Chem Notes v2:

 Acids vs bases:

Strong acids/bases: These ionize completely meaning there is nothing of the original
acid/base left.
weak acids/bases: These react reversibly so they don’t ionize completely. This means they
have a mix of the original acid/base and the ions.

 Theories of acids and bases:

1. Arrehenius: acid produces H+ ions when dissolved in water and base produces OH-
ions when dissolved in water.
Eg. HCL -its not a base because it doesn’t have OH- ions-H+CL-
Eg. 2 NaOH-base because OH- Ions when dissolved in water-Na+ OH-
Acids: H
Bases: OH
2. Bronsted Lowry theory: Acids are proton donors and bases are proton acceptors
(when it donates or gives a proton, acids gain a positive charge like any other
substance whereas for bases they accept and fill their circle which gives them a
negative charge.)
Alkalis: bases which are soluble in water. (aq or dissolves in water)
HCL is an acid that turns blue litmus red.

 Deduce the acid and the base in a reaction.

 All acids contain hydrogen.

 All bases have a lone pair of electrons to bond to hydrogen.

Name of acid formula

Hydrochloric acid HCL
Nitric acid HNO3
Sulfuric acid H2SO4
Ethanoic acid CH3COOH
Carbonic acid H2CO3
Phosphoric acid H3PO4
Benzoic acid C6H5COOH
H2SO4= Sulfuric Acid
H2SO3= Sulfurous Acid
HSO4= Sulfate Acid
NH3= Ammonia
NO4= Nitric Acid
NO3= Nitrate

 Examples of acids, bases and Neutral

Acids: hydrochloric acid, vinegar, battery acid, acid rain , lemon juice
Bases: sodium hydroxide, bleach, ammonia
Neutral : water, salty solution, sugary solution

 Solubility of acids and bases:

1. Most acids are soluble in water but all react strongly.
2. Soluble bases are called Alkalis
3. Neutralization: acid reacts with base to form a salt and water solution. Eg. HCL
+NaOH arrow NaCl + H2O
4. Exothermic reaction eg. H2SO4 + NH3 (Ammonia) arrow (NH4)SO4 (ammonium
sulphate) + H2O

 Taste of acid and PH indicator

Acids are sour, their PH is lesser then 7 (<7), turn litmus red.
Bases are bitter-their PH is greater than 7 (>7), turn litmus blue.
PH indicator is a chemical that turns different colors into different mediums.
Blue litmus turns red in acidic medium and red litmus turns blue in bases medium
Litmus solution/paper is commonly used as indicator of PH.
PH paper is a strip of paper which is coated with PH Indicator that change color in response
to the acidity or alkalinity of a solution.

 Strong and weak acids/bases:

Strong acid/base: Ions fully dissociate. pH either very low or very high
Weak acid/base: Ions partially dissociate, in a reversible reaction. pH on either side of 7, but
not too extreme.

 Strength Of Acid/Bases Vs. Concentration

Strength: When acids and bases dissolve in water they split apart into ions
Strong acids/bases: These ionize completely meaning there is nothing of the original
acid/base left.
weak acids/bases: These react reversibly so they don’t ionize completely. This means they
have a mix of the original acid/base and the ions.
Weak acids: partially dissociate.
Strong acids: fully dissociate.
Weak bases: partially dissociate.
Strong bases: fully dissociate.
Strong acids: HCl, H2SO4, HNO3
Strong bases: Alkali hydroxides (LiOH, NaOH, KOH, RbOH, CsOH), Ba(OH)2
Weak acids: CH3COOH, H2SO3, HNO2, H3PO4 ACIDS AND BASES
Weak bases: Mg(OH)2, NH3

 Properties of strong vs weak:

Strong Weak
PH End of spectrum Towards middle of spectrum
Electrical conductivity high Low
Rate reaction high low

 Acid formulas to remember:

Hydrochloric acid: HCl

Nitric acid: HNO3
Sulfuric acid: H2SO4
Carbonic Acid: H2CO3

 Simple definitions

Acids: form hydrogen ions in a solution.

Bases: form hydroxide ions in a solution.
Alkalis: bases which are soluble in water
Bases and acids have high conductivity because they split up into ions which can flow as
charges.

 Properties of acids/bases: acid reactions:

 Acids undergo reaction with different elements such as metals, metal hydroxides and
metal/hydrogen carbonates.

 Reactions Of Acids

Acid + Base → Salt + Water

Acid + Metal → Salt + Hydrogen
Acid + Metal carbonate → Salt + Water + Carbon dioxide

type word Example

Acid metal Acid + Metal → Salt + HNO3 + Mg MgNO3 + H2
Hydrogen
Acid metal hydroxide Acid + metal hydroxide = salt + Mg(OH)2 + H2SO4  MgSO4 + 2H2O
water
Acid metal/hydrogen Acid + Metal carbonate → Salt NaHCO3 + HCL  NaCL + H2O +
carbonate + Water + Carbon dioxide CO2

 Neutralization reactions

In neutralization reactions an acid and a base react together to form a salt and water.  This
neutralization always occurs when the pH of the solution is 7.

 The solution forms a salt, dependent on the acid and base.

 The reaction is always exothermic and thus the enthalpy change (ΔH) is negative.

Formulas for Chem (IMPORTANT):

1. Concentration (mol dm^-3) = amount of solvent (mol)/volume of solution (V)
dm^3 = 1 litre = 1000cm^3
2. amount of substance (mol) = mass (m)/Molar mass (M) (g/mol^-1)
3. concentration (mol dm^-3) = mass (m)/Molar mass (M) x volume (dm^3)
4. n (mol) = m (mass)/M (molar mass)
5. mass = n x m
6. M = m/n
7. Rate of reaction = change in reactant of product/time taken
8. Number of atoms/molecules/particles = amount of substance (mol) x 6.02 x 10^23
Solvent and solute:
Distillations:
Process: (simple distillation)

(yellow thing is bung))

Fractional distillation:

Paper chromatography:
Used to separate dyes in a mixture.
Definition: Chromatography is a separation technique used to separate the components of a
mixture based on their physical and chemical properties. There are several types of
chromatography, but the basic steps are similar.
Materials:

 Chromatography paper or filter paper

 Pencil
 Ruler
 Mixture to be separated
 Solvent (e.g. water, alcohol, or acetone)
 Glass jar or beaker

Method:
Chemicals switch between both phases-more soluble = more time in mobile phase, less
soluble = more time in stationary phase.
To measure how far each substance moves (identify): find Rf value: distance travelled by
substance/distance travelled by solvent.

When done with pure substance:

 Filtration, crystallization, evaporation:

Filtration:

(filter funnel used mostly to easily pour, leaving solid behind on

filtration paper.
If soluble solid is in liquid and dissolves-solution-use evaporation and crystalization
Evaporation:

Solvent evaporate, solution get more concentrated-forms crystals-all solvent disappear-dry

crystals of solid
Some solids decompose when heated-thermal decomposition
For those solids: crystallization
As solution cools-more crystals form-solids less soluble at colder temperatures.
Then filter out crystals from remaining solution then dry them (leaving somewhere warm or
warming up in oven)

 PH Scale:

PH Definition: the pH of a solution depends upon the concentration of Hydrogen ions

pH is a measure of the concentration of H+ ions within a solution. The lower the pH, the
lower the concentration; the higher the pH, the greater the concentration. The idea of pH is to
map the wide range of concentrations onto a value ranging from 0 to 14. This is done through
the use of a logarithm. The formula for pH is given below pH = −log[H+]
Concentration of hydrogen ions = [H+ ]
Concentration of hydroxide ions = [OH- ]
the pH of a solution tells us whether that solution is acid, basic or neutral.
Note: Ph is a log scale and so a change of one pH unit represents a 10 fold change in
concentration of hydrogen ions. pH = -log[H+]

 PH vs strength vs solution

People often get confused about whether pH, is to do with an acids strength or it’s
concentration and the answer is it’s both. This is because they the hydrogen ion concentration
depends on both the overall concentration and the strength of the acid/base. However strong
acids ionize more than weak acids and so they will have more hydrogen ions.
Strong acid: 0-3
Weak acid: 4-6
Neutral: 7
Weak base: 8-10
Strong base: 11-14

 Acid deposition

Why is rain acidic: Acid rain contains dissolved CO2 which lowers its pH to around 5.6. CO2
(g) + H2O (l) ⇌ H2CO3 (aq) Forms hydrogen carbonate. This process above is NATURAL,
this is NOT considered "acid rain". Acid rain comes from oxides of 2 main elements: Sulfur
and Nitrogen.

 Sulfuric/sulfurous acid

When fossil fuels like coal or oil are burned, sulfur can change into gases. These gases mix
with water in the air and turn into acids, like sulfuric acid or sulfurous acid. These acids are
formed when sulfur from decayed dinosaurs and plants, which is found in substances like
amino acids such as cysteine, is burned.
1. S (s) + 3O2 (g) → 2SO3 (g)
2. SO3 (g) + H2O (l) → H2SO4 (aq)
3. H2SO4 (aq) → H+ (aq) + HSO4-(aq)
4. S (s) + O2 (g) → SO2 (g)
5. SO2 (g) + H2O (l) → H2SO3 (aq)
6. H2SO3 (aq) ⇌ H+ (aq) + HSO2 - (aq)
Nitric/nitrous acid:
Nitrogen can be turned into gaseous oxides in the heat of combustion engines. Usually
nitrogen gas and oxygen gas will not react, but at high temperatures (ex. in an engine), they
have enough energy to overcome the Activation Energy. This then reacts with water to form
nitric acid (strong) and nitrous acid (weak).
Formation:
N2 (g) + 2O2 (g) → 2NO2 (g)
2NO2 (g) + H2O (l) → HNO3 (aq) + HNO2 (aq)
HNO3 (aq) → H+ (aq) + NO3- (aq)

HNO2 (aq) ⇌ H+ (aq) + NO2- (aq)

 To prevent acid rain:

1. Wash coal to remove sulphur.
2. Catalytic converter on cars, prevent release of sulphur dioxide.
3. Alternative cleaner fuels.
4. Instal "scrubbers" in power plant to clean emissions of sulphur dioxide before it
leaves the plant
 Effects of acid rain:
1. It causes damage to buildings and statues, particularly those made of limestone.
2. It can also reduce the growth of, or even kill, trees and crops.
3. It lowers the pH of water in lakes, killing fish.
4. It causes toxic metals like aluminum to come out of solution. This makes it difficult
for plant roots to absorb water and clogs the gills of fishes.
 Corrosion
Process by which metals are slowly broken down by reacting with substances from the
environment. Example of this is rusting:
Eg. Iron + oxygen + water = rust.
4Fe + 3O2 → 2Fe2O3-redox reaction
Iron, water, oxygen must be present for rusting
Metals absorb iron, water, and oxygen from environment-both need to be present for rusting.
3 tube-one only with water-one only with oxygen (CaCl2) -one with both-only one with both
gets rusted
-only surface corrodes-most metals except iron-barrier breaks away exposing new iron-
eventually destroyed. –aluminum create aluminum oxide-barrier around aluminum
Solution: barrier: prevent oxygen and water from touching iron. (paint, oiling, or
electroplating)
Sacrificial methods: add reactive metal to iron-zinc coating on iron-protect even after scratch
(galvanizing)

 Oxidation and reduction:

Oxidation is loss of electrons.

Reduction is gain of electrons.
A REACTIVE METAL LOSES ITS OUTER ELECTRONS MORE EASILY (is oxidized
more easily)

Zinc is quite a reactive metal so is oxidised easily when it reacts with an acid:
Zn + 2HCl ---> ZnCl2 + H2 (+2)
Copper is very unreactive so rarely undergoes oxidation:
Cu + 2HCl ---> No reaction

Different metals have different levels of reactivity as shown in the "Reactivity Series".
  Redox reactions:

A redox (short for reduction-oxidation) reaction is a type of chemical reaction where there is
a transfer of electrons between reactants. In these reactions, one substance loses electrons
(oxidation) while another gains electrons (reduction).
Eg. Iron and oxygen:
4Fe + 3O2 → 2Fe2O3
Relation between hydrogen and chlorine:
H2 + Cl2 → 2HCL
Zinc and HCL:
Zn + 2HCL → ZnCl2 + H2

 Reversible and irreversible reactions:

A reversible reaction is a chemical process in which reactants can transform into products,
and products can, in turn, convert back into reactants. The reaction can proceed in both
directions, and the system reaches a state of equilibrium when the rates of the forward and
reverse reactions are equal.
1. Dissociation of acetic acid:

CH3COOH ⇌ CH3COOH- + H+
2. Formation of Ammonia Chloride:

NH3 + HCL ⇌ NH4CL

3. Formation of water from hydrogen and oxygen:

2H2 + O2 ⇌ 2H2O

 Electrolysis:

Electrolytes: conduct electricity

materials:
1. electrolyte solution
2. container (beaker
3. electrodes (anode and cathode)
4. battery
both electrodes connected to a battery.
Electroplating is a process of metal on metal.
All negative ions will go to positive electrode (anode)
All positive ions will go to negative electrode (cathode.
Whatever you want to plate, put it on cathode.
Actual:
Electrolysis is a process which can be used to split up an ionic compound into its elements,
by applying an electrical charge to it through two electrodes.
The compound being split up is called the electrolyte and for the process to work its ions
must be able to move freely.

 How the process of electrolysis (electro plating) works

1. The probes have opposite charges; one is negative one is positive. When placed inside
the electrolyte the ions are attracted to the oppositely charged electrode, splitting it up.
2. At the positively charged electrode, the anions give away their negative charge and
become atoms precipitating out of the solution.
3. At the negatively charged electrode, the cations gain a negative charge and become
atoms precipitating out of the solution.
In a solution, water molecules break into hydroxides and hydrogen ions. Whether hydrogen
gas or a metal is produced depends on how reactive the metal is:
1. If the metal is more reactive than hydrogen, it will replace hydrogen and bond with
hydroxide, causing hydrogen gas to form and "fall out" of the solution.
2. If the metal is less reactive than hydrogen, it can't replace it, so the metal itself will
form and "fall out" of the solution instead.
Anode and cathode:
Anode: This is the positively charged electrode because it attracts anions
Cathode: This is the negatively charged electrode because it attracts cations.
Uses:
Can be used to collect pure metals from solutions and can also be used for electroplating.
The plates which carry the electricity into the liquid are called electrodes. The cathode is the
electrode connected to the negative terminal of a cell. The anode is the electrode connected to
the positive terminal of a cell.
Electrolytes are substances that, when melted or dissolved in water, can conduct electricity
and break down into ions in the process. This happens because the ions move between the
electrodes when electricity is passed through the liquid. Examples of electrolytes include
acids, bases (alkalis), and salts when dissolved in water or melted. These substances are all
ionic.
On the other hand, non-electrolytes are substances, like water and most covalent compounds,
that don't allow electricity to pass through them. They don't break down into ions, which is
why they can't conduct electricity.
Ion = charged particle.
Process:
When electricity is passed through an electrolyte, it undergoes chemical decomposition. The
electrolyte splits up. The ions migrate towards the oppositely charged electrode. At the anode,
negative ions (anions) lose their electrons to the anode, which is very ready to accept electron
as it is positively charged and has a lack of electrons. At the cathode, positive ions (cations)
gain electrons from the cathode, which has an excess of electrons and therefore an overall
negative charge. This release of ions at the electrode results in the chemical decomposition of
the electrolyte. It also allows electrons to travel from the cathode to the anode, and the
movement of ions during electrolysis allows conduction of electricity.
Industrial Application of Electrolysis:
Electrolysis has many varied industrial applications. The extraction of metals from their ores,
in particular aluminium, and the purification of metals, especially copper, are important
industrial uses.
Another large-scale use of electrolysis is in the manufacture of the important alkali, sodium
hydroxide. This is produced by the electrolysis of concentrated sea water. The chlorine and
hydrogen gases which are produced during this electrolysis are both commercially useful.
Finally, electrolysis is used for electroplating, which is the forming of a thin protective
coating of a metal on the surface of another which is likely to corrode.

 Elements, compounds, mixtures, homogenous, heterogeneous:

Element: Substance that CANNOT be broken down into simpler substances. Only one type of
atom.
Compound: Can be chemically separated. Can’t separate physically. Substance that is made
from two or more DIFFERENT simpler substances and CAN be broken down into those
simpler substances. Not to be confused with a molecule which is formed when two or more
atoms are joined together chemically. Compounds have two or more DIFFERENT substances
joined together chemically.
Mixture: Two or more substances, can be separable physically. Mixtures are substances that
are a mixture of separate individual substances. They don’t always have the same
composition as they tend to retain some of the properties of their individual substances.
Homogenous: Substances are so evenly distributed that it is difficult to distinguish one
substance in the mixture from another. It usually appears to contain only one type of
substance. It is usually harder to separate its components. Examples are yogurt, vinegar,
lemonade, coffee, and honey.
Heterogeneous: Substances with parts of the mixture are noticeably different from one
another. It is usually much simpler to separate its components. Ex: Trail mix, Sand, Salad
Examples:
Atoms: Hydrogen (H), Lithium (Li), Beryllium (Be), Sodium (Na), Magnesium (Mg),
Potassium
(K), Calcium (Ca), Titanium (Ti), Carbon (C), Oxygen (O), Helium (H)
Elements: H 2 0, Boron, carbon, oxygen, iodine, argon, calcium, gold, silver, copper, zinc.

 Compounds:

 Mixtures: Oil and water

1. Lemon juice and tea
2. Honey and tea
3. Milk and chocolate
4. Coffee and cream
5. Cream and sugar
6. Flour and butter
7. Cereal and milk
8. Oatmeal and raisins
9. Flour and milk
10. Orange juice and champagne
11. Sugar and water
12. Sugar and tea
Unit 1:
1. Colloid: Larger than individual molecules but smaller than what can be seen by the
naked eye. Examples include milk and fog.
2. Suspension: A type of mixture where the particles are large enough to settle out and
can be separated by using a filter. An example is flour in water.
 3. Solution: A homogeneous mixture formed when a solute (what gets dissolved) mixes
evenly with a solvent (the substance that does the dissolving), resulting in a uniform
composition throughout. An example is sugar dissolved in water.
4. Alloy: A homogeneous mixture of either metals or a metal and a non-metal. Examples
include brass (copper and zinc) and stainless steel (iron and chromium).
5. Heterogeneous: Describes a mixture with a non-uniform composition, meaning its
components are not evenly distributed throughout. Examples include salad dressing
and granite.
6. Homogeneous: Describes a mixture with a uniform composition, meaning its
components are evenly distributed throughout. Examples include saltwater and air
(for the most part).
7. Emulsion: Describes a mixture where liquid particles are dispersed in another liquid.
An example is oil in water, like in salad dressing.
8. Foam: Describes a mixture where gas particles are dispersed in either a liquid (like
soap bubbles) or a solid (like Styrofoam).
9. Aerosol: Describes a mixture where liquid or solid particles are in a gas. Examples
include smoke and mist.
10. Anhydrous: Anhydro substance-absorb water-substance no moisture
Difference between colloid and suspension:
1. Colloids have two phases (liquid-liquid, gas-liquid, or solid-liquid), while solutions
have only one phase (liquid).
2. Size-wise, colloidal particles are smaller than those found in suspensions.

Pure substances: A pure substance is made of only one kind of matter and has definite
properties.
Some pure substances, called elements, cannot be broken down into other substances by
physical or chemical means.
A compound is a substance made of two or more elements that are chemically combined.
Atoms: Building Blocks of Matter
All matter with the same atoms
Water is not an element, It’s a mixture, In fact it’s a compound.
Compound: A compound is two or more elements linked togetherchemically in fixed
proportions.

 Magnetisation:

iron fillings and sulfur-use magnet to attract iron fillings-sulfur not attracted.
  Physical separation tehcniques:
1. By eye
a. to separate solid and liquid
b. to separate two or more liquids with different boiling points
c. to separate gases with different condensation temperatures
d. to separate pure liquids or solutions of compounds

Distillation 1,000-200,000 Lots of energy to boil water

Electrodialysis 10-4,000 Stable source of electricity

The table above compares desalting methods.

In distillation, the ocean water is heated. Pure water boils of and is collected ad the salt is
left behind.
Electrodialysis uses electric current to pull salt particles out of water.
Methods for desalting ocean water:
What methods might you use to desalt the water for a large population where energy is
plentiful?
Distillation would be best to use for a large population. Although the unit needs many
operators and lots of energy, it produces the largest amount of fresh water.
What methods might you use in a single home?
Electrodialysis works in a home or small resort hotel. This method produces smaller
amounts of fresh water and does not require many skilled operators.
It only needs a stable source of electricity.

 Crude oil:

What is it?
1. IS A FOSSIL FUEL DERIVED FROM AN ANCIENT BIOMASS FOUND IN
ROCKS
2. IS A MIXTURE
3. CONTAINS A VERY LARGE NUMBER OF COMPOUNDS
4. CONTAINS MAINLY HYDROCARBONS
5. ALSO CONTAINS SULPHUR + SULPHUR COMPOUNDS
6. IS A DARK COLOURED VISCOUS LIQUID
Formation of crude oil:
FORMED FROM ORGANISMS WHICH LIVED MILLIONS OF YEARS AGO. THEIR
REMAINS WERE COVERED BY LAYERS OF SEDIMENTARY ROCK, HEAT AND
PRESSURE IN THE ABSENCE OF AIR CONVERTED THE REMAINS INTO FOSSIL
FUELS.
GAS AND OIL ARE TRAPPED UNDERGROUND - THEY CAN’T GET THROUGH THE
NON-POROUS LAYERS

Fractional distillation of crude oil:

CRUDE OIL CAN BE SPLIT INTO FRACTIONS
FRACTIONS ARE GROUPS OF COMPOUNDS WITH SIMILAR BOILING POINTS
THE PROCESS IS CALLED FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION
The distillation tower:
1. CRUDE OIL IS FED INTO THE TOWER
2. THE CRUDE OIL IS HEATED UNTIL IT ALL TURNS TO GAS

3. THE HOT GASES ENTER AT THE BOTTOM OF THE TOWER

4. THE HOT VAPOURS (GASES) PASS UP THE TOWER
5. THE BITUMEN FRACTION CONTAINS THE LARGEST MOLECULES AND
THEY HAVE THE HIGHEST BOILING POINTS – THEY TURN BACK TO
LIQUID FIRST
6. MOLECULES IN THE LUBRICATING OIL FRACTION ARE NOT AS
LARGE AS THOSE IN THE BITUMEN FRACTION SO CONDENSE
FURTHER UP THE TOWER
7. AS THE REMAINING VAPOUR COOLS FURTHER FRACTIONS ARE
COLLECTED
8. THE LOWER THEIR BOILING POINT, THE FURTHER UP THE
COMPOUNDS GO
9. COMPOUNDS IN THE LIQUID PETROLEUM GAS (LPG) FRACTION
HAVE VERY LOW BOILING POINTS AND DON’T TURN BACK TO THE
LIQUID STATE

10.
How do the fractions differ (IMPORTANT):
1. As we move up the distillation tower, MOLECULES HAVE FEWER CARBON
ATOMS
2. As we move up the distillation tower, MOLECULES ARE SMALLER
3. As we move up the distillation tower, MOLECULES HAVE LOWER BOILING
POINTS
4. As we move up the distillation tower, MOLECULES ARE MORE VOLATILE
(lower Boling points)
5. As we move up the distillation tower, MOLECULES ARE LESS VISCOUS
(VISCOUS = not very runny (a bit like syrup)
6. As we move up the distillation tower, MOLECULES IGNITE MORE EASILY
7. As we move up the distillation tower,MOLECULES REQUIRE LESS OXYGEN
TO BURN PROPERLY (The more carbon atoms there are the more oxygen you
need)
What happens to the fractions after the process:
FRACTIONS ARE STILL MIXTURES
DIFFERENT FRACTIONS ARE PUT TO DIFFERENT USES
FRACTIONS CAN BE DISTILLED FURTHER
SOME FRACTIONS ARE MORE VALUABLE THAN OTHERS
THE HEAVIER FRACTIONS ARE LESS VALUABLE
LARGER MOLECULES CAN BE BROKEN DOWN TO SMALLER ONES - THIS IS
KNOWN AS CRACKING

 Cracking:

Reason:
LARGER HYDROCARBON MOLECULES ARE LESS USEFUL
THEY CAN BE BROKEN DOWN INTO SMALLER MOLECULES
SMALLER MOLECULES ARE MORE USEFUL
What happens in it:
LARGE HYDROCARBONS ARE VAPORISED (TURNED INTO GAS)
THE VAPOURS ARE PASSED OVER A HOT CATALYST
BONDS ARE BROKEN AND SMALLER MOLECULES ARE MADE
THERMAL DECOMPOSITION (BREAKING UP BY HEATING) TAKES PLACE
CATALYSTS HELP SPEED UP REACTIONS
What happens:
MANY DIFFERENT HYDROCARBONS ARE PRODUCED BECAUSE THE
MOLECULES CAN BREAK DOWN IN DIFFERENT WAYS.