TWI Cid ‘THE WELDING INSTITUTE WELDING INSPECTION - STEELS COURSE REF: WISS CONTENTS SECTION TERMINOLOGY 1 THE DUTIES OF A WELDING INSPECTOR 2 CODES AND STANDARDS 3 WELD PROCEDURES & PROCEDURE & WELDER APPROVAL 4 MECHANICAL TESTING 5 SYMBOLS 6 MATERIALS 7 CONSUMABLES. 8 THE FOUR FACTORS FOR ESTABLISHING A WELD 9 MANUAL METAL ARC WELDING 10 TUNGSTEN INERT GAS WELDING 1 DEFECTS WHICH MAY BE DETECTED BY SURFACE INSPECTION 12 METAL INERT GAS WELDING 13 SUBMERGED ARC WELDING 14 CALIBRATION OF EQUIPMENT 1s RESIDUAL STRESS AND DISTORTION 16 WELDABILITY 7 HEAT TREATMENTS 18 NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 19 REPAIR BY WELDING 20 GAS WELDING, CUTTING & GOUGING a ARC CUTTING 22 OTHER WELDING SYSTEMS 23 INTERNAL DEFECTS & THEIR INTERPRETATION 24 APPENDIX.TWI Vid ‘THE WELDING INSTITUTE WELDING INSPECTION - STEELS COURSE DETAIL ALL COURSE MEMBERS PLEASE READ CAREFULLY 1. The general working programme is attached, 2, Any alterations will be announced by the course tutor. 3, The lectures and tutorials etc are supported by the course text, please read as appropriate. 4, Question papers will be used to reinforce most sessions please attempt the questions, these will be discussed or marked at the discretion of the lecturer/tutor. 6 The end of course assessments are marked and the results recorded. Standards reproduced with the permission of British Standards Institute.TWI Ui ‘THE WELDING INSTITUTE KEY KNOWLEDGE FOR WELDING INSPECTION PERSONNEL ‘The information contained in this course text supplements the lectures given in the course WIS 5. Terminology given in the test is that recommended in BS 499 Pt 1: 1983; Weld Symbols to BS 499 Pt 2: 1980. To supplement this further, however, an indication of both International (ISO) and American standards is given. The sections are written in general terms and do not include all of the conditions that may apply to a specific fabrication or product.SECTION 1TWI VL fi ‘THE WELDING INSTITUTE TERMINOLOGY Use of the correct terminology is important. This course uses BS 499. GENERAL TERMINOLOGY WELDS and JOINTS Frequently the terms ‘weld’ and joint’ are used incorrectly. Exact definitions are given in BS 499 Welding terms and symbols’. TYPES OF WELD <=> BUTT WELD oe a Qh i Ass EDGE WELD ———) Saat ndenatons Spence SPOT WELD Ez = TER KK ry Illustration depicts resistance weld. Spot welds can be made with MIG or TIG processes. WELDING TECHNOLOGY Issue 0191 1TWI Vi TYPES OF JOINT ‘THE WELDING INSTITUTE The four basic welds can be used to join various types of joints. The following are some typical joints TYPE OF JOINT EXAMPLES BUTT a | TEE I 1 CORNER ~. LAP 5 WELDING TECHNOLOGY Issue 0191TWI Lm ‘THE WELDING INSTITUTE PLATE EDGE PREPARATION FOR BUTT WELDS ‘The illustrations show standard terminology for the various features of plate edge preparations. FEATURES OF COMPLETED WELD A butt weld in a plate, made by welding from both sides, has two weld faces, four toes. In a full penetration weld made from one side, the protruding weld on the underside is the penetration bead. WELDING TECHNOLOGY Issue 0191 1.3TWI Lm ‘THE WELDING INSTITUTE If a weld is sectioned, polished and etched, the fusion boundary can be established. Metal lying between the two fusion boundaries is weld metal, a mixture of deposited metal and plate material that has been melted. Adjacent to the fusion boundary is the heat affected zone (HAZ), in which the plate material has a metallurgical structure modified by the heat of welding. Fillet welds also have Toes Aweld face A root A fusion boundary A heat affected zone The shape of a fillet weld in cross-section is described by three terms Mitre filet —_—__ Ss Convex fillet Concave fillet Excess weld metal, as illustrated, is often referred to as ‘weld reinforcement’. This does not necessarily mean it strengthens a joint. WELDING TECHNOLOGY Issue 0191TWI Ui ‘THE WELDING INSTITUTE SIZE OF WELDS For full penetration butt welds, the general rule is: design throat thickness, t, = thickness of the thinner part joined. Partial penetration butt welds The term partial penetration strictly implies butt welds that are designed to have less than full penetration. Failure to achieve full penetration when it is wanted should be listed as the defect INCOMPLETE PENETRATION. The throat thickness of a partial penetration weld made from both sides is t, + ty and the design throat thickness t, + t,. Note that the degree of penetration must be known. Fillet weld sizes are calculated by reference to allowable shear stress on the throat area, i.e, throat area = design throat thickness x length of weld. The size required is specified on drawings in terms of leg length ( /). For fillet welds with equal leg lengths: I= 1.4, where t, is as defined for mitre and convex fillets. WELDING TECHNOLOGY Issue 0191 15TWI Um ‘THE WELDING INSTITUTE If an asymmetrical fillet weld is required, both leg lengths are specified and t, is taken as the minimum throat dimension. Deep penetration fillet weld With high current density processes, e.g. submerged arc and MIG (spray). penetration along the joint line can be produced. This gives an increase in throat thickness with no change in leg length. WELDING TECHNOLOGY 16 Issue 0191TWI Ci ‘THE WELDING INSTITUTE QUESTIONS TERMINOLOGY Qi. Sketch a single vee butt joint and a single bevel butt joint = — a2. Sketch a tee joint and indicate for fillet welds: a) leg length b) throat thickness chron, Pnciense® ©) root d) toes as. Complete the necessary features of the sketch: an ESRD, ee ne os Ly Cate Red sithy Lee ar uit a we “ye Describe the tree (3) types of fillet weld shape. oy ths oone Q ence {Keanu ow on wo Ke as. What is ‘excess weld metal’? Metal above rna tesco tock Gard chee Mage of welch meek above parent pine Weegee OF etch metal clpove toch a Line holwem: 2 sods ss. oe above oe, Ost eatal. < 7SECTION 2TWI Ui aC THE DUTIES OF THE WELDING INSPECTOR VISUAL INSPECTION ‘THE WELDING INSTITUTE At any point in the course of welding, i.e. tacking, root pass, filler pass or capping pass, but particularly for the root and cap, a detailed inspection may be required. British Standard 5289 : 1976 gives guidance on tools and responsibilities together with sketches of typical defects. The inspector at this point must - a) observe, identify and perhaps record the features of the weld. b) decide whether the weld Is acceptable in terms of the particular levels which are permitted; defect levels may be ‘in-house’ or National Codes of Practice. When the defect size is in excess of the permitted level then either a concession must be applied for (from a competent person) or the weld rejected. CODE OF PRACTICE FOR VISUAL INSPECTION ‘A code of practice for an inspection department could take the form outlined below. It is appreciated that full implementation of the code would be extremely costly and therefore it may be necessary to reduce the amount of inspection to less than is theoretically required. AIDS OF VISUAL INSPECTION Mumination: Good lighting is essential Inspection lenses: The magnification should not exceed 2-2% diameters. If higher magnification is required use a binocular microscope. Optical viewing devices area progressive development from the use of a hand torch and mirror, frequently with the addition of a magnifier and light source. In order to achieve accessibility probe units are available down to a diameter, properties for which are: 1. Large field of vision. 2. Freedom from distortion of image. 3. Accurate preservations of colour values. 4. Adequacy of illumination. WELDING TECHNOLOGY Issue 0191 24TWI Ci ‘THE WELDING INSTITUTE VISUAL INSPECTION PRACTICE The inspector should be familiar with the following: All applicable documents. Workmanship standards. All phases of good workshop practice. Tools and measuring devices. PON INSPECTION BEFORE WELDING Before assembly: Check: Application standard Welding procedure sheets Drawings Welder qualifications Material composition Condition of material Type of edge preparation, method and finish Consumables, i.e. type of electrodes, filler wires, fluxes, shielding and backing gases (composition) and special drying requirements for electrodes 9. Welding process.processes PNOAAONS After assembly: Check: 1, Clearance dimensions, tolerances, type of backing (if any) 2. Alignment, tack welds, bridging pieces, etc. 3. Cleanliness 4. Preheat (if any) Note: Good inspection prior to welding could eliminate conditions that lead to the formation of defects. WELDING TECHNOLOGY 22 Issue 0191TWI Lm ‘THE WELDING INSTITUTE INSPECTION DURING WELDING Check: Welding process Preheat and interpass temperatures Inter-run cleaning Joint preparation Filler metals Control of distortion Root and subsequent runs Welding current and voltage Chipping, grinding, gouging Fluxes and shielding gases Compliance with weld procedure sheet and application standard AZO PNOTPONs mo AFTER WELDING Check: 1. Dimensional accuracy 2. Conformity of drawings and standard requirements 3. Acceptability of welds regarding appearance 4, Post-heat treatment (if any) 5, Repairs REPAIRS. Mark out area positively and clearly, Use a method established and understood by all inspection and repair personnel. Check when partially removed (visual and NDT). Check when fully removed (visual and NDT). Check rewelding. Reinspect. po Pare WELDING TECHNOLOGY Issue 0191 23TWI Lim ‘THE WELDING INSTITUTE QUESTIONS RESPONSIBILITIES AND DUTIES OF A WELDING INSPECTOR Cenarse. | cothensm rraone Q1. Give three (3) main responsibilities of a welding inspector Ziman reopersbites 1 Soke er ab Leeds \aeRore ates we . Dees, Ta aay — Recta oo beens ere. Choco! INSeeck Agber oekdinsg; — Di Station nee YO whee Liecsdue Q2, Give three (8) attributes which all welding inspectors must possess_ ue a Ss \enooleage BE RE Unclinaterrl cy OR Compliance cod? fe yy cule mer ef clokucts, cboeve emeldey and Goede wh werdrs Bh eccectatoe skews aout Q3. What documents or records should be referred to by the welding inspector? gues v A Proce’ teed www F romprcasen FEO w < dS a oe no gay MOKED pees Ss are erase Set rect ronee 4. What are the duties of the welding inspector?., Apurk on Clasarye, Wire Grek” Pempt sasioreers Collarate records 7 eA reheat, taatere dur ant after Eesha Qs, Should the most up to date code or specification be used? | We, use Tha Cade of apErPreahos » peloooek Ye Lele OF ConFract as agen puesh Keke we ley The curhonty oF Cee as2SECTION 3TWI Ui ‘THE WELDING INSTITUTE CODES AND STANDARDS CLASS OF WORK There are many types of work which require engineering materials to be joined by welding, for example: pressure vessels bridges oil rigs earth moving equipment aero-engines ventilation systems storage tanks heavy vehicle chassis car bodies food processing plant The quality requirements of the joints in these fabrications depend on their fitness-for-purpose and differ significantly from one application to the next. Pressure vessels require welds which can withstand the stresses and high temperatures experienced in operation. Bridges must take into account the effect of differing vehicle loads and wind loading. Oil rigs are designed to withstand the effect of wave formation and wind loads. Earth moving equipment has to accommodate differences in terrain and earth conditions and is subject to fatigue loading. Welds in food processing plants must withstand corrosion by hot acidic liquors. On the next page some typical Codes of practice and Standards which cover various types of constructions being fabricated by welding are listed. Note: Throughout this text, the term Code is used to cover Code of Practice, Standard and Specification. WELDING TECHNOLOGY Issue 0191 34Code Class of Work BS 5500 Unfired fusion welded pressure vessels ASME VIII American boiler and pressure vessel code BS 2633 Class 1 Arc welding of ferritic steel pipework for carrying fluids BS 4515 Process of welding steel pipelines on land and offshore BS 5950 Structural use in steelwork in building AWS D1. Structural welding code (American) BS 5400 Steel concrete and composite bridges BS 6235 Code of Practice for fixed offshore structure API 1104. Standard for welding pipelines and related facilities These documents can also provide a useful source of data for applications where Codes do not exist. It should be remembered, however, that the principal criterion in the Codes listed is the quality of the joint in relation to the service conditions. There are other applications where success is judged by different criteria, such as dimensional accuracy. ‘Another important consideration is controlling the cost of welding. Variations in weld times and quantities of consumables can readily result if the method of making a weld is left to the welder to decide. The continuous and satisfactory performance of weldments made to various Codes requires that specific guidelines are laid down to cover materials, design of joints, welding processes, welding consumables, acceptance criteria and inspection techniques. These guidelines are usually grouped under the general heading of a Weld Procedure, WELDING TECHNOLOGY Issue 0197TWI Cir ‘THE WELDING INSTITUTE QUESTIONS CODES AND STANDARDS Q1. List the typical items to be found in a Code of Practice Coda. of Practice refers to vetorcandsa of current diameter angle, diameter, A mm degrees mm <20 1.0 30 10-16 20 to 100 16 30 - 60 16-24 100 to 200 24 60 - 90 24-40 200-300 3.2 90 - 120 40-48 300 to 400~ 3.2 120 48-64 * Thoriated tungsten 1 Zirconiated tungsten, balled tip, electrode diameter depends on degree of balance on AC waveform, ~ Use current slope-in to minimise thermal shock which may cause splitting of the electrode, In DC welding, a small diameter, finely pointed approximately 30° electrode must be used to stabilise low current arcs at less than 20A. As the current is increased, it is equally important to readjust the electrode diameter and vertex angle. Too fine an electrode tip causes excessive broadening of the plasma stream, due to the high current density, which results in a marked decrease in the depth to width ratio of the weld pool. More extreme current levels will result in excessively high erosion rates and eventually in melting of the electrode tip. Recommended electrode diameters and vertex angles in argon shielding gases for the normal range of currents are given in Table 1. WELDING TECHNOLOGY Issue 0191 115TWI im 11.6 ‘THE WELDING INSTITUTE Shielding gas The shielding gas composition is selected according to the material being welded, and the normal range of commercially available gases is given in the Table below. In selecting a shielding gas it should be noted that: 1. ‘The most common shielding gas is argon. This can be used for welding a wide range of material including mild steel, stainless steel, and the reactive aluminium, titanium and magnesium. . Argon-hydrogen mixtures, typically 2% and 5% H,, can be used for welding austenitic stainless steel! and some nickel alloys. The advantages of adding hydrogen are that the shielding gas is slightly reducing, producing cleaner welds, and the arc itself is more constricted, thus enabling higher speeds to be achieved and/or producing an improved weld bead penetration profile, i.e. greater depth to width ratio. It should be noted that the use of a hydrogen addition introduces the risk of hydrogen cracking (carbon and alloy steels) and weld metal porosity (ferritic steels, aluminium and copper), particularly in multipass welds. . Helium, and helium-argon mixtures, typically 75/25 helium/argon, have particular advantages with regard to higher heat input; the greater heat input is caused by the higher ionisation potential of helium, which is approximately 25eV compared with 16eV for argon. . As nitrogen is a diatomic gas, on re-association at the workpiece surface, it is capable of transferring more energy than monatomic argon or helium. Hence its addition to argon can be particularly beneficial when welding materials such as copper, which have high thermal conductivity; the advantages of nitrogen additions cannot be exploited when welding ferritic and stainless steels because nitrogen pick-up in the weld pool could cause a significant reduction in toughness and corrosion resistance. Recammaned shisiding gases for TG welding WELDING TECHNOLOGY Issue 0191TWI im ‘THE WELDING INSTITUTE ‘The effectiveness of a gas shield is determined at least in part by the gas density. As the density of helium is approximately one tenth that of argon, difficulties can be experienced in protecting the weld pool, particularly when welding under draughty conditions or at high currents which may induce turbulence in the gas shielding stream. However, effective shielding can be maintained by increasing the gas flow, typically by a factor of two. Shielding of the weld pool area can also be improved by use of a gas lens, which is inserted into the torch nozzle to ensure laminar flow. Adoption of this technique is strongly recommended when welding in positions other than the flat and for welding curved surfaces. ACTIG TIG welding is also practised with AC, the electrode polarity oscillating at 50Hz. The technique is used in welding aluminium and magnesium alloys, where the periods of electrode positive ensure efficient cathodic cleaning of the tenacious oxide film on the surface of the material. Compared with DC welding, the disadvantages of the technique lie in the low penetration capacity of the arc and, as the arc extinguishes at each current reversal, in the necessity for a high open circuit voltage, typically 100V and above, or continuously applied HF, to stabilise the arc. Low penetration results in particular from the blunt or “palled’ electrode which is caused by the high degree of electrode heating during the positive half-cycle. Where deep penetration is required, use of DC with helium as the shielding gas, which does not suffer from these disadvantages and is somewhat tolerant to surface oxide, may be an alternative. Use of helium, however, is not particularly attractive because of its high cost and, in the absence of the cleaning action of the arc, the weld pool/parent metal boundaries can be somewhat indistinct, thus making it difficult to monitor and control the behaviour of the weld pool. WELDING TECHNOLOGY Issue 0191 11.7TWI VN THE WELDING INSTITUTE QUESTIONS: TUNGSTEN INERT GAS Qi. ‘State the welding variables for TIG. Current | Elocrreda Pos wile /rogahve Shiai Crow ee Foo redes SlecrrodQ w2cbensren. 2. What is the type of current used for steels, and what is the electrode polarity 2 . DC current Gath -elactredla. nagbve Y-~ 3. What is the purpose of high frequency ? a) For direct current To Start ore OFF b) For alternating current? cone, Teasrerishe ant Q4. Name the two inert gases mainly used in TIG and give an advantage for each gas. ay meebo we oc Teneo bay, Aragn — Unect torn Sites Oe, ats ee Peliurn — ener Weak gut [ BErercedeN AWwrmnin BF Copper Tooel/ sat Q5. Give an advantage and a disadvantage of the process. Spaced bl Siaweocr proctuctoX” Exenr sae » Prey Quakry wads preducadh v Best Getdlmacat congaseen, Geek corral oF wed pool. Qsi1SECTION 12TWI im ‘THE WELDING INSTITUTE DEFECTS WHICH MAY BE DETECTED BY SURFACE INSPECTION Defects which may be detected by visual inspection can be grouped under four headings. 1. Cracks 2. Surface irregularities ar Contour defects 4 Root defects Internal defects such as cavities Solid inclusions will be dealt with during macroscopic examination WELDING TECHNOLOGY Issue 0191 124Twi im ‘THE WELDING INSTITUTE Surface Cracks 60015* Crack A linear discontinuity produced by fracture. Y N\ Cracks may be longitudinal, in the weld metal, | \ J | ie. centreline longitudinal, in the parent metal co transverse crater (star cracking) WELDING TECHNOLOGY 122 Issue 0191TWI im ‘THE WELDING INSTITUTE 60006" Undercut An irregular groove at a toe of @ run in the parent metal or in previously deposited weld metal. ‘Aivimperfection at the toe or root of a weld caused by metal flowing on to the surface of the parent metal without fusing to it. 60 038 Cw | Cw ce oth — it the d of hi the source of heat was removed. ZIT TD crane oie 10031 Spatter micro cracks » oe 32104 * str COCO ~Stray-flash__ = (stray arcing). e oe WELDING TECHNOLOGY Issue 0191 12.3TWI im THE WELDING INSTITUTE tT 06 ys Contour Defects 60003 Incompletely filled groove A continuous or intermittent channel in the surface of a weld, running along its length, due to insufficient weld metal. The channel may be along the centre or along one or both edges of the weld. 00 000* Bulbous contour (not BS 499 term) ote 00 000* Unequal legs (not BS 499 term) Variation of leg length on a fillet weld. N.B. Unequal leg lengths may be specified as part of the design — in which case they are not defects. pore WELDING TECHNOLOGY 12.4 Issue 019160 020 60 001* 60 002* 60 004" 60 039 ¥ wee ee co Root Defects 60 022* Incomplete root penetration Failure of weld metal to extend into the root of a joint. Lack of root fusion Lack of union at the root of a joint. Excess penetration bead Excess weld metal protruding through the root of a fusion weld made from one side only. Root concavity (suck-back; underwashing) A shallow groove which may occur in the root of a butt weld. Shrinkage groove A shallow groove caused by contraction in the metal along each side of a penetration bead. Burnthrough {mett through) A localised collapse of the molten pool due to excessive penetration, resulting in a hole in the weld run. WELDING TECHNOLOGY Issue 0191 ‘THE WELDING INSTITUTE loaapa traces a 12.5TWI UM ‘THE WELDING INSTITUTE QUESTIONS REVIEW OF DEFECTS Qi —_Name two (2) cracl/planar defects found within the weld metal. Lomenear Tears criiar cracks cs Locte—o}—Rusion eee wer Beaten Deanne ores Sen@reakon Cracies. \ complete Pan crrabs a a2 Give two (2) main causes of excess penetration Reot Gap too larga — Lign Maas net” + Sens. Ampere Yo Hh Trowel Root Tce tee wnat, a3 Sketch a) Incomplete filled groove b) Lack of sidewall fusion at the weld toe @ — a4 Give three (3) main causes of undercut Y Rig Amperage aS TSE THES Fase voor Stel ~~ “travel Speed tee Fast ~~ or Give three possible causes of lack of side wall fusion Foor Towt Geeess a Unus, Yoo large electrode Far Souk Ser up ~~ jrree reste ear etch tn “Travel Spaach to WES Electrode Argle- Lows Curent asi2SECTION 13TWI Um ‘THE WELDING INSTITUTE Ment With a ‘fat’ volts/amps characteristic an attempted alteration in arc (volts) will have litte effect, hence arc length (volts) remains constant but a. significant change in current will result. This is often referred to as the “self- adjusting arc’. A'FLAT' ARC PROCESS (CONSTANT) VOLTAGE METAL INERT GAS (MIG) Copper contact tube Teonnected fo the power supply unit Electrode vie weld pool are veld Type of Operation Manual, mechanised or automatic. Mode of Operation An arc is maintained between the end of the bare wire electrode and the work. The wire is fed at a constant speed, selected to give the required current, and the are length is controlled by the power source. The operator is not therefore concerned with controlling the arc length and can Concentrate on depositing the weld metal in.the correct manner. The process can be operated at high currents (250-500A) when metal transfer is in the form of a ‘spray’, but, except for aluminium, this technique is confined to welding in the flat and horizontal positions. For vertical and overhead welding special low-current techniques must be used, ie. ‘dip’ transfer or pulsed are. The arc and weld pool are shielded by a stream of gas. The electrode can be solid or flux cored. WELDING TECHNOLOGY Issue 0191 Metal Active Gas (MAG); CO,; Metal-arc gas shielded; GMAW (US) Typical defects associated with this process: Incomplete penetration. Excessive penetration. *Undercut. Excessive spatter. Cracking, Porosity. Lack of fusion. Stray flash, In mechanised MIG and submerged arc welding the process may also be operated using constant current or drooping arc characteristics. 13.4TWI Um ‘THE WELDING INSTITUTE GAS SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING Welding sets Sets are manufactured in a range of sizes, identified by current, similar to metal arc welding. Currents below 200A can only give ‘dip transfer’ operation, suitable for welding steel only. Larger sets may have the wire reel and motor as a separate unit, so it can be placed near the job. Controls on the set adjust output voltage and may allow a choice of inductance: the wire speed control will be on the wire feed unit. WELDING TECHNOLOGY 13.2 Issue 0191TWI Ui ‘THE WELDING INSTITUTE Electrical input is from single-phase 240V mains for small sets, or three-phase 415V for medium size upwards. Output is always DC with a flat output characteristic (semi automatic), drooping output (mechanised). Sets often have a built-in holder for a gas cylinder. A set will usually be supplied complete with a suitable gun: also see ‘Accessories’ below. Heavy duty guns may be water cooled, and the set may have a water tank and cooling radiator built in. Gas nozzle (operator removable) Wire Insulating boss locating nozzle, ete Contact tip Swan-neck (operator replaceable), |— Handle Hose: One-piece or Separate inners in loose sleeve. = Welding cable }— — Wire conduit — Gas hose — Trigger switch connection When welding aluminium, the wire is soft, and tends to kink when pushed through a hose — a gun carrying a small reel of wire ~ ‘reel-on-gun’ ~ obviates this. ia + ° \ Wire path ‘Motor Wire Drive rolts reel WELDING TECHNOLOGY Issue 0191 133TWI mT ‘THE WELDING INSTITUTE Sets which supply current in pulses (at 40-200 per second) give improved results on some jobs: as this ‘pulse-MIG' would increase the number of controls, an electronic ‘synergic’ control system varies all the parameters in step to simplify adjustments. Accessories Welding cables } Connectors to set } similar to manual metal arc: one set usually included Clamps or clips } Gun and connecting hose assembly to suit current, usually supplied with set; also see ‘spares’ below. Gas regulators and hose, connections to suit. Vaporiser for carbon dioxide gas on industrial sets. Cylinder stand Spares The following parts come into contact with the wire - spares are needed to replace worn parts, or if wire size or type is changed. Inlet and outlet guides } } on drive assembly Drive rolls } Wire conduit liner - spring steel! coil, like curtain wire, for steel electrode wire, or plastic tube for aluminium. Contact tip in gun - needs fairly frequent replacement. Gas shielding nozzle for gun ~ various sizes to suit different jobs. WELDING TECHNOLOGY 13.4 Issue 0191TWI Lim ‘THE WELDING INSTITUTE MIG/MAG WELDING PROCESS CHARACTERISTICS The heat source used to melt the parent metal is obtained from an electric arc which is formed between the end of a consumable electrode wire and the work-piece. The arc melts the end of the electrode wire which is transferred to the molten weld pool. The electrode wire is fed from a spool which is attached to the wire driving system and passes through a set of rolls which are driven by a variable speed electric motor. By varying the speed of the motor we can adjust the level of the welding current: high wire feed speed gives high welding current. The arc length can also be varied by altering the voltage: high voltages give longer arc lengths and vice versa. In order to prevent the air reacting chemically with the molten metal a shielding gas of either CO, or argon/CO, mixture is passed over the weld zone from a nozzle attached to the welding gun or torch. This protects the molten droplets passing across the arc and the molten weld pool. Electrical power for the process is a direct current which is obtained from a transformer-rectifier. The welding gun or torch is connected to the positive pole of the power supply unit and electrical contact to the wire is obtained as Close to the arc as possible by means of a copper contact tip or tube. WELDING TECHNOLOGY Issue 0191 13.5TWI LD WELDING STITUTE Metal transfer The metal at the end of the electrode is melted and transferred to the molten weld pool. The type of metal transfer are: 1. Spray or globular transfer 2. Short-circuiting or dip transfer Spray transfer/globular transfer This type of metal transfer generally occurs at high current high arc voltage ranges, e.g. 250-600A at 28-40V. As the current is increased the rate at which the droplets are transferred across the arc increases and they become smaller in volume. The droplets can be seen on a high-speed cine film but cannot be distinguished with the naked eye. It appears as if there is a spray of metal. The type of shielding gas greatly affects the current rate at which the spray transfer occurs. The use of CO, as a shielding gas requires a much greater current density than argon to produce the same droplet rate. With the use of high currents giving strong magnetic forces very directional arcs are produced. In argon shielding gases the action of these forces on the droplets is well-balances and transfer from wire to work is smooth with little or not spatter. However, in a CO, shield the forces tend to be out-of-balance giving rise to an arcing condition that is less smooth and spatter levels are heavier. Metal transfer under these conditions is normally called globular or ~ free-flight. The welding conditions which give spray or globular transfer are normally associated with high deposition rates on medium and thick sections and can only be used when welding in the flat position. WELDING TECHNOLOGY 13.6 Issue 0191TWI Ci ‘THE WELDING INSTITUTE Short-circulting arc or dip-transfer At lower arc voltages and currents, generally within the 16-26V, 60-180A, ranges, metal transfer takes place during short circuits between the electrode and the weld pool. These follow a consistent sequence of alternate arcing and short-circuiting causing the end of the electrode wire to dip into the weld. As the wire touches the weld pool there is a rise of current, the resistance of the wire causes heating and the end of the electrode melts. The wire necks due to a magnetic pinch effect and the motten metal flows into the pool. During this short-circuit period the current delivered by the power source Is much higher than during arcing, typically 1000-1500A. This creates high forces which have an explosive effect on the weld pool and spatter is considerable. To reduce this effect an inductance is connected in series with the power supply and the arc to reduce the rate of rise of current during the short-circuit period. The short-circuit is cleared more slowly and gently, and the spatter is reduced to an acceptable level. Ideally an almost irregular dip/arc cycle takes place about 50-200 times a second. Too little inductance gives rise to unstable arcing conditions, excessive spatter and lack of fusion defects. The dip transfer mode is used for the welding of thin sheet and medium plate, and for all thicknesses when welding in the vertical or overhead positions. Time —~ Arcing cycte (Current OS Short circuit, — Hecking High current Slandingcurrent Are are re-ignitin are diminishing Short circuit cycte WELDING TECHNOLOGY Issue 0191 13.7TWI Ci ‘THE WELDING INSTITUTE QUESTIONS MIG MAG AND CO, WELDING (METAL INERT GAS WELDING) ai State the main welding parameters and variables of the process. WW @ined wehertredg attension . wine pnod -e) F eae cate Travel wofaeod Gee ikture Can Fes Roe @) Incluctemca SH up. e) Tilt angle ry Are Uinglh 9) Voltage a2 What polarity is normally used for welding applications ? PC Electedle + a3 State the modes of transfer ver i Globular 7 °) Spray transfer ~~ d) Pues > Sige Type Condition, a4 State three (8) items of importance when inspecting a wire to be used for MIG Welding. gust wot PecseaTt correct hilar 27 FREE Fram oll, Qreaes, motu &~ Vore enttes 27 PRMROE a5 Which defect can be quite common when using the short circuiting mode of transfer? a) Lack of penetration >< b) Undercut ~ 4 ©) Lack of fusion me d) Porosity Qs13SECTION 14TWI im ‘THE WELDING INSTITUTE A 'FLAT' ARC PROCESS (CONSTANT) VOLTAGE SUBMERGED-ARC (SA) Wee electrode Granular flu weg Type of Operation Mechanised, automatic or semi-automatic. Mode of Operation An arc is maintained between the end of a bare wire electrode and the work. As the electrode is melted, it is fed into the arc by a set of rolls, driven by a governed motor. Wire feed speed is automatically controlled to equal the rate at which the electrode is melted, thus arc length is constant. The arc operates under a layer of granular flux (hence ‘submerged’ arc). Some of the flux melts to provide a protective blanket over the weld pool; the remainder of the flux is unaffected and can be recovered and re-used provided it is dry and not contaminated. A semi-automatic version is available in which the operator has control of a welding gun which carries a small quantity of flux in a hopper. WELDING TECHNOLOGY Issue 0191 Typical defects associated with this process: Porosity. Cracking. * Slag inclusions. + Incomplete penetration. Excessive penetration. Weld profile defects. *Undercut. Lack of fusion, 144TWI “ia ‘THE WELDING INSTITUTE, SUBMERGED ARC WELDING: PROCESS AND EQUIPMENT FUNDAMENTALS 14.2 ‘The principle of the submerged-arc process is shown schematically below. A power source P, is connected across the contact nozzle on the welding head and the workpiece. The power source can be a transformer for AC welding or a rectifier (or motor generator) for DC welding. The filler materials are an uncoated continuous electrode and a granular welding flux fed down to the joint by way of a hose from the flux hopper. To prevent the electrode overheating at high currents the welding current is transferred to the electrode at a point very close to the electric arc. The arc is burning in a cavity filled with gas (CO,, CO, etc) and metal fumes. In front the cavity is walled in by unfused parent material, and behind the arc by solidifying weld metal. The covering over the cavity consists of molten slag. The diagram below also shows the solidified weld and the thin covering of solid slag which has to be detached after the completion of each run. Ree NOW Solidted weld Weld pool Arceaviy Granular fu Since the arc is completely submerged by the flux there is none of the irritating arc radiation which is so characteristic of the open arc processes; welding screens are therefore unnecessary. The welding flux is never completely consumed and the surplus quantity left can be collected either by hand or automatically and returned to the fiux hopper to be used again. WELDING TECHNOLOGY Issue 0191