring basin into the cope.
21. Remove cope, blow excess parting compound off the drag.
22. Swab around pattern, Rap and draw pattern.
23. Cut gate in drag ½" deep, 1" wide and remove any loose sand from the mold.
24. Put board on outside of cope and lay it down flat, board underneath.
25. Shake blacking on gate and on mold surfaces in cope and drag.
26. Stand cope on its side molding board in place. Remove board and clean pouring basin.
27. Dust blacking in pouring basin.
28. Put cope on drag in its original position.
29. Set mold level on the floor carrying it with bottom plate held firmly in place.
Uncover pouring basin and place suitable weight on cope to hold it down against the lift of the
molten metal.

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 Experiment No 08

Name of the experiment: Study and observation of different molding defects.

Objectives:

4. To study about the reasons of molding defects.

5. To know about various types of molding defects.

Theory:

Casting/Molding defect is an unwanted irregularities that appear in the casting during metal
casting process. There is various reason or sources which is responsible for the defects in the cast
metal. Here in this section we will discuss all the major types of casting defects. Some of the
defects produced may be neglected or tolerated and some are not acceptable, it must be
eliminated for better functioning of the parts.

Reasons for Defects:

Defects may occur due to one or more of the following reasons:

 Fault in design of casting pattern

 Fault in design on mold and core
 Fault in design of gating system and riser
 Improper choice of molding sand
 Improper metal composition
 Inadequate melting temperature and rate of pouring

Casting Defects:

Casting defects are mainly divided in three categories.

1. Major or most severe defects: They result in scrapping of the casting. Metal penetration and
rough surfaces that interfere with machining and finishing operations and casting that fails
either to meet physical requirements or functional requirements are some of the examples of
this class.
2. Intermediate defects: They result in the high cost of repairs, but save castings from scrapping.
3. Minor defects: They permit the castings to be easily and economically repaired.

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Surface Defects:

a. Blow: Blow is relatively large cavity produced by gases which displace molten metal from
convex surface.
b. Scar: Scar is shallow blow generally occurring on a flat surface. A scar covered with a thin
layer of metal is called blister. These are due to improper permeability or venting.
c. Scab: A scab when an up heaved sand gets separated from the mould surface and the molten
metal flows between the displaced sand and the mold.
d. Drop: Drop is an irregularly-shaped projection on the cope surface caused by dropping of
sand.
e. Penetration: Penetration occurs when the molten metal flows between the sand particles in
the mould. These defects are due to inadequate strength of the mold and high temperature of
the molten metal adds on it.

Figure: Surface defects of casting/molding

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Internal Defects:

The internal defects found in the castings are mainly due to trapped gases and dirty metal. Gases
get trapped due to hard ramming or improper venting. These defects also occur when excessive
moisture or excessive gas forming materials are used for mould making.

a. Blow holes: Blow holes are large spherical shaped gas bubbles, while porosity indicates a
large number of uniformly distributed tiny holes.
b. Inclusions: Inclusions are the non-metallic particles in the metal matrix, Lighter
impurities appearing the casting surface are dross.
c. Pin holes: Pin holes are tiny blow holes appearing just below the casting surface.

Figure: Surface defects of casting/molding

Visible Defects:

a. Wash: Wash is a low projection near the gate caused by erosion of sand by the flowing
metal.
b. Rat tail: Rat tail is a long, shallow, angular depression caused by expansion of the sand.
c. Hot tear: Hot tear is the crack in the casting caused by high residual stresses.
d. Shrinkage: Shrinkage is essentially solidification contraction and occurs due to improper use
of Riser.
e. Swell: It is the deformation of vertical mould surface due to hydrostatic pressure caused by
moisture in the sand.
f. Shift: It is due to misalignment of two parts of the mould or incorrect core location.
g. Misrun: Misrun are caused by insufficient superheat provided to the liquid metal.

Page 44 of 50
Figure: Visible defects of casting/molding

Page 45 of 50
 Experiment No.-09

Name of the experiment: Study and Observation of Electric arc welding, Gas welding, Metal
Inert Gas (MIG) welding, and Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) welding.

Objectives:

6. To study about the Electric arc welding.

7. To know about Gas welding.
8. To know about the Metal Inert Gas (MIG) welding.
9. To know about the Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) welding

 Arc welding:

Metallic arc welding uses a metallic electrode of a soft grade of iron, low carbon steel, or other
kinds of filler rod or wire according to the kind of work that is required to be done. The size of
the wire used varies from 1/16 into 3/16 in dia.

The heat of the arc is not only sufficient to melt the end of the electrode, but also fuse the surface
of the work being welded over a small area. The two metals being fused and at the same time
coming into close contact cause complete intermixing. As the supply of heat to the arc is
constant, the deposition of metal from the electrode remains continuous and uniform.

Figure: Arc welding process.

Page 46 of 50
 Figure: Arc welding operation

Characteristics of arc welding:

Metal arc welding consists essentially of localized progressive melting and flowing together of
adjacent edge of base metal parts by means of temperatures approximately 10000ºF of a
sustained electric arc between a metal electrode and the base metal.

Application of arc welding:

The principal advantages derived from the source of arc welding are (1) high quality welds, (2)
great flexibility, (3) rapid deposition rates, and (4) favorable unit welding costs. Some of the
structures built by using arc welding are tank, bridge, boilers etc.

 Gas welding:
Satisfactory oxy gas welding requires that a fuel gas be employed which will produce a high-
temperature concentrated flame when burned in the presence of commercial oxygen. Gas
welding consists of the use of fuel gas flames as a source of heat to raise the temperature of a
metal workpiece to its fusion. The liquid bodies flow together and solidify subsequently to make
the bond.

Definition of gas welding:

Oxyacetylene is fed to blow pipes where they are burned to form sources of intense heat. This is
used to heat and fused the edge of the joint and to melt a filter rod, which is thus deposited in the
molten state at the joint.

Application of oxy-acetylene welding:

Most commercial metals are welded satisfactorily with the oxy-acetylating process. This
probably accounts for its wide acceptance in the dodder industry.

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Characteristics of oxy acetylene flame:

i. Neutral flame: Equal proportion of oxy-acetylene Temperature 5850°F.

ii. Oxidizing flame: Excess of oxygen. Temperatures 6300 °F.

iii. Reducing / carburizing flame: Excess of acetylene temperature 5550°F.

Different types of flame used for welding different materials:

Cast Iron: A neutral flame should be used along with cast iron filler rod of proper size. Flux is
required for proper welding. It contains a mixture of iron oxide carbonate of soda

Aluminum: Neutral flame should be used when welding large aluminum casting. The casting
should be preheated about 600°F. Flux should be required for proper welding steel, stainless
steel and

Counter: Flame should be used when welding large casting copper precept should be required
Flux should be required for proper welding.

Brass: Oxidizing flame should be used including with flux.

Page 48 of 50
TIG (Tungsten Inert Gas) Welding

Characteristics:

(1) This is a welding process in which coalescence is produced by heating with an electric arc
between a metal electrode and the work. Shielding of the arc and the molten metal is obtained
through the use of an inert gas. A tungsten electrode is used because of its high melting point,
and in the presence of the inert gas the electrode is practically no consuming.

(2) Filler metal, if used, is added to the weld in the same manner as in oxyacetylene welding
leaning action that is beneficial when welding aluminum, magnesium, beryllium, copper, and
some alloys containing additions of aluminum or beryllium which form refractory oxides.

(3) With the tungsten inert welding process, welds can be made in all positions, and in practically
all metals, without the use of flux. No significant amount of oxide is formed; therefore, fluxes
are not required.

(4) Either direct current (de) or alternating current (ac) electricity can be used to perform inert
gas arc welding operations, depending on the type metal to be welded. While welding aluminum
with this welding process, the use of alternating current is preferred. The use of alternating
current produces an oxide cleaning action, resulting in a better weld in aluminum. Direct current,
reverse polarity (dcrp) electrode positive, is used for welding these metals in very thin sections.

Figure: TIG (Tungsten Inert Gas) Welding

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MIG (Metal Inert Gas) Welding

Characteristics:

(1) This welding process is relatively new and only recently has been adopted for use by the U.S.
Army in the field. Much use of this welding process will be made in the repair of aluminum hull
tracked vehicles.

(2) Gas metal-arc (MIG) welding is process in which a consumable, bare wire electrode, is fed
into a weld at I controlled rate of speed. A blanket of inert gas (argon, helium, or a mixture of the
two as used in TIG welding) shields the weld zone from contamination. This process produces
high welds without the use of fluxes or the necessity of post cleaning the weld.

(3) The MIG welding unit is designed for manual welding with small diameter wire electrodes
using a spool-on-gun torch as shown in figure on the following page. (There are MIG welding
systems that have the spool located away from the torch gun, but the principle operation is the
same as for the type system discussed here. The complete system consisting of the torch, a
voltage control box, and a welding contactor are shown in figure. The torch handle contains n
complete motor and gear reduction unit that pulls the welding wire electrode from a 4 inch
diameter spool containing one pound of wire electrode; mounted in the rear of the torch.

Three basic sizes of wire electrode may be used: 3/32 inch; 3/64 inch; and 1/16 inch. Any type of
metal may be welded, provided the welding wire electrode is of the same composition as the
base metal.

(4) The unit is designed for use with an ac-dc conventional, constant current type welding power
Supply.

Figure: MIG (Metal Inert Gas) Welding

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