Chemistry

Lecture 1

The structure of the atom.

Periodic system of chemical elements.

1. The first structural models of the atom

Discovery of subatomic particles. In 1897, John Thomson (England)

discovered the electron, and in 1909, R. Millikan (USA) determined its charge
(1.6 ∙ 10–19 C (coulombs)). The mass of the electron is 9.1 ∙ 10–28 g.
In 1910, in the laboratory of E. Rutherford (England) in the experiment of
bombardment of metal foil with α-particles, it was found that several α-particles
are reflected from the foil. From this, E. Rutherford came to the conclusion that in
the center of the atom there is a small positively charged nucleus surrounded by
electrons. The existence of a positively charged nucleus in the atom was confirmed
in later experiments. The radius of the nucleus is 10 -15–10–14 m, which is 104–105
times smaller than the size of the atom.
E. Rutherford predicted the existence of a proton and its mass (1840 times the
mass of an electron).
Atomic nucleus. According to the proton-neutron theory put forward by
Russian scientists D.Ivanenko and E.Gapon, as well as German scientist
V.Heisenberg, the atomic nucleus consists of protons and neutrons called nucleons.
A proton (p) is a particle with a mass of 1.672 ∙ 10–27 kg and a positive charge
of 1.6 ∙ 10–19 C. A neutron (n) is an uncharged particle with a mass of 1.674 · 10–27
kg.
The charge of the nucleus is equal to the number of protons Z (the sequence
number of a chemical element in the periodic table). It is displayed in the lower
left part of the element icon. The sum of the protons (Z) and neutrons (N) in the
nucleus of an atom is called the mass number (A): A = Z + N. The mass number is
usually shown in the upper left part of the element's symbol. The notation 12C
indicates a carbon atom with a mass number of 12.
The mass of a nucleus is always less than the sum of the masses of the
nucleons entering that nucleus. The difference between the mass of the nucleons
and the mass of the nucleus is called the mass defect. For example, the mass of a
helium atom is 4.0015 amu(atomic mass unit). The masses of two protons and two
neutrons at the same time are 4.0319 amu. Correspondingly, the mass defect is
4.0319 - 4.0015 = 0.0304 amu. The mass defect determines the durability of the
atomic nucleus and the binding energy of the nucleons in the nucleus. It

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corresponds to the energy released from protons and neutrons during the formation
of the nucleus and can be calculated by Einstein's equation:

E = mc2

where E – energy, m – mass, c is the speed of light.

According to this equation, when a helium nucleus is formed from two
protons and two neutrons, the mass decrease of 0.0304 amu corresponds to an
energy dissipation of 4.52·10–12 J(joule) or 2.72 ∙ 109 kJ for 1 mole of helium
nucleus. Accordingly, the average binding energy per mole of nucleon in a helium
nucleus is 6.8 ∙ 10 8 kJ, which is millions of times higher than the binding energy
between atoms in the molecule.
In recent decades, it has been established that nucleons are made up of
elementary particles called quarks. There are currently 18 types of quarks.
Isotopes. There are nuclei with the same number of protons but different
masses, that is, different neutrons. Atoms that have the same charge but different
neutron numbers are called isotopes. Symbols of carbon are indicated by the
symbols 126𝐶 and 136𝐶. Most chemical elements consist of a set of isotopes. For
example, natural oxygen consists of the isotopes 168𝑂 (99.76%), 178𝑂 (0.04%) and
18 35 37
8𝑂 (0.2%), while natural chlorine consists of the isotopes 17𝐶𝑙 (75.53%) and 17𝐶𝑙
(24.47%). The presence of several isotopes of elements is the main reason for the
fractional number of relative atomic masses of elements. The elements with the
most isotopes (6-10) are the elements with a nuclear charge of 40 to 56. These
elements are located in the center of the periodic table. In this case, the number of
stable isotopes is less than the number of unstable, i.e. radioactive isotopes.
Starting with element 84 (polonium), the elements consist of only unstable
isotopes.
Isotopes with a sequence number greater than 92 are so unstable that all heavy
elements, starting with neptunium (Z = 93), are obtained artificially.
Isotopes of the same element have the same nuclear charge and, accordingly,
the same electronic structure and practically the same chemical properties. In this
case, the exception is isotopes of light elements with significantly different atomic
masses. Significant differences are observed in the chemical properties of such
isotopes and their compounds. Examples of these isotopes are 11𝐻 (protium), 21𝐻
(deuterium, D), and 31𝐻 (tritium, T).
Rutherford's model of atom structure. In 1910, E. Rutherford proposed a
planetary model of the atom. Similar to the planets in the solar system, according
to this model, the atom consists of a heavy nucleus and electrons moving in orbits
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around it. However, the theory of the electromagnetic field shows that in this case,
the electrons must move in a spiral, radiating continuous energy and falling on the
nucleus.
Atomic spectra. The substance emits radiation when heated (radiation). If a
beam has one wavelength, it is called a monochromatic beam. In most cases,
radiation is characterized by several wavelengths. When radiation is broken down
into monochromatic components, the radiation spectrum is obtained, the individual
components of which are expressed by spectral lines. Figure 1 shows the spectrum
of electromagnetic radiation.

Figure 1. Spectrum of electromagnetic radiation

The spectra obtained by irradiating free or weakly bonded atoms (for

example, in gases or vapors) are called atomic spectra. Figure 2 shows the atomic
spectrum of hydrogen.

Figure 2. Atomic spectrum of hydrogen

The wavelength corresponding to the atomic spectrum of hydrogen is

determined by the Balmer equation:

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where, λ is the wavelength; R - Rydberg constant (109673 cm– 1); n, m are

integers (for the Lyman series n = 1; for the Balmer series n = 2; for the Paschen
series n = 3; for the Lyman series m = 2, 3, 4; for the Balmer series m = 3, 4, 5; for
the Paschen series m = 4, 5, 6).
Quanta and Bohr model of atomic structure. In 1900, M. Planck
(Germany) hypothesized that the absorption of matter is absorbed and irradiated by
discrete particles called quanta.
The energy of a quantum (E) is directly proportional to the frequency of
radiation (ν):
E = hν

where, h is the Planck constant (6.626 ∙ 10–34 J ∙ s (joule seconds)); ν = c/λ (c -

speed of light; λ - wavelength).
In 1913, the Danish scientist Niels Bohr proposed a model of the structure of
the hydrogen atom using the Rutherford model and Planck's theory. According to
this model, the electron moves around the nucleus only in orbits with a certain
energy. As electrons move from one orbit to another, the atom absorbs or radiates
energy in the form of quanta. Each orbit has a number (n = 1, 2, 3, 4, ...) and is
called a principal quantum number. Bohr calculated the radius of the orbits.
The radius of the first orbit is 5.29 ∙ 10–11 m, the radius (rn) of the other orbits
is defined as follows:
rn = 5.29 ∙ 10–11n2

The energy of an electron (eV) depends on the value of the principal quantum
number (1 eV = 1.6 ∙ 10–19 J. For one mole of particle 1 eV = 96.5 kJ / mol):
𝑙
En = –13.6
𝑛2

A negative energy value indicates the sustainability of the system. The lower
the energy of the system, the more sustainable it will be. The hydrogen atom has
the lowest energy when the electron is in the first orbit (n = 1) and is called a
ground state. When the electron moves to higher orbits, the atom becomes excited.
This state of the atom is unsustainable. As it passes from the upper orbit to the
lower orbit, the atom emits a quantum of light, and this is determined
experimentally in the form of a series of atomic spectra. The quantities n and m in

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the Balmer equation correspond to

the principal quantum number in the
transition of an electron from one
orbit (m) to another orbit (n).
Bohr's theory allows us to
calculate the energy of an electron,
the value of the quantum of energy
radiated during the transition of an
electron from one level to another.
Boron's theory has been
experimentally proven, but it cannot
explain the motion of an electron in a
magnetic field and all the spectral
lines of an atom. Boron theory is not
acceptable for multielectron atoms.

Figure 3. Scheme of energy levels and

quantum transitions in a hydrogen atom

2. The quantum mechanical model of the hydrogen atom

Basic equations and principles. In 1905, Einstein predicted that any

radiation would consist of a stream of energy quanta called photons. It follows
from Einstein's theory that light has a dual (wave-particle) nature.
In 1924, Louis de Broglie (France) hypothesized that electrons were also
characterized by wave-particle duality. This idea was later proved by electron
diffraction experiments in crystals.
L. de Broglie proposed an equation showing the relationship between the
wavelength of an electron or any other particle and its mass and velocity:

L. de Broglie called the wave of matter particles as material waves. It is

specific to all particles and objects. However, the wavelength for macro objects is
so small that it cannot be determined at this time. For example, for an object of

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1000 kg mass, moving at a speed of 108 km/h (30 m/s), the wavelength is
2.21 ∙ 10–38 m.
In 1927, Werner Heisenberg (Germany) proposed the principle of uncertainty.
According to this principle, it is not possible to determine the location and
momentum of subatomic particles (microparticles) at any time with absolute
accuracy. Only one of these properties can be assigned at any time. In 1926, Ervin
Schrödinger (Austria) gave an equation describing the motion of an electron in an
atom. The work of M. Planck, A. Einstein, N. Bohr, L. de Broglie, V. Heisenberg,
as well as the wave equation proposed by E. Schrödinger laid the foundation for
quantum mechanics, which studies the state, motion and interactions of electrons in
the atom.
Orbital. According to quantum mechanical concepts, it is impossible to
determine the exact position and energy of an electron. Therefore, a quantum
mechanical model of the atom uses a probabilistic approach to characterize the
state of the electron. The probability of an electron being present in a certain region
of space is written by the wave function (ψ). The wave function characterizes the
dependence of the wave amplitude on the coordinate of the electron. In the
simplest case, this function depends on three spatial coordinates and is called an
orbital.
According to the wave function, the orbital is the area where the electron is
most likely to be in space around the nucleus. It should be noted that the concept of
"orbital" differs significantly from the concept of "orbit" in Bohr's theory, which
shows the path of the electron around the nucleus. The area occupied by an orbital
in space means that the electron has a probability of at least 95% within this
region.
An electron has a negative charge, so its orbital is called an electron cloud,
which characterizes a certain distribution of charge. The result of the solution of
the Schrödinger equation for a hydrogen atom is three quantum numbers that
characterize the motion of an electron in an atom: the principal, orbital (angular,
azimuthal) and magnetic. These quantum numbers characterize the state of the
electrons of any atom in the periodic table of elements.
Quantum numbers. Quantum numbers describes the motion of an electron in
an atom: principal (energy), orbital (angular), magnetic, and spin quantum
numbers.
The principal quantum number (n) determines the size and energy of the
electron orbitals. The principal quantum numbers take values 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ...,
characterize energy layers or energy levels. The greater the value of n, the greater

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the energy. Energy layers are denoted by letters: K (n=1), L (n=2), M (n=3), N
(n=4), O (n=5). The transition of an electron from one layer to another is
accompanied by the separation of energy quanta and manifests itself in the form of
spectral lines.
The orbital quantum number (l) determines the shape of the atomic orbitals.
The electron shells consist of subshells, so the orbital quantum number also
characterizes the energy subshells of electron shells of an atom.
The orbital quantum number takes integer values from 0 to (n-1). Subshells
are indicated by letters:
Subshells ................................................. s, p, d, f
Orbital quantum number, l ...................... 0 1 2 3

Electrons with orbital quantum number l = 0 are called s-electrons. The orbit
of s-electrons and the electron cloud are spherical.
Electrons with orbital quantum number l = 1 are called p-electrons. The
orbital of the s-electrons and the electron cloud are dumbbell-shaped.
Electrons with orbital quantum number l = 2 are called d-electrons. The
orbitals of d-electrons are more complex than those of p-electrons.
Electrons with orbital quantum number l = 3 are called f-electrons. The
orbitals of f-electrons are more complex than those of d-electrons.
In the same layer, the energy of the subshells increases in the following order:
Es <Ep <Ed <Ef.

Figure 3. The shape of s- and p-electron clouds

One s-subshell in the first shell (n = 1), two (s- and p-subshells) in the second
shell (n = 2), three (s-, p- and d-subshells) in the third shell (n = 3), the fourth the
layer (n = 4) can have four (s-, p-, d- and f-subshells) subshells.
The magnetic quantum number (ml) characterizes the direction of orbitals in
space. The magnetic quantum takes integer values from –l to + l, including zero.
For example, for l = 3, magnetic quantum numbers take the values -3, -2, -1, 0, +1,
+2, +3. That is, there are 7 orbitals in this subshell.

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Correspondingly, one orbital (ml = 0) at the s subshell (l = 0), three orbitals

(ml = –1, 0, +1) at the p subshell (l = 1), and five orbitals at the d subshell (l = 2)
(ml = –2, –1, 0, +1, +2) are available.

Atomic orbital. Each electron

orbital in an atom can be
characterized by three quantum
numbers (n, l, ml). The number of
atomic orbitals in the shell is
calculated in n2 (Table 1). The atomic
orbital is conventionally represented
as a cell . It has one atomic orbital at
the s-subshell , three atomic orbitals
at the p-subshell , five atomic
orbitals at the d-subshell , and
seven atomic orbitals at the f-subshell Figure 4. Scheme of relative arrangement of
. energy subshells in multi-electron atoms
Spin quantum number (ms). The study of atomic spectra has shown that three
quantum numbers are not enough to describe the properties of electrons. Each
electron is characterized by its own mechanical moment of motion called a spin.
The spin quantum number is only +1/2 and -1/2. The positive and negative value
of a spin depends on its direction. Electrons of different spins are usually indicated
by opposite arrows ↑↓.

Table 1. Quantum numbers of electron shells (n = 1–4)

Shell Subshell Atomic orbital
Number Total number
n Sign l Sign ml of atomic of atomic
orbitals orbitals
1 K 0 s 0 1 1
0 s 0 1
2 L 4
1 p –1, 0, +1 3
0 s 0 1
3 M 1 p –1, 0, +1 3 9
2 d –2, –1, 0, +1, +2 5
0 s 0 1
1 p –1, 0, +1 3
4 N 2 d –2, –1, 0, +1, +2 5 16
3 f –3, –2, –1, 0, +1, +2, +3 7

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Thus, the state of an electron in an atom is fully characterized by four

quantum numbers: n, l, ml, and ms.

3. The structure of multi-electron atoms

Electron configuration of atoms. The recording of the distribution of

electrons in an atom in shells, subshells, and orbitals is called the electronic
configuration of the element atom. Usually the electron configuration is written for
the ground state of the atom. If one or more electrons are in the excited state, then
the electron configuration will characterize the excited state of the atom. When
writing the electronic configuration, the numbers indicate the principle quantum
number (n), the Latin letters the subshells (s, p, d or f), and the number of electrons
in the subshell given in the upper index. For example, for the hydrogen atom - 1s1,
lithium - 1s22s1, boron - 1s22s22p1, magnesium - 1s22s22p63s2, titanium -
1s22s22p63s23p63d24s2.
The design of the electronic configuration in multi-electron atoms takes into
account the principle of minimum energy, the Pauli principle, the Hund’s rule and
the Kletchkovski rule.
Minimum energy principle. According to this principle, in the ground state
of an atom, electrons fill atomic orbitals of the lowest available energy levels
before occupying higher levels. First, the minimum energy orbitals are filled. In
multi-electron atoms, electrons are not only attracted by the nucleus, but also repel
each other.
Kletchkovski rule. The increase in energy and, accordingly, the filling of the
orbitals (n + l) occurs in ascending order of the sum of the quantum numbers, and
when the sum of n + l is equal, in ascending order of n. According to these rules,
the order of filling of the subshells in the order of increasing energy is as follows
(see Figure 4).
1s<2s<2p<3s<3p<4s≈3d<4p<5s≈4d<5p<6s≈5d≈4f<6p<7s≈5f≈6d˂7p
Full and half-full d- and f-subshells are exceptions. An electron jump is
observed in these elements. For example, Cu, Ag, Cr, Mo, Pd, Pt.
Pauli principle. In 1925, Wolfgang Pauli put forward the exclusion principle.
It states that an atom cannot have two electrons with the same quantum numbers
(n, l, ml, ms). It can be concluded that there can be no more than two electrons in
one orbit. These electrons must have the opposite spin, that is, they are allowed to
fill an orbital in the form of , and they are forbidden to fill in the forms of
and .
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Hund’s rule. According to this rule, in the ground state of an atom, every
orbital in a subshell is singly occupied with one electron before any one orbital is
doubly occupied, and all electrons in singly occupied orbitals have the same spin.
For example, in the nitrogen molecule, electrons at the 2p3 subshell occur ,
in the single oxygen atom (2p4) the p-orbital is filled with a second electron:

4. The periodic table of the chemical elements.

The electronic structure of atoms.

In 1869, D.I. Mendeleev reported on the discovery of the Periodic Law. At

present, this law is expressed as follows: the shape and properties of chemical
elements, as well as their compounds, depend periodically on the charge of the
nucleus of atoms.
The visual expression of the periodic law is the periodic system. There are
many types of periodic table options available today. The most commonly used are
short-period and large-period tables.
Let us consider the relationship between the location of an element in the
periodic table and the electronic structure of the atom. In the periodic table, the
number of electrons in each following element is one unit more than in the
previous element. The electronic configuration of the first two period elements is
given in Table 2.
Table 2. Electronic configuration of the first two period elements
Atomic Electronic Atomic Electronic
Element Element
number configuration number configuration
1 Hydrogen 1s1 6 Carbon 1s22s22p2
2 Helium 1s2 7 Nitrogen 1s22s22p3
3 Lithium 1s22s1 8 Oxygen 1s22s22p4
4 Beryllium 1s22s2 9 Fluorine 1s22s22p5
5 Boron 1s22s22p1 10 Neon 1s22s22p6

The first period consists of two elements - hydrogen and helium. The
formation of the K layer on the helium atom is completed and it is denoted by
[He]. According to the electrons that fill the last orbital of the atom, the elements
are divided into certain groups. Because the last electrons in hydrogen and helium
are s-electrons, they are called s-elements.

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In the elements of the second period, the L layer is formed, the s- and p-
subshells are filled. The last electrons in the first two elements fill the s-subshell,
so lithium and beryllium belong to the s-elements. In the remaining six elements of
the second period, the last electrons fill the p-subshell, so these elements belong to
the p-elements. Neon completes the 2p subshell and is denoted by [Ne].
The third period begins with sodium, the electronic configuration of which is
1s 2s 2p63s1, and ends with argon 1s22s22p63s23p6. The electronic configuration of
2 2

argon is denoted by [Ar].

Despite the presence of the 3d subshell in the third layer (layer M), the
formation of the next layer N (n = 4) occurs in the fourth period, and the period
begins with potassium, the s-element: [Ar] 4s1. This is due to the fact that the
energy of the 4s subshell is less than the energy of the 3d subshell. According to
Klechkovsky's rule, the sum (n + l) for the 4s subshell (n + l = 4 + 0 = 4) is less
than for the 3d subshell (n + l = 3 + 2 = 5). After the 4s subshell is filled, the 3d
subshell is filled. The elements from scandium [Ar] 3d 14s2 to zinc [Ar] 3d104s2,
which fill the last subshell of electrons, are d-elements.
An event called an electron jump is observed in a number of elements. For
example, chromium has one electron at the 4s sublevel, and five electrons at the 3d
sublevel instead of four. This is due to the low-energy 3d54s1 electronic
configuration compared to the 3d44s2. The electron jump is also observed in Cu,
Nb, Ag, Mo, Pd, Pt atoms.
The fourth period ends with krypton at the completion of the 4p sublevel: [Ar]
3d 4s 4p6 or [Kr]. There are only 18 elements in the fourth period.
10 2

The fifth period begins with the s-element rubidium [Kr] 5s1 and ends with the
p-element xenon [Ar]4d105s25p6 or [Xe]. During this period, there are 18 elements
and 10 4d elements from yttrium to cadmium.
In the sixth period, after the s- sublevel is reached, lanthanum completes its
previous d- sublevel from the outside. However, the formation of the 4f- sublevel
in the next element compared to the 5d- sublevel is energetically suitable.
Therefore, after lanthanum, f-electrons are formed in elements called lanthanides.
These elements are called f-elements and are 14 elements from cerium [Xe]
4f15d16s2 to lutetium [Xe] 4f145d16s2. Then the remaining 5d- and 6p- subshells are
filled. The period ends with radon: [Xe] 4f145d106s26p6 or [Rn]. Thus there are 32
elements in the sixth period: two s-, six p-, ten d-, and fourteen f-elements.
In the seventh period, there are ten d-elements and fourteen 5f-elements
(actinides).

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The structure of the periodic table. The periodic table of the chemical
elements consists of periods, groups and subgroups. The period is the sequence of
elements as the nuclear charge of the atoms increases. The electronic configuration
of the elements in the period varies from ns1 to ns2np6. The period begins with the
s-element and ends with the p-element (the s-element in the first period). There are
2 and 8 elements in small periods and 18 and 32 elements in large periods. The
seventh period is not completed.
There are eight groups in the periodic table, which correspond to the
maximum number of electrons in the outer sublevel. Groups are divided into main
and additional subgroups. Subgroups include elements with a similar electronic
structure. The main subgroup (subgroup A) includes s- and p-elements of small
and large periods. Additional subgroups (subgroup B) include the d- and f-
elements of large periods. The first six d-elements (from scandium to iron) cover
elements from subgroup IIIB to subgroup VIIIB. Subgroup VIIIB includes the iron
family (Fe, Co, Ni) and their analogues - platinum metals. Copper and its
analogues belong to the IB, zinc and its analogues belong to the IIB subgroup.
Lanthanides and actinides (f-elements) are located in the IIIB subgroup due to the
characteristics of their electronic configurations.

5. Periodic changes in the properties of chemical elements (simple

substances) and their compounds

The electronic structure of element atoms changes periodically, so the

properties of elements also change periodically. Examples of such properties are
ionization energy, electron greed, electronegativity, atomic size, and so on.
Ionization energy. The energy required to remove one mole of an electron
from one mole of an atom of any element is: E – e = E+. This is called the first
ionization energy (I1). As a result of ionization, the atom turns into a positively
charged ion. Ionization energy is expressed in kJ/mol or eV/mol.
Ionization energy characterizes the reducing ability of an element. The first
ionization energy is determined by the electronic structure of the element atom,
and its change is periodic. The ionization energy increases from left to right across
the period. The ionization energy of alkaline metals at the beginning of the period
is the lowest. But for the inert gases at the end of the period is the highest. In the
graph of the ionization energy (eV) depending on the atomic number of the
element (Figure 5), the maximums are fully filled in the s- subshells (Be, Mg) and
d- subshells (Zn, Cd, Hg), as well as in the p- subshells with only single electrons

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(N, P, As). The minimums in the graph correspond to the elements (alkali metals,
B, Al, Ga, In) with one electron in the outer subshell.

Figure 5. Dependence of the first ionization energy (I1) of an atom on the sequence
number (Z) of the element

As the atomic number of the elements across the group increases, the
ionization energy decreases. This means that as the size of the atom increases, the
outer subshell is farther away from the nucleus.
In addition to the first ionization energy (energy required to take away an
electron from a neutral atom), the second (I2), third (I3) and so on are possible in
multi-electron atoms. Second ionization energy – energy required to take away an
electron from an atom with a +1 charge. Each succeeding ionization energy is
larger than the preceding energy. This means that I1<I2<I3<...<In will always be
true. A particularly sharp increase in ionization energy is observed during the
extraction of electrons from a fully charged sublevel.
Electron greed. The energy released when 1 mole of electrons combine with
1 mole of an atom of any chemical element is called electron greed: E+ e = E–. The
unit of electron greed is kJ/mol or eV/mol. Electron greed depends on the position
of the element in the periodic table. The elements with the greatest electron greed
are halogens, oxygen, and sulfur; The elements with the smallest, even negative
electron greed are elements with s2 electron configuration (He, Be, Mg), as well as
elements with half-full or full p- subshell (Ne, Ar, Kr, N, P, As).
Electromagnetism. In compounds, the concept of electronegativity has been
introduced to characterize the tendency of an atom to attract electrons (or electron
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density) toward itself. It should be noted that this property of the atom depends on
the type of chemical compound, the valence state of the element and is conditional.
There are several electromagnetic scales. According to R. Mulliken (USA),
electromagnetism is equal to half the sum of ionization energy and electron energy.
The complexity of using the Mulliken approach is the lack of reliable methods for
quantifying electron energy. Therefore, L. Pauling (USA) proposed a method of
thermochemical calculation of electronegativity. This method is based on the
determination of the difference between the dissociation energy of the molecules A
– A, B – B of A – B substance.
L.Pauling drew a relative electromagnetic scale by taking the
electronegativity of fluorine as four. The electronegativity of the elements
increases from left to right across the periods. Electromagnetism decreases from
top to bottom in the group. The elements with the lowest electronegativity are the
s-elements of group I, and the largest are the p-elements of groups VI and VII.
Atomic radius. The atom has no definite boundary. Therefore, it is
impossible to determine the absolute value of the atomic radius. Conditionally, the
theoretically calculated value of the electron density at the maximum distance from
the nucleus (orbital atomic radius) or half of the distance between the centers of the
atoms closest to each other in crystals can be used. The periodicity of the atomic
radius is observed especially in the s- and p-elements. As the number of electron
shells increases from top to bottom in the group, the atomic radius increases.
However, the increase in the load on the nucleus has the opposite effect. Therefore,
as the number of periods increases, the increase in atomic radius is not large. For
example, the orbital radius of aluminum from group IIIA elements is larger than
that of gallium.

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Terminology

Principle quantum number – baş kvant ədədi

Ground state - əsas vəziyyət (stabil)
Shell, level – səviyyə
Subshell, sublevel – yarımsəviyyə
Electron greed – elektrona hərislik

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