Lecture 6: Optical Components 1/

6. Optical components

Optical Communication Systems

and Networks

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

 Optical Networks. A practical perspective

Rajiv Ramaswami, Kumar N. Sivarajan, Chapter 3, pp. 107-223, Ed. Morgan-kaufmann.
2nd Edition, 2002.

 External electro-optic modulators

B.A.A. Saleh y M.C. Teich. “Fundamentals of Photonics”, Chapter 18, Ed.
Wiley.Iterscience.
J. Capamany, F. J. Fraile-Peláez, J. Martí, “Dispositivos de Comunicaciones Ópticas,”
Chapter 6, Ed. Síntesis

 Optical passive components: couplers, combiners,

isolators, filters, multiplexers, …
J. Capamany, F. J. Fraile-Peláez, J. Martí, “Dispositivos de Comunicaciones Ópticas,”
Chapter 2, Ed. Síntesis

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Introduction to optical networks

 Unidirectional transmission
 Bidirectional transmission
The same fiber used to carry out traffic in both propagation directions

Advantages:
It is achieved an optimization of optical fiber bandwidth and cost savings outside plant
Tema 6: Redes WDM

Disadvantages:
a) Special components (circulator) are needed for separating the transmission
directions
b) Most EDFAs have internal insulators that prevent bidirectional transmission
c) Crosstalk from nonlinear effects
d) Complex implementation of restoration and protection schemes

Setting up ligthpaths along fiber optic links and nodes supporting traffic from a variety
of client layer: ATM, IP, ... In the optical layer, comprises:
– Optical transmission medium
– OLT, optical line terminal equipment
OADM, optical add / drop multiplexer for inserting or removing optical channels
– OXC, optical Crossconnect

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Optical transmission medium

o Core and cladding diameters (µm)

o Attenuation coefficient (dB/km)
o Dispersion coefficient D (ps/km·nm)
Parameters to consider o Differential Dispersion coefficient (ps/km.nm2)
when choosing an o PMD parameter (ps/km1/2)
optical fiber o Minimum dispersion wavelength (µm)
Tema 6: Redes WDM

o Cutoff wavelength(µm)
o Nonlinear refractive index
o Modal field diameter / effective area (µm)

Band descriptors defined by ITU to operate in minimum loss spectral region

Band Descriptor Spectral range (nm)
O Original 1260 – 1360
E Extended 1360 – 1460
S Short 1460 – 1530
C Conventional 1530 – 1565
L Long 1565 – 1625
U Ultra-long 1625 - 1675

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Optical transmission medium

Standard Single Mode Fiber, SSMF
− Represents 95% of installed outside plant (> 100 million km)
− Standardized by ITU-G.652 recommendation
− Used for transmission within the spectral range 1260 - 1675 nm, except E
Tema 6: Redes WDM

and S bands
− Presents high dispersion between 1530 - 1675 nm spectral region
It requires dispersion compensation for long distances

Typical Dispersion profile

Main applications:
• Operation at 1310 nm in
Dispersion (ps/km·nm)
18
CATV and MAN networks
• Operation at 1550nm over 0
long distances
1310 nm 1550 nm 

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Optical transmission medium

Dispersion Shifted Fiber, DSF
− By a geometric modification of the refractive index profile the
minimum dispersion wavelength is shifted from 2nd to 3rd
communications window
− Loss slightly higher than SSMF (0.25 dB / km @ 1550 nm)
Tema 6: Redes WDM

− Not suitable for WDM since D = 0 ps/km·nm and small Aeff

increases nonlinear effects considerably
− For example, the effective area is typically lower than 40 µm2
− Suitable for single-channel systems. Typical Dispersion profile
Dispersion (ps/km·nm)
18

1310 nm 1550 nm 

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Optical transmission medium

Non-Zero Dispersion Fiber, NZDSF
− Low dispersion D in 3rd window but not negligible
− Dispersion can be positive or negative, and sign to get a zero
total dispersion using the concept of dispersion management
Tema 6: Redes WDM

− Standardized by ITU-G.652 recommendation

Applications:
• high-speed communications and long distances networks
• Not suitable for transmission at 1310 nm
Typical Dispersion profile
• Available for DWDM technology
Dispersion (ps/km·nm)
18

NZDSF+
0

1310 nm 
1550 nm NZDSF-

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Optical line terminal equipment, OLT

 OLTs take care of multiplexing and demultiplexing multiple wavelengths (or optical
channels) on the same fiber
 They are used in point-to-point or in the terminal stage of the link
 They are built from relatively simple elements, mainly composed by multiplexer
Tema 6: Redes WDM

devices, wavelength converters (transponder/repeaters) and optical amplifiers

Optical Node: OLT function

1
SDH

2 1 2 3
router mux
IP demux
3
router
IP O/E/O  OCS
standard
(transponder) OC S
Client
protocols

Signals managed in Signals managed in

electrical domain optical domain

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Optical line terminal equipment, OLT

 OTL presents adaptation functions: the wavelength conversion according to
standards set by the International Telecommunications Union (ITU)

 Transponders may add additional overhead for purposes of network

management

 The adaptation function is typically done through an optical-to-electrical-to-

optical (O/E/O) conversion
− the adaptation can be enabled only in the incoming direction

 The signal coming out of a transponder is multiplexed with other signals at

different wavelengths using a wavelength multiplexer

 It exists technological options to implement mux/demux: Fabry-Perot filters,

arrayed waveguide gratings, dielectric thin-film filters, or fiber Bragg gratings

 OLT can be terminated with an optical supervisory channel (OSC) on a separate

wavelength to monitor the performance of amplifiers

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Optical line terminal equipment, OLT

Optical Multiplexers

 The function of the multiplexer is to couple two or more wavelengths in the

same optical fiber
(the demultiplexer is responsible for performing the inverse operation, to separate the
Tema 6: Redes WDM

various wavelengths comprising the WDM signal from an optical fiber)

 Multiplexer requirements:
− Low insertion losses
− Independent losses of the polarization state
− Steep skirts (reduce crosstalk)
− Flat passbands (prevent a reduction in bandwidth in cascaded stages) and insensitive
to temperature variations
− Inexpensive devices

 Technological options considered for the implementation of multiplexers are

considering in the following devices.

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Optical line terminal equipment, OLT

Fabry – Perot filters
 FP filter is a dielectric resonant cavity (etalon), formed by two highly reflective
mirrors placed parallel to each other.
 It has been used for WDM applications although there are better filters nowadays
Tema 6: Redes WDM

Mirror 1 Mirror 2 ti :transmission

(t1, r1) (t2, r2) coefficient (field)
Ein ri :transmission
Eout coefficient (field)
l: cavity length
𝑡1 𝑡2 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑙
n: refractive index of
n
𝑡1 𝑡2 𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑒 −𝑗3𝛽𝑙 the cavity
l

The electric field at the output is the sum of successive transmitted fields:

𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐸𝑖𝑛 · 𝑡1 𝑡2 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑙 1 + 𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑒 −2𝑗𝛽𝑙 + 𝑟1 2 𝑟2 2 𝑒 −4𝑗𝛽𝑙 + ⋯

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Optical line terminal equipment, OLT

Considering the associated periodic Transfer

Function T(f): 1

R=0.2

Normalized Transfer functiion T(f)

     

2 2
R=0.5
𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡 1−𝐴−𝑅
𝑇 𝑓 = = R=0.9
𝐸𝑖𝑛 2 𝜋𝑓
1−𝑅 + 4𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝐹𝑆𝑅 )

Where R=|ri|2, A takes into account intracavity

losses (defined in power) and it is defined as:
A= 1-(R+T)

The periode is defined through the parameter FSR

or free spectral range: 0
0 1 2 3 4
𝑐
𝐹𝑆𝑅 = Normalized frequency f/FSR
2𝑛𝑙

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Optical line terminal equipment, OLT

There are several parameters to evaluate the performance or quality of a FP-filter
(assuming mirrors reflectivity is near R1):

1) FWHM: Full-width at half maximum

1/2
𝑐 1−𝑅
𝐹𝑊𝐻𝑀 = arcsin
2𝜋𝑛𝑙 2 𝑅 FWHM

2) Finesse, F
𝐹𝑆𝑅 𝜋 𝑅
𝐹= ≈
𝐹𝑊𝐻𝑀 1 − 𝑅

 Channel selection
FSR FSR
Channels Channels
Band band

B bandwidth frequency B bandwidth frequency

It must be satisfied B< FSR, otherwise crosstalk!

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Optical line terminal equipment, OLT

Filters based on Bragg gratings

 These devices are based on the effect Bragg effect acting as selective wavelength
reflective mirrors
 They are built by inserting a diffraction grating in the fiber (Bragg grating)
− A pattern is written in the core of the according to a prestablished periodic variation of
the refractive index
− When light propagates through this pattern, the wavelength satisfying Bragg condition
reflects while the remaining wavelengths continue their propagation along the fiber

Transmitted and
B Reflected wavelength
Refractive index
profile
n(z) B
n+n
n0
n-n Bragg condition B wavelength
0 B = 2n0B
z

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Optical line terminal equipment, OLT

 Filters based on Bragg gratings
 They are usually combined with optical circulators to operate as optical add-drop
multiplexers
 Although insertion loss is negligible, it increases up to 3 dB when they are
configured as OADM due to the inclusion of circulators
 Channel spacing of 100 GHz and 50 are achieved, keeping a low adjacent
channel crosstalk

Other advantages:
– Easy coupling to other fibers
– Insensitivity to polarization loss
– Reduced cost
– Active control of temperature not required
 In the design of an OADM, it is important to consider the pass-band narrowing
after propagating along a OADM cascaded stages (crosstalk and losses)
 OADM device manipulates only the extracted signals without affecting those
which traversing the node, thereby reducing undesirable effects.

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Dropping a channel in a WDM system

Bragg grating
wavelength tuned at 3 wavelength

 The reflection spectrum is obtained as the Fourier transform

of the index distribution
 The bandwidth is inversely proportional to the length of the
grating (a few millimeters long provides a bandwidth 1 nm)

wavelength

Bragg grating
wavelength tuned at 3 wavelength wavelength

Add/Drop function based on

Bragg fiber gratings
(Also available a coupler-based wavelength
wavelength
solution replacing 2nd cirtulator)

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Optical line terminal equipment, OLT

Thin Film milticavity Filters

 A multilayer dielectric thin film filters (TFF) is based on a Fabry-Perot interferometer consisting
of multiple cavities surrounded by multiple reflective dielectric thin film layers

 This device acts as a bandpass filter where a particular wavelength passes through and the
rest are reflected is determined by the length of each cavity

 The filter response is determined by the number of cavities: as the number increases the top
of the passband becomes flatter and the skirts become steeper
Cavity 1

input
Dielectric layers acting as
selctive wavelength mirrors

Cavity 2 Glass Cavity 3

substrate

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Optical line terminal equipment, OLT

Implementation as a multiplexer / demultiplexer:

• Presence of lenses with graded refractive index for confining and directing at a
certain angle the signal to the next filter
• Each filter allows a specific range of wavelength of light to pass through to reflect
the rest to the next filter in the cascade arrangement

Main features:
– Efficient configuration: access only to channels to be removed and inserted without
affecting the rest of the wavelengths passing through
– Flat Passbands and very steep skirts
– Stability to temperature variations
– Low losses
– Insensitive to the signal polarization
– Each extracted wavelength from the WDM signal is injected into a separate fiber
– Passive nature makes them especially useful in distribution network (cost saving)

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Optical line terminal equipment, OLT

Arrayed waveguide gratings, AWGs
Arrayed
waveguides
coupler coupler

AWG operating as AWG is a generalization of the

a demultiplexer Mach-Zehnder interferometer

 It consist of two couplers interconnected by an array of waveguides

 Two copies of the same signal but shifted in phase by different amounts are added together
 AWGs can be used as an n × 1 wavelength multiplexers: an n-input, 1-output device where
the n inputs are signals at different wavelengths that are combined onto the single output
 Demultiplexing is performed by the inverse of this function (1 × n wavelengths)

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Optical Crossconnects, OXC

1 1B, 2A, 3A,  4B

1A , 2A, 3A,  4A 2
3
Fiber A 4
Fiber A

Demultiplexers Multiplexers

1
1B, 2B, 3B,  B
2
1A, 2B, 3B,  4A
4
3
4
Fiber B Fiber B

Fixed Optical crossconnect. Static wavelentgh switch routes signals

from an input port ro an output port on basis a predesigned assignmet

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Introduction to optical components

• Passive optical devices act on signals propagating through them. Among the various
functions they perform are not included the generation, transmission, amplification and
optical detection
• Matrix formalism is used for describing polarization phenomena and applications. There are
several methodes:
– For devices which are not affected by the polarization state of the signal (not alter the
state of polarization with respect to the signal input):
• Scattering matrix: relates outgoing fields with incoming electrical fields
• Transfer matrix: relates incoming and outgoing fields of an even number of ports
on the left side of the optical component with the incoming and outgoing fields of
an even number of ports on its right
– Jones Matrix describes the change or modification of the optical signal polarization
state when an optical signal goes through an optical device
• It is used in polarizers, polarization rotators, wave retarders, isolators, or
polarization splitters and combiners
• It is very common the use of parameters expressed in dB from manufacturers datasheets
which provide information about the power distribution among different ports

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Optical pasive Components:

COUPLERS/COMBINERS

fiber 1 Evanescent field

coupling System of coupled linear
fiber 2 differential equations
dE1
  j1E1  c12E2
dz
dE2
E1   j 2 E2  c21E1
E2 dz
L cij = coupling coefficient

Power definition
 E1 ( z )   cos(cz ) jsen (cz )   E1 (0) 
    . 
cos(cz )   E2 (0)  P1 ( z )  E1 ( z )  P1 (0)(1  k )
2
 2   jsen (cz )
E ( z )
P2 ( z )  E2 ( z )  P1 (0)k
2

 E1 ( z )   1  k j k   E1 (0) 
    . 
 E2 ( z )   j k 1  k   E2 (0)  where k  sen 2 (cL) is the coupling ratio

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Optical pasive Components:

COUPLERS/COMBINERS

Optical coupler response

1
𝑃1 (𝑧)
Incoming energy from M=2 input 𝑃1 (0)
waveguides is distributed into N=2
output waveguides

P1 (0) P1 ( L)  P3
P2 (0) P2 ( L)  P4

OPTICAL COUPLER
𝑃2 (𝑧)
M=2  N=2
𝑃2 (0)
0
0 1 2 3 4
Normalized distance

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Optical pasive Components:

COUPLERS/COMBINERS

There are different technological options to implement combiners.

The most usual are:

-Based on optical fibers

- Fusion
- Polishing

Operation principle:
-Based on integrated optics evanescent field o modal interference
coupling
- Deposition
- Ionic-exchange

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Optical pasive Components:

COUPLERS/COMBINERS

Pin (1) Pout (4)

Port 1 Port 4
Schematic
coupler 2x2
Port 2 Port 3
Pin (2) Pout (3)
(negligible ideally)

Insertion Loss: loss experimented by the signal Excess Loss: ratio of total power at all output
when it propagates according to a particular ports with respect to the input power.
configurarion input-output ports
 P1 
P
P 
112  LE  (dB)  10 log(  )  10 log  
LLLII LLLii (((dB
ii dB
) 
dB)) 10
10 log
10log
PP
logP 
2  
 3 4 
P P 
PP
344
II
3

Coupling parameter: provides information about Directivity represents the power fraction at the
how power is distributed among output ports input port which is back-propagated to other
input ports
P4 P 
k D(dB)  10 log  2 
P3  P4  P1 

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Optical pasive Components:

COUPLERS/COMBINERS
Directional Coupler M x N Coupler N x N

Inputs (i, i’) Outputs (k, k’)

M Inputs N outputs

MxN
NxN coupler built from log2N
stages of elemental 2x2 couplers
Input power is distributed equally through all output ports (excess loss negligible)

Output power= Input power/N – excess loss LI=Ldis+LE

Pk
LI ik (dB)  10 log Pi '
Pi Dii ' (dB)  10 log
U  LI  LI
N Pi
Uniformity max min
P ij 1
LE i (dB )  10 log i 10 log j 1 Ldiv (dB)  10 log Distribution loss
Pi N

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Optical pasive Components:

MULTIPLEXERS/DEMULTIPLEXERS

MULTIPLEXOR

1  1+  2

2

DEMULTIPLEXOR

 1+  2 1

2

Multiplex/demultiplex functions can be also performed by filter technology (FP-Fabry-

Perot Filters, AWG-Arrayed Waveguide Gratings, TFMF-Thin Film multilayer Filters)

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Passive components acting on polarization state

Polarizers:
Allows the propagation of the linear polarization component of the electric field
aligned in the direction of its transmitting axis, blocking the propagation of the
orthogonal component.
Technological options:
1. Absorption or selective loss
2. Selective reflection in isotropic materials
3. Selective refraction in birefringent materials

In practice, the orthogonal polarization is not completely suppressed and the passing
polarization component (parallel to the optical axis) suffers losses, unlike an ideal
polarizer.
y
𝑃𝑖𝑛 ||
Operating parameters:

𝑃𝑖𝑛 ||
Insertion Loss: 𝐿𝑖 𝑑𝐵 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝑃𝑖𝑛 ⊥
||
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 x

𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 ||
Extinction ratio: 𝑅𝑒𝑥𝑡 𝑑𝐵 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ⊥ 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 ||
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡

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Passive components acting on polarization state

Wave retarder:
Introduces a relative phase shift  (phase retardation) between the horizontal and
vertical states of the electric field
They are implemented by using bulk optics (anisotropic media): birefringent films with
a thikness d with a particular refractive index nh for horizontal polarization (slow axis),
and a different refractive index nv for vertical polarization (fast axis). Then :

2𝜋𝑑 Γ
Γ= 𝑛ℎ − 𝑛𝑣 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2
𝜆 2

Quarter wave retarder

When =/2, the initial linearly polarized signal (at 45º with respect to x axes) is
transformed to a left-hand circular polarization

Half-wave retarder
When = , the initial linearly polarized wave forming 45º with x axis is converted to
another linearly polarized wave forming -45º with x axis (polarization rotation 90º)

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Passive components acting on polarization state

Wave retarder:
Introduces a relative phase shift  (phase retardation) between the horizontal and
vertical states of the electric field
They are implemented by using bulk optics (anisotropic media): birefringent films with
a thikness d with a particular refractive index nh for horizontal polarization (slow axis),
and a different refractive index nv for vertical polarization (fast axis). Then :

2𝜋𝑑 Γ
Γ= 𝑛ℎ − 𝑛𝑣 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2
𝜆 2

Transmittance
y polarizer 1

retarder
x
polarizer 0  2 3 4
Retardation, 

Aplication: Intensity control

 wave retarder + 2 polarizers
(crossed config.)

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Passive components acting on polarization state

Polarization Rotators:
A polarization rotator produces a rotation of the polarization plane of a linearly
polarized wave by a fixed angle , maintaining the linearly polarized property.

It is required materials in which a magnetic field B produces the rotation of the

polarization direction of linearly polarized wave. This property is called Faraday effect.
𝜃 = 𝑉𝐵𝑑
where V is the Verdet constant and its value depends on the material used (n, refractive
index and  magneto-optical rotation coefficient) and wavelength:

Materials with
𝜋𝛾
𝑩 𝑉=− 𝑩
Faraday effect:
𝜆𝑛
𝜃 𝜃
Terbium gallium garnet
(TGG), terbium aluminum
garnet (TbAlG), and
2𝜃 yttrium iron garnet (YIG).

Bismuth garnets (GdBiG

and TbBiIG) are used in
1550 nm

Polarization rotation in a madium exhibiting the Faraday effect

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Passive components acting on polarization state

Optical Isolator:
Transmits ligth in only one direction, preventing reflected light from returning
back to the source

Pin Pout

Port 1 Port 2

Pout Pin
(ideally 0)
Diagram of an Optical isolator

Isolation ratio, provides the ratio between the

Insertion Loss, considers the power loss when power transmitted through port 1 when optical
light propagation is in the direction (12) : power is introduced in port 2:

 Pin (1)   Pin ( 2) 

Li (dB)  10 log10   I (dB)  10 log10  
P  P 
 out( 2)   out(1) 

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Passive components acting on polarization state

Optical Isolator:

Transmitted
wave
45º y Polarizer B

Faraday Rotator
x 45º
y Polarizer A

Reflected x
Incident
wave wave
y Polarizer B B
45º

Faraday Rotator
x 45º

90º y Polarizer A

x Blocking
B transmitted
signal

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Optical pasive Components:

OPTICAL ATTENUATORS

• Reduce the power level at their

entrance Fixed attenuator

• Allow to adjust properly power

levels at the optical devices
input ports for a correct
performance

• Can provide a fixed or variable

Variable attenuator
attenuation

Fixed/variable attenuators by
transversal or longitudinal
desplacement

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Optical pasive Components:

OPTICAL CIRCULATORS
Circulators allow adding and dropping optical channels in a WDM signal, processing optical
headers and selective optical processing functions when they are combined with other
optical devices.

1 2

The signal injected into the port 1 goes directly to

the port 2. When a signal is introduced in 2, it exits
through the port 3. And a signal comes through 1
when it has been previously introduced in port 3.
3

Adding or dropping channels in WDM systems

1 2 Wavelengths at the
output 1 2 3 4
Wavelengths at the Bragg grating
input 1 2 3 4
tuned at 3
Dropped
wavelength: 3
3

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EXTERNAL MODULATORS

Optical sources directly modulated at high frequencies in systems based on intensity

modulation (IM) can introduce chirp when semiconductor laser diodes are used as
transmitter, increasing the dispersion effects, and then, limiting the maximum bit rate.

Information (electrical signal)

CW emission

Modulated optical signal

Diode Laser Modulator

• Solution: EXTERNAL MODULATION

After biasing semiconductor lasers by a constant current, the continuous wave emission
(CW) is injected into an external device (external modulator) which superimposes a copy
of the electrical information signal, providing the optical signal modulated at the output .
This will eliminate or reduce the chirp to negligible values ​.

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EXTERNAL MODULATORS

• There are two main techniques to implement external modulators with

features such as fast response, simplicity and compacticity required in
optical systems:

1) Electro-optic Modulators
Intensity and phase modulation are achieved
Based on ferro-electric crystals like lithium niobate (LiNbO3)
Currently, the use of polimers is being investigated for this
purpose

2) Electro-absorption Modulators
Operation based on intensity modulation and usually built in
semiconductor technology

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EXTERNAL MODULATORS: Electro-optic effect

• EO effect is responsible for the refractive index change in electro-optic materials by

applying an external field (Pockels effect).

• External modulators take advantage of this effect to modulate the optical carrier in
phase or intensity

• Crystals used in modulators are anisotropic, in which refractive index depends on the
polarization direction of the electric field (optical signal)

• To produce an intense effect, the access to r33 coefficient, the greatest element in the
electro-optic tensor, is required. This is achieved when the electric field polarization is
parallel to the cristal’s optical axis:

1 3
n( E )  n 0  n0 r33 E
2

n0= refractive index in absence of electric field

n(E)= refractive index when electric field is applied
r33 electro-optic effect
E Applied electric field component according to the optical axis

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EXTERNAL MODULATORS: Electro-optic effect

Optical axis (+c)

y V
Ei()=Eoiexp[-jn/c]
Ei()=Eoiexp(-jn(E)/c)

E applied

x LiNbO3 crystal
(anisotropic crystal)

1 3
n( E )  n 0  n0 r33 E With typical values of LiNbO3
2 n0  2.2 r33  30 pm/V

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EXTERNAL MODULATORS: Electro-optic effect

Eout()
Modulated Response
wave


0
Ein() 
V
d

Incident wave 0 V V
in CW
V
  0 
L V
 d Values in the
The incident wave V 
must be polarized r33n03 L range  2-5 V

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EXTERNAL MODULATORS: Electro-optic effect

V V

TRANSVERSAL
CONFIGURATION V
LONGITUDINAL
CONFIGURATION

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Applications: Electro-optic modulator for intensity modulation

(Polarization configuration)

Output polarizer

Optical intensity modulator

based on Pockels cell
between crossed polarizers

Oriented at 45 degrees with

Input polarizer respect to the optical axis

V
1,0
Transmittance (V)

Optical 0,5
Transmittance t

0,0
Vbias V
Voltage, V

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Applications: Electro-optic modulator for intensity modulation

(Interferometer configuration)

I0 path 1 I1

Intensity modulator based on path 2

V
Mach-Zehnder Interferometer
I2

Phase modulation

V
1,0
Transmittance (V)

• Guide configurations allow reduced values ​of

Optical d/L (d10 m, L10 cm  d/L10-3),providing
0,5
reduced control voltages V 1-2 V.
Transmittance t
• The commercial electro-modulators allow
0,0 modulation bandwidths of 40 GHz
Vbias V
Voltage, V

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Example: Use of Mach-Zehnder configuration in a RZ-coding

intensity modulation
• When a MZM Mach-Zehnder modulator is driven by a voltage:

Vm (t )  Vbias  VRF (t )  Vbias  VRF cos(2ft  m )

where Vbias is the DC voltage, VRF is the amplitude of the RF signal, f is the modulation frequency
and m the phase shift

• The transmittance can be expresed as:

 V (t )    V V (t )  
T t   cos 2  m    cos 2  bias  RF  
 2V 2  2V 2V 2

where  is the MZM phase shift in absence of exciting voltage and V is the phase voltage

• Then:
– If Vbias = Vmax  the MZM is biased to offer maximum optical transmission
– If Vbias = Vmin  the MZM is biased to offer minimum optical transmission
– MZM interferometer can be also driven in a balanced performance

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Example: Return to zero implementation for

different duty cycles
V

Electric Input
t

Transmittance (V)
1,0

0,5
Output Output
phase= phase=0

0,0
Voltage, V
Vbias
V V
Electric Input

Electric Input
t RZ – 50% t
Transmittance (V)

Transmittance (V)
1,0 1,0

0,5 0,5
Output Output Output Output
phase= phase=0 phase= phase=0

0,0 0,0
Vbias Voltage, V Vbias Voltage, V

RZ – 33% RZ – 67%

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Example: Return to zero implementation for

different duty cycles
• Techniques to generate RZ coding signal:
– Directly modulated diode laser by an electrical RZ signal (intensity)
– Generating an optical pulse train modulated by a no return to zero data signal

B/2 GHz
+V
NRZ Information B Gb/s

Modulated
Diode optical signal B/2 GHz
EO Modulator Diode EO Modulators
Laser Laser +V
NRZ
B GHz RZ – 33, 67%
+V/2
B Gb/s

Diode EO Modulators
Laser B GHz
+V/2
RZ – 50%

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Return to zero schemes

RZ pulse of three duty cycles for a bit secuence: 1001101

0  0  0  0

RZ – 50% RZ – 33% RZ – 67%

 The red bar indicates the full-width at half maximum and de duty cycle
  and 0 indicate phase shift in RZ CS-RZ-67%.
Power [dBm]

Power [dBm]

Power [dBm]
Frequency with regard to the Frequency with regard to the Frequency with regard to the
optical carrier [GHz) optical carrier [GHz) optical carrier [GHz)

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MAIN OPTICAL SWITCHING TECHNOLOGIES

• Bulk opto-mechanical switches

• Micro-electro-mechanical (MEMs) switches
• Bubble-based waveguide switches
• Electro-optical switches
• Thermo-optic switches

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OPTICAL COMPONENTS:
Micro-electro-mechanical switch (MEM)
Light passing through

Switch based on a
No bubble silicon substrate

Reflected beam Rows of micromirrors mounted on translation

(switching) stages controlled by electro-mechanical actuators

• 2D MEMS: switching takes places in a 2D silicon substrate , where rows of micromirrors

can be fold up or down (by electromagnetic, electrostatic or piezoelectric method) to
deflect incident beams
• 3D MEMS: steering mirrors allow switching in 3D. It is obtained a drastically increase of
the number of ports, providing more compact devices (from 256 to over 1000 ports)
• Advantages: fast response, high integration and number of ports

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OPTICAL COMPONENTS:
Bubble-based waveguide switch

Reflected beam
waveguides
(switching)
Planar
waveguide
switch Bubble

No bubble
Light passing through
Fluid channels
(trenches filled with index matching gel)

• Under normal conditions, light propagates straight on crossover points, without

interruption
• Switching is performed as a result of the bubble formation after heating the
crossover point by termo-electric actuators
− the light beam is reflected towards the corresponding waveguide to the
desired output port

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OPTICAL COMPONENTS:
Switch based on integrated Mach-Zehnder interferometers
(Electro-optic control)

Planar
waveguide
waveguides
switch
No bubble
Light passing through
Voltage on
Voltage off
(switching)

• In directional coupler configuration, the coupling ratio varies by changing

electro-optically the refractive index
• Advantage: Fast response (typically, less than 1 ns) and high level of integration
• Disadvantages: Usually have a relatively high loss and PDL

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OPTICAL COMPONENTS:
Switch based on integrated Mach-Zehnder interferometers
(Thermo-optic control)

Planar
waveguide
waveguides
switch
No bubble
Light passing through
on
Heat off
(switching)

• In directional coupler configuration, the coupling ratio varies by changing

thermo-optically the refractive index

• Main disadvantage: Quite slow response (milliseconds)

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Comparison of different optical switching technologies

Technology Size Loss (dB) Crosstalk PDL (dB) Switching

(dB) time
Bulk-mechanical 8x8 3 55 0,2 10 ms
2D-MEMs 32x32 5 55 0,2 10 ms
3D-MEMs 1000x1000 5 55 0,5 10 ms
Bubble-based 32x32 7,5 50 0,3 10 ms
Thermo-optic 8x8 8 40 Low 3 ms
Electro-optic 4x4 8 35 1 10 ps
Source: Optical Networks. Pp. 208. Rajiv Ramaswami,
Kumar Sivarajan. Ed. Morgan Kaufmann, 2002

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