• Pneumatic systems are fire and explosion proof, whereas hydraulic

systems are not.

• Pneumatic systems are simple, easy to maintain.

5.9 BASIC UNIT OF PNEUMATIC SYSTEM: FLAPPER NOZZLE

Flapper valve or flapper nozzle shown in Fig. 5.12 is an important component of
pneumatic systems. The power source is the supply of air at constant pressure.
Pressurizedair is fed through the orifice and is ejected from the nozzle to-
wards the flapper. The flapper is positioned against the nozzle opening, and the
nozzle back pressure Pbis controlled by the nozzle flapper distance, 'e'. As the
flapper approaches the nozzle, resistance to airflow through the nozzle increases.
NVhenthe flapper blocks the nozzle completely, becomes equal to the supply
pressure Ps. If the flapper moves away from the nozzle, resistanceto airflow
decreases. If the nozzle-flapper distance is large, then there is practically no
restriction to airflow; and the nozzle back pressure takes on a minimum value,
close to the ambient pressure. Electrical equivalent circuit of the flapper nozzle
(shown in Fig. 5.13) could be a supply voltage Vsconnected in series with a fixed
resistor Ro and a variable resistor Rv.Air supply, orifice, and flapper nozzle move-
ment are analogous to voltage supply, fixed resistor, and variable resistance re-
spectively. Withoutfixed resistor, there would be no change across the variable
resistor (that explains the importance of orifice).
The voltage across RVcan be written as:

Ro+Rv

If RV 0, i.e., flapper is far away from nozzle, then Vo OV

And if RV 00,i.e., flapper is covering the nozzle, then Vo= Vs
Thus, the flapper valve converts small changes in flapper position into
larger
changes in the back pressure. A typical curve relating Pb and e is
shown in
Fig. 5.14. The linear part of the curve is utilized in the valve operation.

Nozzle
Orifice

Back pressure
Flapper Fig. 5.13 Electrical equivalentof
basic flapper nozzle
Fig. 5.12 Flappernozzle
system
 For this operating region, the trans- 13> x

Linear part
fer function of the valve is: b
a
e
Flapper
(Refer Fig. 5.12)
Alt(s)
=K (K is slope o
NV(s)
Ax of the linear part of the curve.)
Fig. 5.14 Curve relating the nozzle back APB(s) a To atmosphere
pressure and nozzle flapper
distance AE(s) (a + b) Output pressure
K < 0 => As error (flapper moves away from nozzle) increases,controller
output decreases. Ball
Air is being consumed continuouslyexcept when the nozzle is completely
Fig. 5.15 Pneumaticrelay
covered. The nozzle diameter is made small to limit the continuous consumption
of air; and also to ascekain that the flapper moves by the measurement,not by
nozzle and flapper brings the back pressure down in a flapper valve, whereas the
the leakine air. The orifice diameter is smaller than the nozzle diameter to produce
same setting boosts the output pressure when used in combination with a pneu-
the needed drop in pressure. But. if the orifice is made too small, then there is a
matic relay. The transfer function of the combination is, therefore:
possibility of it getting pluozed up by dust particles in air supply line.
Typical diameters of standard nozzle and orifice are 0.025 inch (0.4 mm) and AP(s)
= K; IC>O
0.010 inch (0.25 mm) respectively.Air supply pressureusually is 20 psi. The AXE(s)
sensitivity of the system is very high. A change of about 0.0001 inch in flapper Irrespective of ball position, excluding when the ball is at the top, the pneu-
movement changes the back pressure by I psi. When the gap between nozzle matic relay is bleeding air to the atmosphere, so it is also called as "bleed relay".
and flapper (baffle) is 0.006 inch, the back pressure reduces to 1 psi. A valve
operated by this mechanism will essentially be either in open or in closed position. 5.10 PNEUMATICPROPORTIONAL CONTROLLER
Pneumatic Relay (Power Booster) Figure 5.16 shows the schematic diagram of a pneumatic proportional controller.
For the flapper valve, it is necessary to restrict the range of flapper displacement The nozzle-flapper amplifier constitutes the first-stage amplifier where nozzle
to a very small value so that the linearity of operation is maintained. In linear back pressure is controlled by the nozzle-flapper distance. The pneumatic relay
range of operation, the change in output pressure is very small; therefore, a constitutes the second stage amplifier. The nozzle back pressure determines the
pneumaticamplifier has to work in cascade with this device. This pneumatic position of the diaphragm valve for the second-stage amplifier which is capable
amplifier is commonly known as "Pneumatic Relay". A typical combination of of handling a large quantity of airflow.
flapper valve and pneumatic relay is shown in Fig. 5.15. A ball is attached to the The operationof the pneumaticproportional controller is as follows. The
lower surface of the bellow. When the ball rests on its upper seat, the atmo- input signal to the two-stagepneumatic amplifier is the actuating error signal.
spheric opening is closed and the output pressure P becomes equal to the supply Increasing the actuating error signal moves the flapper to the left. This move will
pressure Ps. When the ball rests on its lower seat, it blocks the air supply and the in turn increase the nozzle back pressure and the diaphragm valve moves down-
output pressure drops down to ambient pressure. The output pressure can thus ward. This results in an increase of the control pressure. This increase will cause
be made to vary from ambient to full-supply pressure. bellow feedback F to expand and move the flapper to the right, thus opening the
The movement of the flapper away from the nozzle causes (back pressure) nozzle. If the feedback element was absent, then it would have acted as on-off
to decrease, thus the bellows contract, moving the ball upwards. As a result, the controller. The feedback element bring about a gradual, rather than abrupt change in
atmosphericopening closes partially and the output pressure increases. When back pressure. For proper operation of the controller, the motion of flapper by the
the flapper moves towards the nozzle, back pressure increases and output pres- feedback bellows should should be less than the motion by the measuring action.
sure decreases.It is thus observed that an increase in separationbetween the The relation between Pc and x is linear, i.e., Pc K x
 e
Flapper 5.11 PNEUMATIC PD CONTROLLER
The addition of a restriction in the negative feedback path will modify the propor-
Nozzle
tional controller to a proportional-plus-derivative controller, commonly called as
PD controller. Consider the pneumatic controller shown in Fig. 5.18. Assuming
again small changes in the actuating error, nozzle-flapper distance and control
pressure, the operation of this controller can be summarized as follows:
b
For a small step change in e, the change in control pressure Pc will be
c instantaneous,which will affect control valve position.
The restriction R will momentarily prevent the feedback bellows from sensing
the pressure change Pc.
Thus, the feedback bellows will not respond momentarily, and the pneu-
matic actuating valve will feel the full effect of flapper movement.
As time goes on, the feedback bellows will expand or contract.
Pneumatic relay
At steady state, thefeedback bellows acts like an ordinary'feedback mechanism.
Fig. 5.16 Schematic diagram of a pneumatic proportionalcontroller A block diagram corresponding to this pneumatic controller is shown in
Fig. 5.19. K is a constant relating Pc (control pressure) and x is distance between
For the flapper movement, we have, b a nozzle and flapper, A is the area of the bellows, and KSis the equivalent spring
constant of the bellows. The transfer function between Pc and e is obtained using
The bellows acts like a spring and the following equation holds true: the block diagram.

A Pc KSy (ICsis the spring stiffness of the bellows) Pc(s) b

The transfer function between Pc and E is given by 1
14K
RCs+1
b
AssumingGH l,
a Pc(s)

e
Normally, the loop is so designed that GH>> 1. Under this assumption,

b Pc(s)
Pneumatic b
relay

c
a
Valve
Fig. 5.17 Block diagram representationof pneumatic proportionalcontroller
Fig. 5.18 PneumaticPD controller
 • Due to the restriction in the path of bellow Il, there will be a delayed action
by bellow Il in the same direction as of actuating error. (positive feedback)
• Bellow Il will expand to move the flapper by an additional amount in the
direction of the orignal displacement e.
The integral action of PI controller slowly cancels the feedback generated by
the proportional action, If the restriction valve R is omitted and bellows are of
identical stiffness, then all the feedback will be reduced to zero, reducing the P/
controller into an on-off controller. Introduction of R allows slow canceling of
the feedback.
A block diagram of pneumatic PI controller, under the assumption of small
1 variations in the variables, is shown in Fig. 5.21.
the delayed feedback or the transfct function in the
(RCs + l) b Pc(s)
feedback path Into a proportional-plus-de-
nvatxvecoatroiiet
1

S.12 PNEUMATIC CONTROLLER RCs+ 1

Coasdenag small m vuubies, can show that the addition of a de- a
iayed posit-I'vefee:hack controller (shown in Fig. 5.20) a + b KS
to a propot-ooaal-plus-zatzg:-al coar•ollcr. commonly called as PI controller.
The opetat•oa of coatroüet is as follows: Fig. 5.21 Block diagram representation of pneumatic Pt controller
• two beiiou•s by I Od Il) ze connected to the control pressure Note that the feedback is delayed due to the RC path, so the error is effectively
smrce; I uy remaioa, and EellowIl througha restriction. added through two summers. K is a constant, A is the area of the bellows, and KS
Le us assume small step change in actuating error in left direction. is the equivalent spring constant of the bellows. The transfer function of this
An instant change ia control Pc follows the change in back pres- controller is given below
sure- Negat:ve feedback action ofbellow I is providing proportional control. Pc(s) b
(AssumingGH >> l)
1+K—EA 1- 1
a 1 + RCs

1 + RCs
x Or,
RCs a A RCs

bKs
This is the governing equation of PI controller with K = and RC

5.13 PNEUMATIC PID CONTROLLER

b
A combination of tho three pneumatic controllers (P, PI, and PD) yields a pro-
portional-plus-integral-plus-derivative controller, commonly called as PID con-
troller. Figure 5.22 shows the schematic diagram of a PID controller and Fig. 5.23
shows the block diagram representation of the same under the assumption of
Valve
small variations in the variables.
Bellow J Bellow 11 Note that the feedback is delayed due to the integral RC path, so the error is
effectively added through two summers. On the other hand, the feedback is
Fig. 5.20 PneumaticPj controller accelerated due to the derivative RC path, so the error is effectively subtracted.
 Example 5.1 Consider the pneumatic pressure system shown in Fig. E5.1, wherein
the two bellows are assumed to be identical. The output ends of the two bellows
a are connected by a link from which the mechanical (linear) movement x is picked
up; x being proportional to the differential force of the bellows. The zero position
of the output motion (x) corresponds to steady input pressure. Relate the changes
x in input pressure Pi with the output motion (x) in the form of transfer function
X(s)/Pi(s). Stiffness of the two bellows is ICs.What is x (steady state) for unit
Pneumauc
relay step change in input pressure?
x
Bellows I Bellows 2

b
c c

Valve

Fig. 52 PneumaticPID controller

Pc(s)

Fig. E5.1 Pneumaticsystem

1
Solution
(Rtcs+ 1)
1
For the valve and bellows 1, we can write, (E5.1.1)
RIcs+l
1
1
(RdCs+ 1) Similarly, for the valve and bellows 2, we can write, (E5.1.2)
PI(s) R2 cs+l
fig. 5.23 Block diagramof PID controller Movement (X) of the bellows is given by:
(K = constant of proportionality)
The transfer function of pneumatic PID controller is:
Or, A (Pi(s) - P2(s)) = K A(s) (E5.1.3)
1 1 Substituting Eq. (E5.1.1) and (E5.1.2) in Eq. (E5.1.3):
Pc(s) 1+RdCs 1+R,Cs (RdCs+1)
1 1
PI(s) = K A(s)
Pc(s) RICs+1 Ros* 1
Or,
(RI-Rd)Cs
AE(s)
Or,
Pc(s) Pi(s) K (RICs+ cs+ 1)
AssumingGH l,
For PXs) —l/s

where K =
b KsR+Rd R,RdC
; + Rd) C; and
ICs (RICs + cs+ 1)
r mal value ISgiven by: RECAPITULATION
X steody.gtate Is -o
In engineering terms, fluid systems that use liquid are hydraulic, and those
The above result can be easily visualized. At steady states pu:ssures inside the systems that use gas are termed pneumatic.
two bellows (PI and P2) become equal', and bellows being identical, the net Pressure control, fluid control, and directional control are used in hydraulic
mechanical fon-c is zero, So, 0. systems.
Example5.2 Figure ES.2 shows a bellows The salient advantages of hydraulic systems are: positiveness, accuracy,flex-
a testuetor. Find the tulnsfci
ibility, high power-to-weightratio, fast starting, smooth and precise stopping
function of the system. and reversal, availability of both lier and rotary actuators, and simplicity of
operations,
A sliding spool four-way vavle, also called pilot valve is the basic unit in hy-
draulic controller; and it provides integral action.
.4 Combinations of feedback bellows, bellows with restriction, dashpots provide
different types of controllers.
• Basic unit of pneumatic system is flapper-nozzle; it is used with pneumatic relay
to provide amplification.
Pneumatic systems are intrinsically safe, provide less power, can allow leakage
fig. F5 Pneumatic
System of medium, and have higher operating temperature range.
Combination of bellows, and resistrictions providing immediate and delayed
For the bellows %ith resistance R and capacitance C, the relation between 19b and feedback are instrumental in different type of controllers.
PI can be 'ex•rittenas:
EXERCISES
1
(E5.2.1) Review Questions
Characteristic equauon of the bellow is: 1. Draw the basic flapper nozzle system. What is the need of fixed orifice in a
flapper nozzle system?
2. Compare pneumatic controllers with hydraulic controllers in terms of speed,
where KSis stiffness of spring and Kb is stiffness of bellow. power output, safety, and effect of temperature variations.
3. Compare the properties of pneumatic and hydraulic system arising due to the
(K, + KE).X medium they use.
or, PW= (E5.2.2)
4. Explain the functioning of pneumatic relay.
Substituting EA. (F-5.22) in Eg. (E52. I):
Numerical Problems
5.1. A hydraulic system as shown in Fig. P5.l has elements analogous to resistor,
RCs +1 inductor, and capacitor of an electrical circuit. The hydraulic system has a hy-
draulic resistor R, attributable to friction and internal turbulence of the fluid; a
1
Or, hydraulic inertor I, attributable to mass of fluid in flow; and a hydraulic capacitor
RCs +1 C, attributable to storage and compression. A pressure sensor is used to measure
It. Source pressure is P Both and P are relative to a low sump pressure PO.
Or,
x 1 whereK' and T- RC What is the transfer function between the actual and sensed pressure
Ts+l (KJ + Kb) J+Ts

values?