Scand J Med Sci Sports 2011: 21: e247–e259 & 2011 John Wiley & Sons A/S

doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0838.2010.01263.x

Selling androgenic anabolic steroids by the pound: identification and

analysis of popular websites on the Internet
F. G. Cordaro, S. Lombardo, M. Cosentino
Department of Clinical Medicine, Section of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology, University of Insubria, Varese, Italy
Corresponding author: Marco Cosentino, MD PhD, Department of Clinical Medicine, Section of Experimental and Clinical
Pharmacology, University of Insubria, Via Ottorino Rossi n. 9, 21100 Varese VA, Italy. Tel: 139 0332 217410/397410, Fax:
139 0332 217409/397409, E-mail marco.cosentino@uninsubria.it
Accepted for publication 18 October 2010

Internet websites offering androgenic anabolic steroids medicines (69.6%) or as dietary supplements (30.4%).
(AAS) were identified and available products were exam- AAS in medicines were mainly: nandronole (20.4%),
ined. Keywords for the website search were: ‘‘anabolic methandrostenolone (18.4%), and testosterone (12.2%).
steroids,’’ ‘‘anabolic steroids buy,’’ ‘‘anabolic steroid pur- Dietary supplements contained mainly DHEA and included
chase.’’ The first 10 websites offering AAS in the first 10 several fake compounds. Manufacturers were declared for
pages of results were considered. At least two AAS-contain- 97.9% of medicines and 66.7% of dietary supplements;
ing products per website were selected. Thirty AAS-selling however, several manufacturers were not found on the
websites were identified, mainly located in the United States Internet. Described benefits were usually few adverse effects
(46.7%) and Europe (30%). Most websites sold other and no estrogenicity. Toxicity was seldom reported and
anabolic/ergogenic products (clenbuterol, 76.7%; GH/ presented as mild. Recommended doses were two–fourfold
IGF, 60.0%; thyroid hormones, 46.7%; erythropoietin, higher than current medical recommendations. In conclu-
30.0%; insulin, 20.0%) or products for AAS-related ad- sion, misleading information and deceiving practices were
verse effects (mainly: estrogen antagonists, 63.3%; products common findings on AAS-selling websites, indicating their
for erectile dysfunction, 56.7%; 5a-reductase inhibitors, deleterious potential for public health.
33.3%; anti-acne products, 33.3%). AAS were sold as

Androgenic anabolic steroids (AAS) were identified duced adverse effects target several organs and tis-
in the early 1930s; however, the use of extracts from sues, including the cardiovascular system, the liver,
rodent or dog testes endowed with ‘‘puissance dyna- the reproductive system, the bones, breast and hair,
mogénique,’’ according to Brown-Séquard’s defini- skin and vocal cords, and even the central nervous
tion, was already popular at the end of 18th century, system. In particular, the central effects of AAS
in the context of ‘‘organotherapy’’ (Sneader, 2005). include: increased libido in men and women, which
AAS mimic the effects of the male gonadal steroids may be difficult to control, hypomania, heightened
testosterone and dihydrotestosterone, resulting in irritability, increased aggression and hostility, de-
increased muscle growth and strength. As a conse- structive and self-destructive impulses (Kicman,
quence, athletes have been using and abusing AAS 2008). Recently, AAS dependence has been proposed
for decades, a fraudulent practice banned since 1975 as a valid diagnostic entity, and probably a growing
by the International Olympic Committee and subse- public health problem (Brower, 2009; Kanayama et
quently by all major athletic organizations and al., 2009). Indeed, awareness of the risks associated
sporting bodies (Verroken & Mottram, 2005). with AAS abuse led several countries to introduce
Several therapeutic drugs containing AAS are controls on their use and prescription: in the United
available for the treatment of cachexia associated Kingdom, AAS are controlled by the Misuse of
with chronic disease as well as for loss of muscle mass Drugs Act (Royal Pharmaceutical Society of Great
in the elderly; however, their effects on physical Britain, 2010), in Canada they are included in the
function and quality of life are still debated (Kicman, Controlled Drugs and Substances Act (Minister of
2008). On the other side, in sport AAS are well- Justice of Canada, 2010), while the Congress of the
known performance enhancers, and their use occurs United States passed the Anabolic Steroid Control
at supratherapeutic doses, often taking illicit pre- Act in 1990 (updated in 2004) and AAS were soon
parations from the black market, thus leading to an classified as Schedule III substances under the Con-
increased risk of serious adverse effects. AAS-in- trolled Substances Act (U.S. Department of Justice,

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Cordaro et al.
2005). In Italy, as in many other countries, it is illegal (Parkinson & Evans, 2006). Circumstantial evidence
to obtain or sell them without a prescription, and indeed suggests that Internet is possibly the primary
recently nandrolone has been included in the list of means for buying and selling illicit AAS (Govern-
controlled substances in view of its addictive poten- ment Accountability Office, 2005) and a primary
tial (Minister of Health of Italy, 2010). source of non-medical AAS information (Perry
A major reason for concern is that most AAS users et al., 2005).
are not competitive athletes at all, but simply indivi- The present study was therefore devised to identify
duals troubled with their ‘‘body image’’ (Buckley et a representative sample of websites offering AAS on
al., 1988; Kanayama et al., 2001). Such kind of the Internet and to evaluate their characteristics with
‘‘ordinary’’ AAS users rarely seek treatment and particular regard to the types of products available
often distrust and escape physicians, while com- and the kind of information provided. A sample of
monly abusing of two or more AAS and often taking products was also selected and the related claims
huge doses for prolonged periods (reviewed by Ka- were carefully scrutinized.
nayama et al., 2008). The medical and psychiatric
consequences of AAS abuse however usually occur
after long-term use at supraphysiologic doses, there- Methods
fore, because widespread use of AAS began to Internet search
emerge only in about 1980, it is likely that the social The search was conducted by one of us (F. G. C.), who acted
consequences will become increasingly evident in the as a consumer and attempted to purchase AAS on the
next few years, when hundreds of thousands of AAS Internet. The search was performed by use of a personal
users begin to pass the age of 45 (Kanayama et al., computer connected to Internet via ADSL, from August 9 to
September 29, 2009, using Mozilla Firefox ver. 3.0.15 as
2008). Prevention of AAS misuse is therefore of key Internet browser. Google was selected as the search engine
importance and should include, besides random because it accounts for about 65% of Internet searches in the
doping analyses, longer disqualifications of AAS- world (Search Engine Watch Staff, 2009) and for up to 88% in
using athletes, and tougher legislation against posses- Italy (Bonfils, 2010). The keywords used were ‘‘anabolic
sion of AAS, also medical and pedagogic interven- steroids,’’ ‘‘anabolic steroids buy,’’ ‘‘anabolic steroid pur-
chase,’’ and the search was performed in English and in
tions, particularly targeted to adolescents and other Italian.
more vulnerable subjects (Sjöqvist et al., 2008; Grey-
danus & Patel, 2010). To this end, however, physi-
cians and educators must be aware of the attitudes Websites
and beliefs of AAS users, which preferentially derive For each combination of keywords, we identified the first 10
from consultation of friends, of people who sold websites that offered AAS (or products presented as such) in
them AAS, or even in particular in recent times, the first 10 pages of results. We then recorded for each website
specialized Internet sites (Pope et al., 2004). the universal resource locator and the position in the list of
Indeed, despite the increasing regulation, available Google results. Additional information about the websites (IP
locations and addresses, names of domains, registration/crea-
evidence indicates that the world traffic of doping tion/expiration/last update date of domains, registrants/ad-
substances and in particular of AAS is sharply ministrators of websites) was subsequently obtained by the use
increasing, in particular through the Internet (Do- of WhoIs Source (whois.domaintools.com). Website analysis
nati, 2007). Among the various pathways sought by included: website language(s), sold products, drug prescription
drug traffic, the Internet is probably the main world- requirements, need for creation of a personal account and
subsequent login, indication of a minimum/maximum amount
wide channel for easy access to drugs and other of products that could be bought, payment options, and
substances. According to a report focused on pain shipment methods. Finally, an image of the website homepage
relievers, anxyiolitics, and stimulants, 85% of web- was obtained and the date and hour of the last access to the
sites selling controlled drugs did not require buyers website were registered.
to have a prescription (The National Center on
Addiction and Substance Abuse at Columbia Uni-
versity, 2008). Although recently it has been sug- Medicines and other products
gested that the Internet is still a relatively minor At least two AAS-containing products were identified for each
source for illicit purchases of prescription medica- website. Selection was made on the basis of the position,
presentation, and emphasis posed on the products in the
tions by the individual end-users of these drugs websites homepage. Products were classified as either medi-
(Inciardi et al., 2010), a survey in 1955 US-based cines or dietary supplements, according to the presentation in
male non-medical AAS users showed that more than the website.
half of the sample had purchased AAS over the For each product, we recorded: product name and compo-
Internet (Cohen et al., 2007), and in another survey, sition, declared manufacturer, price, claimed properties, pro-
posed benefits and advantages, therapeutic uses,
posted on the message boards of Internet websites recommended doses and duration of treatment, suggestions
popular among AAS users, 470% of the respon- for combined use of other products, and declared side effects.
dents indicated Internet as their drug source An image of the product was also obtained.

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 Androgenic anabolic steroids and the Internet
Declared AAS molecules were searched for on web-based 6.7%), in the Republic of Panama (2, 6.7%), and in
databases for chemical compounds [PubChem (pubchem.nc- Hong Kong (1), Malaysia (1) and Turkey (1).
bi.nlm.nih.gov); reaxis (http://www.reaxys.com), SciFinder All the websites were in English, with the exception
(scifinder.cas.org)] as well as on websites such as PubMed
(http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/pubmed) and Wikipedia of one (website no. 1), which was located in the
(en.wikipedia.org). In some cases, free searches were also United States but was completely in Italian. Only six
performed on specialized websites and forums dedicated to websites (20%) proposed two or more different
bodybuilders. languages (website no. 30, however, proposed up to
12 different languages).
Five of the selected websites (nos. 12, 17, 18, 20,
Statistics 23) revealed an extremely high degree of similarity
The data were summarized using descriptive statistics. with regard to appearance of the homepage, site
organization, sold products, purchase conditions,
and registrants’ data, therefore clearly resembling
copy sites.
Results Each website selling AAS-containing medicines
Websites offered on average 52.4 products (minimum: five;
We identified 30 different websites (Table 1). Most of maximum: 152), while each website selling dietary
them (n 5 19, 63.3%) sold only AAS-containing supplements offered on average nine products (mini-
products presented as medicines, while the remaining mum: one; maximum: 34). The only website selling
(10, 33.3%) sold only dietary supplements, and only both medicines and dietary supplements offered 36
one website sold products presented as either medi- products.
cines or dietary supplements. Nearly half of the Besides AAS, most of the websites sold other
websites (14, 46.7%) were located in the United products, either anabolic/ergogenic or intended for
States, while the remaining websites were hosted in the treatment of AAS-related adverse effects. Avail-
various states in Europe (9, 30%), in Canada (2, able anabolic/ergogenic products were: clenbuterol

Table 1. Websites evaluated for AAS purchase

No. Website name URL Website location Language

1 American Lifestyle http://www.bellezzaedieta.com USA – Colorado I

2 Anabolic Steroid Central http://www.anabolicsteroidscentral.com Malaysia E, G, F
3 Anabolic Steroid Store http://www.anabolicsteroidstore.com USA – Ohio E
4 Anabolic Steroids http://www.anabolicsteroids.com USA – Oregon E
5 AnabolicWeb http://www.anabolicweb.com Republic of Panama E
6 AnaboliczStore http://www.anaboliczstore.com Hong Kong E
7 AnaboliczWorld http://www.anaboliczworld.com Turkey E
8 Bulking-Cutting http://www.bulking-cutting.com USA – Colorado E
9 Buy-Anabolic-Steroids http://www.buy-anabolic-steroids.com USA – Illinois E
10 Buysteroids http://www.buysteroids.com USA – New Jersey E
11 Eurobolic http://www.eurobolic.com Republic of Lithuania E, G, S, I, F
12 FitnessMed http://www.fitnessmed.net Republic of Moldova E
13 GP Roids http://www.gproids.com USA – Illinois E
14 IBuy Steroids http://www.ibuysteroids.com Canada – British Columbia E
15 Juice RX http://www.juicerx.com USA – Arizona E
16 Legal Steroids http://www.legasteroids.com USA – Virginia E
17 Med4Sale http://www.med4sale.net England E
18 MedOutlet http://www.medoutlet.net Republic of Moldova E
19 Megabolix http://www.megabolix.com USA – Texas E
20 NewSteroid http://www.newsteroid.com Russian Federation E
21 Online Legal Steroids http://www.onlinelegalsteroids.com USA – Arizona E
22 Pharmaeurope http://www.pharmaeurope.com Republic of Panama E
23 PharmaSport http://www.pharmasport.org Republic of Moldova E
24 Roid 4U http://www.roid4u.com Czech Republic E, I, F, G, Fi, D
25 Roid-Shop http://www.roid-shop.com Canada – British Columbia E
26 Steroid 1 http://www.steroid1.com USA – Illinois E, F
27 Steroids Shop http://www.steroidshop.net USA – Bahamas E, I, S, F, G, P
28 Steroids4u http://www.steroids4u.net Czech Republic E
29 The Roid Store http://www.roidstore.com USA – New Jersey E
30 Vitanatural.eu http://www.vitanatural.net Germany E, G, S, F, I, Sw, P, D, Po, Fi, Da, No

Sites are listed in alphabetical order, according to the website name.

D, Dutch; Da, Danish; E, English; F, French; Fi, Finnish; G, German; I, Italian; No, Norwegian; P, Portugese; Po, Polish; S, Spanish; Sw, Swedish; AAS,
androgenic anabolic steroids.

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Cordaro et al.
(23 websites, 76.7% of total websites), GH/IGF (18, individual package size, thus avoiding custom in-
60.0%), thyroid hormones (14, 46.7%), erythropoie- spections. Website no. 26 declared that the parcel
tin (nine, 30.0%), and insulin (six, 20.0%). Products would have been labeled as a ‘‘gift,’’ while website
for the treatment of AAS-related adverse effects were no. 9 excluded shipments toward Brazil, China or
estrogen antagonists (19, 63.3%), products for erec- France. Custom inspections and the subsequent
tile dysfunction (17, 56.7%), 5a-reductase inhibitors product seizure/confiscation was mentioned as a
(10, 33.3%), anti-acne products (10, 33.3%), hepa- possible occurrence by most of the websites; how-
toprotectors (seven, 23.3%), human chorionic gona- ever, further shipment was granted only by website
dotropin (six, 20.0%), ‘‘treatments for psychologic no. 29, while refunding was considered only by
disturbances’’ (four, 13.3%), cardiovascular drugs websites nos. 2, 6, 9, and 26 and in any case only
(three, 10.0%), anti-diabetic agents (three, 10.0%), upon presentation of ‘‘proof of product confisca-
antidyslipidemic drugs (two, 6.7%), and ‘‘cancer tion’’ from the purchaser.
treatment’’ (one, 3.3%).
Thirteen websites (43.3%) also proposed ‘‘steroid
cycles’’ or ‘‘stacks’’ (i.e. ready-made associations of Analysis of selected products
AAS with allegedly different androgenic:anabolic We selected a total of 69 AAS-containing products,
ratios, a common practice among AAS users, which 48 (69.6% of total) sold as medicines (Table 2) and
is believed to minimize side effects while increasing the remaining 21 (30.4%) sold as dietary supplements
efficacy). In eight cases, stacks were sold together (Table 3).
with diuretics (spironolactone).
Composition
Purchase and payment AAS in products sold as medicines were always
In all of the selected websites, no prescription was declared, and were: nandronole (10 products,
required for the purchase of AAS-containing pro- 20.4% of total products; in nine cases decanoate
ducts presented as medicines. In two cases (websites and in one phenylpropionate), methandrostenolone
nos. 2 and 11), voluntary presentation of a prescrip- (nine, 18.4%), testosterone (six, 12.2%; in two cases
tion was however the precondition to grant product undecanoate, in two cases as a mix of propionate,
delivery. Most of the websites (19, 63.3%) required phenylpropionate, caproate, isocaproate, and in one,
the creation of a personal account to access products, respectively, enanthate or propionate), oxandrolone
while the remaining websites required personal data (five, 10.2%), methenolone enantate (four, 8.2%),
only during order placement. Only a minority of the stanozolol (four, 8.2%), boldenone undecylenate
websites (seven, 23.3%) indicated minimum/maxi- (three, 6.1%), dromostanolone dipropionate (two,
mum purchase requirements, which were usually 4.1%), methyltestosterone (two, 4.1%), oxymetho-
between US$100 and US$250 (minimum) and lone (two, 4.1%), fluoxymesterone, nandrolone phe-
US$500–US$2500(maximum). Interestingly, in two nylpropionate, and trenbolone acetate (one each).
websites (nos. 9 and 26) the minimum requirement All the declared AAS corresponded to existing
increased from US$250 to US$500for delivery ad- molecules.
dresses with military zip codes of the APO/AE type. AAS in products sold as dietary supplements were
Payment options included credit card (always declared in only 12 out of 21 products (57.1%) and
VISA and/or MasterCard circuits) and money trans- included: DHEA (four products, in three cases in
fer (Western Union or MoneyGram). With money association with other AAS, in two cases as an
transfer, the payee’s name was indicated only after association of different DHEA salts, and in one
order placement and payment (with the only excep- case indicated in the same product as both 3B-
tion of website no. 7, where information about hydroxy-5-androsten-17-one and as androstenolone,
payee’s name was provided in advance). equivocally suggesting the presence of two distinct
Postal delivery was the shipment method used by compounds), 7-keto-DHEA (1), dicyclopentanone
all the websites examined. Only a few websites, (1), and estra-4.9-diene-3,17-dione (1). Other de-
however, clearly specified the kind of postal delivery clared AAS included: 25R spirostan-5A-diol-6-one-
(e.g., by airmail, USPS, DHL or other), and in only 3-one (three products, always in association with
two cases the type of delivery could be selected by the DHEA), methandrostenol (2), cyclostanozol (2), 3-
purchaser. Website no. 2 explicitly accepted delivery undecanodrol (1), prasterone (1), nandeconate (1),
to PO boxes only upon payment by money transfer. and oxantrione (1). None of these compounds could
Several websites reassured about the parcel being be identified as existing molecules, with the partial
completely anonymous and as small as possible. exception of 25R spirostan-5A-diol-6-one-3-one,
Dividing the order in distinct postal packages was which might stand for 5-a, 25R 5-hydroxy-spiro-
usually mentioned as an effective means to reduce stan-3,6-dione (Dawidar et al., 1980), and of praster-

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 Table 2. Main AAS sold on selected websites as medicines

No. Declared AAS Brand name Website Administration Declared manufacturer Price Price/100 mg AAS
route (Euro) (Euro)

1 Boldenone undecylenate Boldabol 200 anabolicweb.com i.m. British Dragon 97.12 4.85
2 Boldenone undecylenate Boldabolic eurobolic.com i.m. Asia Pharma 139.00 6.95
3 Boldenone undecylenate Boldoject 200 steroids4u.com i.m. Eurochem Laboratories 88.00 4.40
4 Dromostanolone dipropionate Dromostan anabolicweb.com i.m. Xelox Pharma 85.91 17.18
5 Dromostanolone dipropionate Methandriol Dipropionate 75 buy-anabolic-steroids.com i.m. British Dragon 136.00 18.10
6 Fluoxymesterone Halotest N60 newsteroid.com os Balkan Pharmaceuticals 209.18 34.86
7 Methandrostenolone Anabol anabolicsteroidcentral.com os British Dispensary 64.00 12.80
8 Methandrostenolone Anabol 10 anaboliczstore.com os British Dispensary 35.86 7.17
9 Methandrostenolone Anabol Tablets steroid1.com os British Dispensary 70.97 1.90
10 Methandrostenolone Danabol DS megabolix.com os Body Research 121.21 2.42
11 methandrostenolone D-Bolic ibuysteroids.com os British Dragon Gear Ltd. 64.99 NA
12 Methandrostenolone Methanabolic eurobolic.com os Asia Pharma 89.00 8.90
13 Methandrostenolone Methandienone Tablets IP steroidshop.net os Genesis Labs 45.00 4.50
14 Methandrostenolone Naposim anaboliczworld.com os Terapia Ranbaxy 29.88 5.97
15 Methenolone enantate Primobolan Depot eurobolic.com i.m. Schering 15.00 15.00
16 Methenolone enantate Primobolan Depot newsteroid.com i.m. Schering 119.53 11.95
17 Methenolone enantate Primobolan Depot steroidshop.net i.m. Schering 17.00 17.00
18 Methenolone enantate Primobolic pharmaeurope.com i.m. Asia Pharma 159.00 15.90
19 Methyltestosterone Methyltestosterone steroids4u.net os ND 11.00 1.10
20 Methyltestosterone Turanabol Tablets roid4u.com os British Dragon Pharmaceuticals 115.00 5.75
21 Nandrolone decanoate Deca 200 anaboliczstore.com i.m. GEN-SHI Laboratories 12.70 6.35
23 Nandrolone decanoate Deca Durabolin anabolicsteroidcentral.com i.m. Norma Hellas 19.00 9.50
24 Nandrolone decanoate Deca Durabolin anaboliczworld.com i.m. Generics Pharm 11.20 5.60
25 Nandrolone decanoate Deca Durabolin pharmaeurope.com i.m. Organon 17.00 8.50

Androgenic anabolic steroids and the Internet

22 Nandrolone decanoate Deca Durabolin steroid1.com i.m. Organon 3.73 NA
26 Nandrolone decanoate Decabolin Depot 100 newsteroid.com i.m. LYKA Pharmaceutical Company 44.07 4.40
27 Nandrolone decanoate Decca 250 ibuysteroids.com os British Dragon Gear Ltd. 73.20 NA
28 Nandrolone decanoate Nandrolone Dacanoate Injection Bp megabolix.com i.m. Genesis 75.31 6.02
29 Nandrolone decanoate Nandrolone Decanoate steroidshop.net i.m. Norma Hellas 16.00 8.00
30 Nandrolone phenylpropionate Duraject buy-anabolic-steroids.com i.m. Eurochem Laboratories 80.00 NA
31 Oxandrolone AnVar 10 ibuysteroids.com os British Dragon Gear Ltd. 65.73 NA
32 Oxandrolone Bonavar anabolicsteroidstore.com os Body Research 50.80 40.64
33 Oxandrolone Bonavar roid4u.com os Body Research 69.00 55.20
34 Oxandrolone Oxanabol Tablets buy-anabolic-steroids.com os British Dragon 135.00 27.00
35 Oxandrolone Oxandrolone LA megabolix.com os LA Pharma 95.71 38.28
36 Oxymetholone Anapolon pharmaeurope.com os Abdi Ibrahim 59.00 5.90
37 Oxymetholone Hemogenin anabolicweb.com os Sanofi Aventis 32.12 6.42
38 Stanozolol Winstrol Depot anabolicsteroidcentral.com i.m. Zambon 21.00 42.00
39 Stanozolol Winstrol Depot anaboliczstore.com i.m. Zambon 12.70 25.40
40 Stanozolol Winstrol Depot steroid1.com i.m. Zambon 35.86 NA
41 Stanozolol Winstrol Tablets anaboliczworld.com os Zambon 17.93 44.80
42 Testosterone (propionate, Omnadren steroids4u.net i.m. Jelfa 9.00 NA
phenylpropionate, caproate,
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isocaproate)
Cordaro et al.

Price/100 mg AAS
one, which might indicate the proprietary name of a
DHEA-containing product (Kocis, 2006). Methan-
drostenol might stand for methandrostenolone; how-

(Euro)
ever, the content declared (230 mg/capsule) would be

1.20
2.25
2.23
2.08
8.96
NA
exceedingly high for this compound.
No information regarding excipients was usually
given either for medicines or for dietary supplements.

45.00
53.79
50.00
89.65
7.00

3.00
(Euro)
Price

Manufacturer
The manufacturers were declared in all but one case
Globalanabolic Company Ltd.
(97.9%) for AAS-containing products sold as med-
icines (Table 2), however, in only 14 cases (66.7%)
Declared manufacturer

for products sold as dietary supplements (Table 3).

Declared manufacturers of medicines were a total of
Body Research
Aburaihan Co.

21; however, those producing three or more of the

selected products were: British Dragon (also men-
Organon

Organon
Organon

tioned as British Dragon Gear Ltd. or British Dra-

gon Pharmaceuticals; seven products, 14.6% of total
products), Organon (five, 10.4%), Body Research
(four, 8.3%), Zambon (four, 8.3%), Asia Pharma
Administration

(three, 6.2%), British Dispensary (three, 6.2%), and

Schering (three, 6.2%). Declared manufacturers of
dietary supplements were a total of five, namely:
route

i.m.

i.m.
i.m.

i.m.
os
os

Oregon Labs (six products, 28.6% of total products),

HI TECH Pharmaceuticals (three, 14.3%), SDI-Labs
(three, 14.3%), AMS (one, 4.8%), and Natrol (one,
anabolicsteroidstore.com

anabolicsteroidstore.com

4.8%).
All the declared manufacturers of medicines ap-
ND, not declared; NA, not available (no information about AAS amount); AAS, androgenic anabolic steroids.

peared to have a dedicated website on the Internet

gproids.com

gproids.com

gproids.com

(data not shown) with the notable exceptions of

roid4u.com

Body Research, Genesis Labs, and Xelox Pharma.

Website

Moreover, British Dispensary (http://www.british

dispensary.com) does not appear to produce AAS,
according to information available on its website.
Similarly, Lyka Pharmaceutical Company resembled
Lyka Labs (http://www.lykalabs.com), a Mumbai
Testosterone Enanthate 250

(India)-based pharmaceutical company not involved

in AAS production. Finally as of July 4, 2010, the
Products are listed in alphabetical order, according to declared AAS.

few information available on the websites of LA

Pharma (laanabolic.com) and of Globalanabolic
Sustanon 250

Company Ltd. (http://www.globalanabolics.com)

Brand name

did not allow to identify the nature and activities of

Tren 100
Testolic
Andriol
Andriol

these two organizations.

As for dietary supplements, only four out of five
declared manufacturers could be traced on the Inter-
net, because the website of Oregon Labs could not be
identified. Further uncertainty also remained for
Testosterone undecanoate
Testosterone undecanoate
Testosterone (propionate,

Testosterone propionate

SDI-Labs, possibly corresponding to http://

Testosterone enanthate
caproate, isocaproate)

www.sdi-labs.com, which however (based on the

Trenbolone acetate
phenylpropionate,

website contents examined on July 4, 2010) resembles

Declared AAS
Table 2. (continued)

more a seller rather than a producer.

Prices
Product prices are shown in Tables 2 and 3. For
products sold as medicines, which usually contained
No.

43

44
45
46
47
48

only one AAS, the price per 100 mg of active

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 Androgenic anabolic steroids and the Internet
Table 3. Main AAS sold on selected websites as dietary supplements

No. Declared AAS Brand name Website Admin. Declared Price

route manufacturer (Euro)

1 3-undecanodrol* Deca Nor 50 legalsteroids.com os SDI-Labs 59.86

2 Cyclostanozol* Winni V bellezzaedieta.com os NS 134.26
3 Cyclostanozol* Winni V legalsteroids.com os SDI-Labs 59.86
4 DHEA DHEA vitanatural.net os Natrol 34.50
5 DHEA (acetate, cypionate, propionate, enanthate); Anavar bellezzaedieta.com os HI TECH Pharmaceuticals 47.73
25R spirostan-5A-diol-6-one-3-onew
6 DHEA (acetate, decanoate); 7-keto-DHEA; Dianabol bellezzaedieta.com os HI TECH Pharmaceuticals 49.22
25R spirostan-5A-diol-6-one-3-onew;
dicyclopentanone
7 DHEA; 25R spirostan-5A-diol-6-one-3-onew; Sustanon 250 vitanatural.net os HI TECH Pharmaceuticals 49.50
prasterone*
8 Estra-4.9-diene-3.17-dione Dienedrone vitanatural.net os AMS 45.00
9 Methandrostenol* D-anabol 25 roidstore.com os NS 63.64
10 methandrostenol* D-Bol legalsteroids.com os SDI-Labs 59.86
11 nandeconate* Deca 200 roidstore.com os NS. 74.88
12 oxantrione* Var 10 roidstore.com os NS 63.64
13 NS D-Bol juicerx.com os NS 49.97
14 NS Deca 500 juicerx.com os NS 63.39
15 NS Dura 50 bulking-cutting.com os Oregon Labs 51.66
16 NS Primo Orals bulking-cutting.com os Oregon Labs 51.66
17 NS Thai 25 bulking-cutting.com os Oregon Labs 58.96
18 NS Thai 25 onlinelegalsteroids.com os Oregon Labs 63.40
19 NS Thai 50 onlinelegalsteroids.com os Oregon Labs 70.86
20 NS Winn V juicerx.com os NS 49.97
21 NS Winstrol V onlinelegalsteroids.com os Oregon Labs 55.94

Products are listed in alphabetical order, according to brand name.

*‘‘fake’’ AAS, see also ‘Results.’
w
Possibly indicates 5a, 25R 5-hydroxy-spirostan-3,6-dione, see also ‘Results.’
NS, not specified; AAS, androgenic anabolic steroids.

compound could be easily estimated (with the only Table 4 also shows recommended doses, which
exceptions of products nos. 11, 22, 27, 30, 31, 40, 42, were reported in nearly all the cases and were usually
43, where the amount of AAS was not clearly differentiated for females and males (with the excep-
indicated). On the contrary, for dietary supplements tions of methyltestosterone, testosterone undecano-
the price per 100 mg of active compound could never ate, and trenbolone acetate). Testosterone esters for
be estimated due to lack of information about the parenteral use were the only AAS explicitly contra-
amount (nine products, nos. 1–4 and 8–12) or even indicated in females. Recommended doses were given
the type of AAS contained (nine products, nos. 13– also for boldenone undecilenate and trenbolone
21), or due to the declared presence of three or more acetate, which are registered for veterinary use
AAS in the same products (three products, nos. 5–7). only. Interestingly, in some cases (oxymetholone
and trenbolone acetate) recommended doses varied
in relation to the ‘‘experience’’ of users. Treatment
duration was never clearly defined (in only three
Claimed properties
cases, the need to refer to physician’s advice was
Expected benefits and advantages and possible ther- mentioned), and information regarding correct ad-
apeutic uses of AAS contained in products sold as ministration by injection was never given, even if
medicines are summarized in Table 4 as presented in most of the products were sold for intramuscular use.
the various websites. Expected benefits were de-
scribed for all the compounds, most frequently: low
Adverse effects
risk or mildness of adverse effects (five out of 14
compounds), no conversion to estrogens or even AAS-related adverse effects were described in a
direct antiestrogenic effects (four compounds), wide minority of cases. Moreover, only a few of the
use and popularity (three compounds). Therapeutic potential effects were mentioned, namely: acne (in
uses were described for only six compounds, were 26 out of 69 products, 37.1%), hydric retention (24,
usually very imprecise and included unregistered or 34.3%), hair loss/baldness (18, 25.7%), hyrsutism
even unsubstantiated uses (e.g., the treatment of (17, 24.3%), gynecomastia (16, 22.8%), inhibition of
larynx cancer). endogenous production of testosterone (16, 22.8%),

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Table 4. Overview of claimed properties, recommended doses and cost of AAS

AAS Benefits and advantages Therapeutic uses Recommended doses

Boldenone Gradual effects; Weight gain promotion after surgery, after Females: 50–100 mg weekly
undecilenate stimulates erythropoiesis; chronic infections, after traumas and in Males: 400–600 mg weekly
veterinary use ‘‘inadequate’’ body weight
Dromostanolone Antiestrogenic effects due to ER ND Females: 50–150 mg weekly
dipropionate antagonism; Males: 400–600 mg weekly
no conversion by aromatase;
recommended before bodybuilding
competitions;
synthetic derivative of DHT
Fluoxymesterone Recommended as an alternative to ND ND
methandienone;
strength-building effects
Methandrostenolone Causes positive nitrogen balance; Pain reduction in osteoporosis; Females: 5–10 mg weekly
recommended in ‘‘bulking’’ phase treatment of larynx cancer through Males: 15–50 mg weekly
induction of increased sensitivity of tumor
cells to radiotherapy;
weight gain promotion after surgery or
after intensive use of corticosteroids
Methenolone Low risk of side effects; not converted Weight gain promotion after surgery, Females: 50–100 mg weekly
enantate to estrogens; chronic infections, traumas and in Males: 100–400 mg weekly
recommended in women ‘‘inadequate’’ body weight
Methyltestosterone One of oldest AAS; ND 30–50 mg daily
strength-building effects
Nandrolone Large popularity; Alleviation of joint-related pain; Females: 50–100 mg weekly
decanoate mild unwanted effects treatment of anemia Males: 200–800 mg weekly
Nandrolone Enters quickly the bloodstream ND 150–600 mg weekly
phenylpropionate
Oxandrolone Few adverse effects; Prevention of osteoporosis in women; Females: 5–60 mg daily
recommended in ‘‘cutting’’ phase; stimulation of somatic growth Males: 15–120 mg daily
recommended in women and in over-40
Oxymetholone Most powerful AAS on the market; ND Females: 25 mg each other
stimulates erythropoiesis day (only for international
level body builders)
Males: 50–200 mg daily
Stanozolol Large popularity; low risk of side ND Females: 5–15 mg daily
effects; recommended in ‘‘cutting’’ Males: 15–50 mg daily
phase; recommended in women
Testosterone (enanthate) ester of testosterone most Treatment of hypogonadism (enanthate) Females: contraindicated
(esters, parenteral used in clinical therapeutics; Males: 250–1000 mg weekly
use) prolonged effects;
recommended in ‘‘bulking’’ phase
Testosterone Absorption through lymphatics; ND 320–400 mg daily
undecanoate no first-pass metabolism;
one of the most recently developed
AAS;
orally effective
Trenbolone acetate Three times more effective than ND 50 mg daily (up to 100 mg
testosterone esters; daily for ‘‘expert users’’)
low risk of side effects;
no conversion by 5-a reductase or
aromatase

Compounds are listed in alphabetical order.

ND, not declared; AAS, androgenic anabolic steroids.

mood disorders (16, 22.8%), androgenic side effects intestinal disorders (four, 5.7%), and increase in
(unspecified) (15, 21.4%), effects on libido (14, body weight (four, 5.7%).
20.0%), hepatotoxicity (13, 18.6%), virilization (12,
17.1%), lowered voice tone (12, 17.1%), clitoris
enlargement (11, 15.7%), blood pressure alterations Discussion
(11, 15.7%), ‘‘oily skin’’ (10, 14.3%), nausea (nine,
12.8%), alteration of platelet aggregation (eight, The present results provide the first systematic evide-
11.4%), menstrual irregularities (six, 8.6%), gastro- nce regarding the characteristics of AAS-containing

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products available on the Internet, their presentation case of delivery addresses with military zip codes
and accessibility as well as the kind of information [and in particular of the APO/AE type, indicating,
provided on the various specialized websites. We will according to the Military Postal Service Agency
hereafter discuss our result in relation to websites (http://hqdainet.army.mil/mpsa/) the geographic lo-
characteristics, product presentation, and additional cation in Europe, Middle East and Africa] raises the
evidence for the occurrence of misleading and frau- issue of AAS use by soldiers, in particular those on
dulent practices. missions in foreign countries and/or in war patrol
(Bahrke & O’Connor, 1990; Khankhanian et al.,
1992; Johnson & Rose, 2006). Indeed, a recent
The websites questionnaire-based study of British military person-
Evaluation of the characteristics of selected websites nel located at the Contingency Operating Base in
suggests that AAS-selling websites tend to specialize Basra (Iraq), reported that 41% admitted a history of
either in medicines-like products or in dietary supple- dietary supplement use, and in particular that 1.4%
ments: of the 30 different websites examined, only admitted current use of AAS (Boos et al., 2010). The
one sold either product. Websites selling medicine- study concludes about evidence for use of AAS being
like products offered on average 452 products, particularly worrying, given both their illegality and
which is more than five times the products offered their well recognized and deleterious health effects.
by dietary supplement-selling websites. The most Further investigation into the specific issue of AAS
prominent difference, however, regarded product use by soldiers therefore deserves additional atten-
presentation: products presented as medicines always tion, also in view of their easy and convenient
included in their description the name of the con- accessibility through the Internet and of present
tained AAS, which was always one per product and circumstantial evidence suggesting specific provisions
corresponded to an existing compound. On the for military place-based purchasers.
contrary, in the majority of cases the AAS com-
pound(s) contained in dietary supplements was not
indicated or – whether indicated – it did not corre- The products
spond to any known compound. Moreover, several Close examination of the presentation of AAS-con-
dietary supplements were presented as containing taining products provides additional reasons of con-
more than one (up to six) different compounds, while cern. Interestingly, mentioned benefits were always
medicine-like products contained more than one presented from the point of view of ‘‘recreational’’
compounds in two cases only (in both cases, a mix users: therapeutic uses were mentioned just in a few
of different testosterone salts). These differences, instances, while specific emphasis was put on the low
together with the overall appearance of the websites, risk for adverse effects and on the absence of estro-
may suggest that medicine-like products and dietary genic effects, likely one of the main concerns of
supplements are targeted to different kinds of users: would-be body builders. This is in line with the
medicines may be oriented to more ‘‘expert’’ and observation that the non-AAS products most fre-
‘‘demanding’’ people, while dietary supplements quently offered on the various websites were estrogen
might imply less informed buyers. antagonists, products for erectile dysfunction, and
In any case, a diffuse lack of transparency and in 5a-reductase inhibitors. Information about benefits
some cases a clear fraudulent attitude could be and therapeutic uses were in general very limited and
identified throughout the majority of the websites, misleading. For instance, methandrostenolone was
as also suggested by the purchase, payment, and even claimed to act as an anticancer agent, possibly
delivery modalities: indeed, none of the websites on the basis of a single published study performed in
required a valid prescription for product purchase, a very particular setting (Bordiushkov et al., 1987).
several websites reassured about anonymous or even It is also remarkable that information about pos-
‘‘masked’’ parcel delivery, and no warranty was sible AAS-related adverse effects was available for at
usually provided against delivery failure (although best one out of three products and usually regarded
the most obvious reason, i.e. custom inspection and only less serious side effects such as acne, hydric
subsequent confiscation, was explicitly mentioned). retention (of potential concern for body builders who
Finally, in the context of website analysis an seek muscle definition), hair loss, hyrsutism, and
additional comment is deserved by the minimum/ gynecomastia, all of which are likely to be of sig-
maximum purchase requirements, since in particular nificant impact on body appearance. Virilization,
the maximum limits (between US$500 and US$2500) lowered voice tone, and clitoris enlargement, the
indirectly suggest that the purchase of large amounts most evident and usually irreversible side effects in
of products is a common occurrence. Moreover, the women, were mentioned in only 15–17% of the
additional specification, contained in two websites, products, even if nearly all the products were ex-
that the minimum purchase requirement doubles in plicitly recommended for use in women (Table 4).

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Cordaro et al.
Nonetheless, indirect evidence for diffuse awareness of the Eurochem Laboratories website contains a
about the risk of virilization could be indirectly warning indicating that ‘‘http://www.eurochemlabs.-
found e.g. in the observation that spironolactone, a com is the only official site of EuroChem Labs. You
potassium-sparing diuretic with antiandrogenic can find similar sites with the same content ((http://
acitvity (see e.g. Swiglo et al., 2008), was usually www.eurochemlabs.eu), but they do not have any
included in particular in the so-called ‘‘steroid cy- connection with us. We don’t know who makes these
cles’’ or ‘‘stacks’’ proposed on nearly half of the sites and goals they want to achieve. We only know
examined websites. Hepatotoxicity and mood distur- for sure that you cannot trust them’’ (http://
bances were the most serious side effects described, www.eurochemlabs.com/, accessed on July 18,
and were mentioned in about one in five products. In 2010), thus suggesting that several counterfeit pro-
any case, no detailed information was given regard- ducts illegally using the brand may be available on
ing the possible occurrence of hepatic cholestasis or the market. A similar warning can be found on the
of liver tumors or of hypomania, destructive/self- website of British Dragon, saying: ‘‘http://www.bri-
destructive impulses, or serious depression upon tishdragon.com is the only official domain of British
withdrawal (Kicman, 2008). Moreover, the risk of Dragon. All other domains that seem to be asso-
thrombotic events was usually described as ‘‘altera- ciated with British Dragon present counterfeit pro-
tion of platelet aggregation’’ (thus resulting of diffi- ducts. The quality of these products is not
cult comprehension for lay people) and the possible guaranteed by British Dragon and they are potently
occurrence of myocardial infarction, cardiac da- hazardous to your health. British Dragon takes no
mage, or sudden cardiac death was never mentioned. liability for use of products that cannot be verified as
This is of further concern in view of the availability authentic British Dragon product’’ (http://www.bri-
on these same AAS-selling websites of several other tishdragon.com, accessed on July 18, 2010). British
non AAS anabolic/ergogenic agents, such as growth Dragon was mentioned on the various AAS-selling
hormone and insulin, which are known to potentiate websites even as British Dragon Gear Ltd. or as
AAS-induced heart disease (Kicman, 2008). British Dragon Pharmaceuticals. Interestingly, an
Additional concern arises considering recom- additional warning was found on British Dragon
mended doses, which are by far larger than those website, dated Tuesday, May 26, 2009 and saying:
indicated for therapeutic purposes (Table 4). For ‘‘We receive countless email inquiries whether the
instance, therapy with nandrolone is recommended British Dragon Product purchased is a legitimate
at 25–100 mg every 3–4 weeks, and up to 50–200 mg British Dragon product, with some people even
weekly (Martindale, 2007), while on the various adding pictures of the received product. Everybody
AAS-selling websites nandrolone, which was the should be aware that British Dragon has not manu-
AAS most frequently contained in available pro- factured any products in years and at the moment
ducts, was recommended at doses up to 600–800 mg there are none legitimate British Dragon products
weekly. Interestingly, recommended doses were pro- available anywhere. New products were not yet made
vided also for boldenone undecilenate and for tren- and our best estimate at the moment is September or
bolone acetate, which are approved for veterinary October. In regards to old batches please understand
use only (Martindale, 2007). It is therefore evident that they were made 5 or more years ago, and expiry
that doses are recommended in the absence of any period of our products is not more than 3 Years. So
rational evidence of safety in humans and are there- please understand that all products currently offered
fore at a even higher risk of inducing serious adverse on the market are 100% counterfeits, regardless of
effects (which, however, are described in a very the source’’ (http://www.britishdragon.com, accessed
incomplete and misleading fashion, as previously on July 18, 2010).
discussed). A different example is represented by LA Pharma
Additional understanding of the uses and occur- (laanabolic.com), which has a website, but is not
rences in the world of AAS-containing products sold mentioned in the FDA website and specific pages
on the web is provided by in-depth examination of such as ‘‘Authenticity of products’’ are still under
data regarding product manufacturers. Although construction (http://laanabolic.com/authen.htm, ac-
product manufacturers were declared in all but one cessed on July 18, 2010). Interestingly, on the FAQs
case for AAS-containing-products sold as medicines page (http://laanabolic.com/faqs.htm, accessed on
and in about two out of three dietary supplements, of July 18, 2010) it is said that ‘‘the LA Pharma website
course this does not imply by any means that the is established with the purpose of general product
declared brands are the actual product makers. information display only’’ and also that ‘‘all raw
Moreover, in several cases the declared manufac- materials and finished goods were under the quality
turers could not be unequivocally traced on the control in Italy.’’ The latter claim in particular is
Internet. Closer examination of few examples may generic and lacks any additional specification, possi-
provide useful insights. For instance, the home page bly suggesting that it is intended to present the

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 Androgenic anabolic steroids and the Internet
products as accountable and trustworthy, however websites, and specific studies are therefore war-
without any substantial supporting element. Accord- ranted.
ing to DomainTools, for LaAnabolic.com the Inter- The use of false brand names and/or fake com-
net Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers pounds as well as the development of misleading or
(ICANN) is Onlinenic.com, an organization which even frankly illicit websites, possibly coupled at least
provides hosting services, and it was therefore im- in some cases with e-mail spamming, seem therefore
possible to retrieve additional information. common occurrences in the world of AAS products
A comment is also deserved by Globalanabolic sold on the Internet. It should be also mentioned that
Company Ltd. (http://www.globalanabolics.com). an additional source of information on the web
For this website, the ICANN registrant is Xin Net about such fraudulent practices is represented by
Technology Corporation, a registrar in People’s specialized Internet forums: indeed, by reading avail-
Republic of China, which, according to a web page able discussions on websistes such as http://www.uk
retrieved in the Google cache, went into liquidation muscle.co.uk, http://www.wannabebig.com, anabo-
in 2006 (in agreement with this news, the correspond- licminds.com, http://www.ironmagazineforums.com,
ing website http://www.xinnet.com is presently on http://www.elitefitness.com, http://www.anasci.com,
sale). According to a document retrieved on Internet, etc. we collected a surprising amount of detailed
Xin Net in 2007 has ‘‘hosted over 18 000 illicit information regarding counterfeit products and mis-
domains, advertised in over 1.7 million unsolicited leading websites. Formal analysis of such informa-
emails, and corrected exactly none of the 11 000 sites tion would deserve an additional study, which could
reported to ICANN by KnujOn. Even better, many also target the psychological profile of forum users,
of the illicit sites are fake pharmacies, and they are and was in any case well beyond our present pur-
still active. And better than that, these sites were all poses. Nonetheless, the usefulness of such forums as
registered by a handful of customers’’ (Heller, 2008). an additional source of information and for the
comprehension of the complex world of AAS users
must not be underestimated.
Additional evidence for misleading and
fraudulent practices
According to our findings, several declared AAS (in Conclusions
particular those contained in dietary supplements)
were just deceiving or fake names, e.g. 3-undecano- We provided a systematic analysis of AAS-selling
drol (in some way resembling nandrolone decano- websites and of the characteristics of sold products.
ate), cyclostanozol (stanozolol), nandeconate (again, Results document the widespread occurrence of mis-
nandrolone decanoate), oxantrione (oxandrolone). leading and deceiving practices as well as the lack of
Prasterone resembles the proprietary name of a transparency and accountability for most of the
DHEA-containing medicinal (Kocis, 2006), another websites. Specific reasons for concern regarding
possible strategy to deceive purchasers. Another AAS-containing products include misleading infor-
indirect evidence, in particular for AAS-containing mation about expected benefits and risks as well as
products sold as medicines, that they might not about recommended uses and doses. Marketing of
necessarily contain the compound and/or the amount counterfeit products seems also a common occur-
declared comes from comparison of selling prices rence. The results of the present study emphasize the
with those of corresponding medicines. For instance, deleterious potential of AAS-selling websites for
nandrolone decanoate-containing medicines are sold public health and provide the basis for direct inter-
in Italy at prices between 33.80 and 49.60 euros/ ventions aimed at repressing the phenomenon of
100 mg (CODIFA, http://www.codifa.it), while on illegal AAS purchasing and for educational and
the web prices were 4.40–9.50 euros/100 mg (Table preventive programs specifically targeted toward at-
2). Assessment of the actual AAS content in products risk categories (Chantal et al., 2009). In particular,
sold over the Internet was well beyond the purposes both physicians and educators should be aware of the
of the present study; however as the presence of kind of information that is provided to AAS users by
products undeclared (and in particular of AAS) is a AAS-selling websites, and to consider those issues
well-documented occurrence in particular in dietary when providing pedagogic interventions to their
supplements (see e.g. Baume et al., 2006 and Geyer et patients. This should help defining effective strategies
al., 2004), it is also likely that the content of AAS in to override the common mistrust of AAS users
the products examined in the present study does not toward professional information and education
correspond to the information provided on the (Pope et al., 2004). Knowledge of misleading and
websites: indirect support comes from the relatively fraudulent practices adopted by such websites will be
low selling prices as well as from the overall mislead- of additional benefit for effective educational inter-
ing and fraudulent attitudes identified in several ventions. Authorities as well should consider this

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Cordaro et al.
kind of practices when planning both strengthening ventions aimed at repressing the phenomenon of
of laws as well as preventive and repressive interven- illegal AAS purchasing and for educational and
tions against illegal use of AAS. In view of the rapid preventive programs specifically targeted toward at-
and continuous development of Internet and of its risk categories.
profound influence on culture and society, further
studies are strongly needed to assess the multiple Key words: androgenic anabolic steroids, Internet,
implications of medicine information and purchasing websites, purchase.
over the web.

Perspectives Acknowledgements
The world traffic of doping substances and in parti- This study was presented by FGC as final thesis for the
cular of AAS is sharply increasing and the Internet is attainment of the 3-year Degree in Motorial Sciences at the
the main worldwide channel for easy access to drugs Faculty of Medicine, University of Insubria, academic year
2008/2009. SL is developing a research program on medicines
and other substances. AAS-selling websites represent and Internet as part of her work for the PhD Course in
a threat to public health; however, no studies so far Clinical and Experimental Pharmacology, University of Insu-
examined their contents and characteristics. This is bria (XXV Cycle). The Authors wish to express their grate-
the first systematic analysis of AAS-selling websites fulness to Prof. Umberto Piarulli, Department of Chemical
and of the characteristics of sold products. The and Environmental Sciences, University of Insubria, for his
expert supervision of medicinal chemistry issues and Prof.
results of the present study clearly document the Alberto Passi, President of the 3-year Course in Motorial
deleterious potential of AAS-selling websites for Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Insubria, for his
public health and provide the basis for direct inter- support. No funding was received for this work.

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