Digestion is the process by which the large, complex, insoluble

food materials ingested are broken down by a series of mechanical and

chemical processes into soluble forms which can be absorbed into the blood
and used by the cells of the body.
• The substances ingested into the body are usually in their larger, complex
molecular forms, for example proteins, starch (carbohydrates) and fats as a
constituent unit of the larger food product. However, for these materials to be
utilized by the body, they must be broken down into simpler forms by the
digestive system.
• Digestion, therefore, is an essential process which breaks down nutrients
(useful substances in food) from the complex polymeric forms to their simpler
monomeric forms. This occurs through mechanical digestion and chemical
digestion (including hydrolysis and the action of enzymes).

As previously stated, digestion occurs in two parts. It begins with mechanical

digestion, which is followed by chemical digestion.

Mechanical Digestion
Mechanical digestion is the physical breakdown of food into smaller bits and
pieces to increase the surface area on which digestive enzymes can act.
Mechanical digestion begins in the mouth where it is carried out by the teeth.

The teeth are responsible for chewing, formally known as

mastication.

Mouth- The mouth is an organ consisting of the oral cavity inside the head
and containing the teeth, gums and tongue. It is the main site of
mechanical digestion and is the starting point of the digestive process
overall. Ducts lead in from the salivary gland which secretes saliva
containing salivary amylase, beginning chemical digestion by breaking
down starches/polysaccharides into disaccharides (such as maltose). The
tongue (which is also in the mouth) is one of the main agents in deglutition,
as it forces the chewed food down the oesophagus by pressing up against
the soft palate, propelling it towards the stomach.

Oesophagus- A muscular tube leading from the mouth to the stomach. The
walls contain circular smooth muscle tissue which, through wave like
motions known as peristalsis, move food (the bolus) down to the stomach.
The muscles contract behind the bolus and relax in front of it. This is why
you can still swallow even if you are upside down.

Stomach- The stomach is a highly internally-folded muscular bag

containing an enzyme-acid mixture known as gastric juice. The stomach’s
internal folds, known as rugae allow the stomach to expand after the
consumption of food. The stomach also contains a mucus membrane which
allows it to withstand the effects of the hydrochloric acid it contains. The
gastric juice within it consists of pepsin, rennin and hydrochloric acid
(which creates an acidic environment of pH 2). The function of the acid is
to create the ideal environment for the function of the enzymes (pepsin,
which breaks down protein into polypeptides and rennin, which breaks
down milk proteins in young mammals) and to work as an antiseptic. The
stomach also performs mechanical digestion through stomach churning,
where it continues to mix the food with the gastric juice to form chyme.

Liver- The liver is an accessory organ to the digestive process. It produces

a substance known as bile which helps in breaking down fats through
emulsification. Because lipids are hydrophobic, they tend to form large
globules by clumping together. The bile is capable of splitting these globules
into smaller droplets to increase the surface area on which the pancreatic
lipase can act. The bile can force the fat to ‘dissolve’ in aqueous
environments forming micelles that helps in both digestion through lipase
action and absorption (fat soluble vitamins). The liver also converts excess
glucose to glycogen for storage.

Gallbladder- The liver secretes this bile into the gallbladder where it is
stored until needed. The gallbladder contracts to release bile via the bile
duct into the duodenum.

Pancreas- The pancreas is another accessory organ to the digestive

process, as it secretes enzymes which assist in breaking down certain
macromolecules. The pancreas secretes pancreatic juice- a clear, alkaline
mixture of enzymes. Pancreatic juice comprises trypsin and chymotrypsin,
which break down proteins; pancreatic lipase, which breaks down fats; and
pancreatic amylase, which breaks down disaccharides into
monosaccharides. The pancreas also serves an endocrine function in the
body of regulating blood sugar levels through the secretion of hormones
(insulin and glucagon) into the blood stream. Insulin reduces blood sugar
when it is too high and glucagon increases it when it is too low.

Small intestine- The small intestine is 20 feet long and is divided into the
duodenum, jejunum and ileum. The first section, the duodenum, is the site
at which digestion is completed. That is, it is the last site where enzymatic
activity occurs to break down food. The duodenum secretes its own
mixture of enzymes, intestinal juice- an alkaline mixture of mucus, lactase,
erepsin, enterokinase, lipase and amylase. The alkalinity of the intestinal
juice allows it to neutralize the acidic gastric juice coming from the
stomach. The enzyme mixture pancreatic juice is also secreted into the
duodenum, as well as bile, where they continue to break down food. The
jejunum and ileum both contain numerous structures on their walls known
as villi and microvilli, which allow for them to absorb certain products of
digestion. The jejunum absorbs mainly fatty acids, glycerol, amino acids
and monosaccharides, while the ileum absorbs vitamins, bile salts and
remaining nutrients unabsorbed from the jejunum.

Large intestine- The large intestine connects directly to the end of the
ileum at the ileocecal valve. It is about 5 feet in length and is responsible
for the reabsorption of water and mineral ions including sodium and
chloride, the formation and temporary storage of faeces, hosting a
population comprising over 500 species of bacteria and facilitating the
bacterial fermentation of indigestible materials. The large intestine,
divided into the appendix, cecum, ascending colon, transverse colon,
descending colon and sigmoid colon, propels food along through a series of
mass muscular movements called peristalsis. The bacteria population of
the large intestine consists mostly of anaerobes which thrive mostly in
oxygen-free environments and ferment undigested food materials into
short chain fatty acids while releasing gases like methane. They also
produce vitamins like vitamin K.

Rectum- The rectum is the final point at which undigested waste materials
arrive before being evacuated from the body. It connects the sigmoid colon
to the anus. Its lining also absorbs water and electrolytes such as sodium
and potassium. Anaerobic bacteria continue to ferment the waste, while
the waste is thickened through further water absorption and mixing with
mucus secreted by the walls of the rectum. It is about 12-16 cm in length.

Anus- This is the opening from which the waste from the digestive system
is excreted. Muscles, known as the anal sphincters, are responsible for
controlling when waste is evacuated. Receptors are also found there to
determine whether the contents are solid or gas.

As stated above, absorption of digested materials occurs in the small intestine

and large intestine.

In the small intestine, digested materials are absorbed via the lining (mostly in
the ileum) through special structures known as villi. The ileum is adapted to
absorb food molecules as efficiently as possible.
1 It has a large surface area, as it is about 5 metres in length for the
average adult.
2 The lining of the ileum is covered in massive numbers of tiny finger-
like projections called villi- which greatly increase surface area for absorption
(through diffusion or active transport)
3 Each villus contains a capillary bed and a lacteal so that the
absorbed nutrients can be transported away as quickly as possible.
4 Each villus has a wall, or epithelium that is one cell thick, allowing
digested food to pass through to the capillaries and lacteal easily.
5 The epithelium of the villi are covered in even smaller projections
known as microvilli, which increase the surface area available for absorption
even further.

Chemical digestion
- uses certain enzymes to break down nutrients,
such as carbohydrates, proteins, and fats, into
smaller molecules. This occurs so a person can
absorb these molecules into the bloodstream. The
process occurs in the mouth, stomach, and small
intestine.