STRUCTURE OF ATOM

The material universe is made of matter. So, we need to know what matter and what is its structure?
Matter: That which has mass and occupies space. On the earth matter is commonly found in three
different states: solid, liquid, and gas.
Substance: A single form of matter that cannot be separated by physical separation process. A
substance can be a pure component or a mixture of components. Pure component is element which is
the smallest part of compound. Where as
Compound: A substance made of several different elements joined together by chemical bonding.
E.g., water is H2O; hydrogen and oxygen.
Element: A substance with only one kind of atom. For example, hydrogen gas is H2, just hydrogen
atoms.
Atom: The smallest particle of an element that can exist.

ATOMIC THEORY OF MATTER

Philosophical roots: Democritus 400 BC said that matter was composed of indivisible
particles (Atomos means indivisible).

Dalton's theory

Dalton (1803) proposed the following theory:

1. An element is made of atoms.
2. Atoms cannot be destroyed or created.
3. All atoms of a single element are identical and have the same mass.
4. Atoms of different elements have different masses.
5. Two or more elements may combine in the ratio of small whole numbers to
Form compounds.

Law of Multiple Proportions: When two elements combine, the ratio of each element in the
compound will always be a whole number
Thomson Atomic Model
J. J. Thomson, in 1898, proposed that an atom possesses a spherical shape (radius
approximately 10–10 m) in which the positive charge is uniformly distributed. The electrons
are embedded into it in such a manner as to give the most stable electrostatic arrangement.
Many different names are given to this model, for example, plum pudding, raisin pudding or
watermelon model

Rutherford’s Nuclear/Atomic Model

Rutherford and his students (Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden) bombarded very thin gold foil
with α –particles. The model described the atom as a tiny, dense, positively charged core
called a nucleus, in which nearly all the mass is concentrated, around which the light,
negative constituents called electrons, circulate at some distance, much like planets revolving
around the Sun.

Figure: Rutherford Nuclear Atomic Model

Experiment
A radioactive source capable of emitting alpha particles (i.e., positively charged particles
more than 7,000 times as massive as electrons) was enclosed within a protective lead shield.
The radiation was focused into a narrow beam after passing through a slit in a lead screen. A
thin section of gold foil was placed in front of the slit, and a screen coated with zinc sulfide

Figure: Rutherford Experiment of Nucleus Discovery

Observation
Most alpha particles were observed to pass straight through the gold foil, which
implied that atoms are composed of large amounts of open space.
Some alpha particles were deflected slightly, suggesting interactions with other
positively charged particles within the atom. Still other alpha particles were scattered
at large angles
While a very few even bounced back toward the source. Only a positively charged
and relatively heavy target particle, such as the proposed nucleus, could account for
such strong repulsion.

Bohr’s Atomic model

Niles Bohr a Danish Physicist, in 1913, put forward a new atomic model which is based on
Planks’s quantum theory of radiation
Electrons assume only certain orbits around the nucleus. These orbits are stable and called
"stationary" orbits.
1. Each orbit has an energy associated with it. For example the orbit closest to the nucleus has
an energy E1, the next closest E2 and so on.
2. Light is emitted when an electron jumps from a higher orbit to a lower orbit and absorbed
when it jumps from a lower to higher orbit.
3. The energy and frequency of light emitted or absorbed is given by the difference between
the two orbit energies,
E (light) = Ef – Ei = hѵ, h= Planck's constant = 6.627 x 10-34 Js where "f" and "i" represent
final and initial orbits. The frequency of the radiation emitted at an orbit of period T is as it
would be in classical mechanics; it is the reciprocal of the classical orbit period. ѵ= 1/T

Figure: Bohr’s Atomic Model

Limitation of Bohr Atomic Model

 It violates the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle because it considers electrons to have

both a known radius and orbit.
 The Bohr Model provides an incorrect value for the ground state orbital angular
momentum.
 It makes poor predictions regarding the spectra of larger atoms.

FUNDAMENTAL PARTICLES OF ATOMS

Atoms are made up-essentially, of three fundamental particles, which differ in mass and
electric charge as follows
Electrons: Negative charge, 1/1800 times lighter than protons. Occupy the volume of space
surrounding the nucleus.
Protons: Positive charge, mass is nearly the same as neutrons found in the nucleus with the
neutrons.
Neutrons: No charge, but have mass. Reside in the nucleus.
 Electron Proton Neutron
Symbol e or e- p n
Approximate relative mass 1/1836 1 1
Approximate relative -1 +1 0
charge
Mass in kg 9.109534 X 10-31 1.6726485 X 10-27 1.6749543 X 10-27
Mass in amu 5.4858026 X 10-4 1.007276471 1.008665012
Actual charge/C 1.6021892 X 10-19 1.6021892 X 10-19 0

Table: Basic information of Electron, Proton and Neutron

The atomic mass unit (amu) is 1/12th of the mass of an individual atom of carbon
Atomic Number: The Atomic Number (Z) is the number of protons in the nucleus of an
atom. Since atoms are electrically neutral (number of protons = number of electrons), Z also
tells us the number of electrons in that atom.
An element is defined by its atomic number. Hydrogen atoms have only 1 proton (Z = 1),
carbon has 6 protons (Z=6), uranium has 92 protons (Z=92)
Mass Number: The Mass Number (A) is of the number of neutrons plus the number of protons
in an atom. By subtracting the number of protons (Z), we can find the number of neutrons in an
atom using. A – Z = Number of Neutrons

Problem 1: Calculate the number of protons, neutrons and electrons in

Solution
In this case, , Atomic number, Z = 35, Atomic mass, A = 80, this species is neutral.
So, Number of protons = number of electrons = Z = 35.
And Number of neutrons = A – Z = 80 – 35 = 45.

Solve these:
Problem 2: The number of electrons, protons and neutrons in a species are equal to 18, 16
and 16 respectively. Assign the proper symbol to the species.
Solution
The atomic number is equal to number of protons = 16. The element is sulphur (S). Atomic
mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons = 16 + 16 = 32. Species is not
neutral as the number of protons is not equal to electrons. It is anion (negatively charged)
with charge equal to excess electrons = 18 – 16 = 2. Symbol is

Isotopes: Different kinds of atoms of the same element which have the same atomic
number but different mass number are called isotopes of that element. As an example three
isotopes of carbon having mass number equal to 12, 13 and 14 can be shown as:

Isobars: The atoms of different elements which have the same mass number but different
atomic number are called isobars. are the examples of isobars. Since each of
them has the same mass number 40 but different atomic numbers.

Isotones: The atoms of different elements which have the same number of neutrons but
different atomic number are called isotones. are the example of isotones.

QUANTUM NUMBERS

Quantum numbers may be defined as a set of four numbers with the help of which we can get
complete information about all the electrons in an atom. It tells us the address of the electron
i.e., location, energy, the type of orbital occupied and orientation of that orbital.
Four quantum numbers which are required to completely specify the character of an electron
are:
1. Principal quantum number (n)
2. Azimuthal quantum number (l)
3. Magnetic quantum number (m)
4. Spin quantum number (s)

1. Principal quantum number: The principal quantum number is the quantum number
denoted by n and which indirectly describes the size of the electron orbit. It is always
assigned an integer value (i.e., n = 1, 2, 3,...), but its value may never be 0. The value of n
represents the shells or energy levels are designated by capital letter K, L, M,...For example
the shell for which n=1 is called k shell (1st shell), that for which n=2 is called L shell (2nd
shell) and so on. A shell with principal quantum number, n can have 2n2 electrons. Thus

Shell K L M N
Principal quantum 1 2 3 4
number (n)
Maximum number 2 8 18 32
of electrons (2n2)

2. Azimuthal quantum number (l): Azimuthal quantum number (l) is also known as orbital
angular momentum or subsidiary quantum numbers. It defines the three dimensional shape of
the orbital and designated the sub shell to which the electron belongs. It tells about the shape
of the orbitals. For a given value n, l can have n values ranging from o to n-1, i.e. the possible
values of l= 0,1,2,3,......., (n-1). Each shell consists of one or more sub-shells or sub levels.
The sub-shell in the principle shell is equal to the value of n.

3. The magnetic quantum number (m): An electron due to its angular motion around
the nucleus generates an electric field. This electric field is expected to produce a magnetic
field. Under the influence of external magnetic field, the electrons of a subshell can orient
themselves in certain preferred regions of space around the nucleus called orbitals. The
magnetic quantum number determines the number of preferred orientations of the electron
present in a subshell. Different values of m depend on the value of l which itself depends on
the value of n. m can have integral values ranging from –l through o to +l.
4. The spin quantum number (s): Just like earth which not only revolves around the
sun but also spins about its own axis, an electron in an atom not only revolves around the
nucleus but also spins about its own axis.
Since an electron can spin either in clockwise direction or in anticlockwise direction,
therefore, for any particular value of magnetic quantum number, spin quantum number can
have two values, i.e., +1/2 and –1/2 or these are represented by two arrows pointing in the
opposite directions, i.e., ↑ and ↓.

RULES FOR WRITING ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION

(n+l) Rules: The relative order of energy of different orbitals can also be determined with
the help of (n+l) value for a given orbitals (n = principal quantum number, l = azimuthal
quantum number). This rule is called (n+l) rule
“The orbital having the lowest value of (n + l) has the lowest energy and hence is filled
up first with electrons”
For instance the orbital 3d (3+2 = 5) is higher energy value than 4s (4+0 =4) and electron first
enter 3d orbital than 4s.
When two or more orbitals have the same value of (n + l), the orbital with lower value of n is
lower in energy and hence is filled up first with electrons.
Thus value of energies of 3d (3+2 =5), 4p (4+1=5) and 5s (5+o= 5), Science n for these
orbitals is 3, 4 and 5 respectively. Thus orbitals will be filled up with electrons in the
following sequence:
3d<4p<5s

Aufbau principle: Aufbau is a German word which means ‘build up or construction’.

This principle gives us a sequence in which various orbitals are filled with electrons. This
principle states as follows:
“In the ground state of the atoms, the orbitals are filled in order of their increasing
energies”. In other words, electrons first occupy the lowest energy orbital available to them
and enter into higher the increasing order of energy of various orbital is
1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 5f, 6d, 7p…………
The order of increasing energies of the various orbitals can be calculated on the basis of (n +
l) rule.
Type of Value of n Values of l Values of (n+ l) Relative energy
orbitals

1s 1 0 1+0=1 Lowest energy

2s 2 0 2+0=2 Higher energy than 1s

orbital

2p 2 1 2+1=3 2p orbital (n=2) have

lower energy than 3s
orbital (n=3)
3s 3 1 3+1=4

3d 3 2 3+2=5

Problem: According to the Aufbau principle, which orbital is filled immediately after each
of the following in a multi-electron?
 (a) 4s 3d after 4s

(b) 3d 4p after 3d

(c) 5f 6d after 5f

(d) 5p 6s after 5p

Pauli’s Exclusion Principle: Austrian scientist Wolfgang Pauli (1926) proposed this
principle: No two electrons in an atom can have the same set of four quantum numbers.
Pauli Exclusion Principle can also be stated as: “Only two electrons may exist in the same
orbital and these electrons must have opposite spin.”
This means that the two electrons can have the same value of three quantum numbers n, l and
m, but must have the opposite spin quantum number(s). This can be summed up as: the
maximum number of electrons in the shell with principal quantum number n is equal to
2n2.

Figure: Explanation of Pauli’s Exclusion Principle

Hand’s Rule of Maximum Multiplicity:

This rule deals with the filling of electrons into the orbital’s belonging to the same subshell
(that is, orbitals of equal energy, called degenerate orbital’s). It states: pairing of electrons
in the orbitals belonging to the same sub shell (p, d or f) does not take place until each
orbital belonging to that sub shell has got one electron each i.e., it is singly occupied.
This is due to the fact that electrons being identical in charge repel each other when present in
the same orbital. This repulsion can, however, be minimized if two electrons move as far
apart as possible by occupying different degenerate orbitals. All the electrons in a degenerate
set of orbitals will have same spin.

Electronic Configuration of Some Elements

Exceptional Configuration: A fully filled orbital is more stable than a partially filled
orbital. Half-filled orbital is more stable than a more/less partially filled orbital. Examples as
Cr, Cu, Mo, Ag etc
.