Chapter Seven

Multiple regression
An introduction to multiple regression
Performing a multiple regression on
SPSS
Section 1: An introduction to multiple regression

WHAT IS MULTIPLE REGRESSION?

Multiple regression is a statistical technique that allows us to predict someone’s

score on one variable on the basis of their scores on several other variables. An
example might help. Suppose we were interested in predicting how much an
individual enjoys their job. Variables such as salary, extent of academic
qualifications, age, sex, number of years in full-time employment and socio
economic status might all contribute towards job satisfaction. If we collected data
on all of these variables, perhaps by surveying a few hundred members of the
public, we would be able to see how many and which of these variables gave rise to
the most accurate prediction of job satisfaction. We might find that job satisfaction
is most accurately predicted by type of occupation, salary and years in full-time
employment, with the other variables not helping us to predict job satisfaction.

When using multiple regression in psychology, many researchers use the term
“independent variables” to identify those variables that they think will influence
some other “dependent variable”. We prefer to use the term “predictor variables” for
those variables that may be useful in predicting the scores on another variable that
we call the “criterion variable”. Thus, in our example above, type of occupation,
salary and years in full-time employment would emerge as significant predictor
variables, which allow us to estimate the criterion variable – how satisfied someone
is likely to be with their job. As we have pointed out before, human behaviour is
inherently noisy and therefore it is not possible to produce totally accurate
predictions, but multiple regression allows us to identify a set of predictor variables
which together provide a useful estimate of a participant’s likely score on a criterion
variable.
HOW DOES MULTIPLE REGRESSION RELATE TO CORRELATION AND ANALYSIS OF
VARIANCE?

In a previous section (Chapter 4, Section 2), we introduced you to correlation and

the regression line. If two variables are correlated, then knowing the score on one
variable will allow you to predict the score on the other variable. The stronger the
correlation, the closer the scores will fall to the regression line and therefore the
more accurate the prediction. Multiple regression is simply an extension of this
principle, where we predict one variable on the basis of several other variables.
Having more than one predictor variable is useful when predicting human

206 ​SPSS for Psychologists – Chapter Seven

behaviour, as our actions, thoughts and emotions are all likely to be influenced by
some combination of several factors. Using multiple regression we can test theories
(or models) about precisely which set of variables is influencing our behaviour.

As we discussed in Chapter 6, Section 1, on Analysis of Variance, human behaviour

is rather variable and therefore difficult to predict. What we are doing in both
ANOVA and multiple regression is seeking to account for the variance in the scores
we observe. Thus, in the example above, people might vary greatly in their levels of
job satisfaction. Some of this variance will be accounted for by the variables we
have identified. For example, we might be able to say that salary accounts for a
fairly large percentage of the variance in job satisfaction, and hence it is very useful
to know someone’s salary when trying to predict their job satisfaction. You might
now be able to see that the ideas here are rather similar to those underlying
ANOVA. In ANOVA we are trying to determine how much of the variance is
accounted for by our manipulation of the independent variables (relative to the
percentage of the variance we cannot account for). In multiple regression we do not
directly manipulate the IVs but instead just measure the naturally occurring levels of
the variables and see if this helps us predict the score on the dependent variable (or
criterion variable). Thus, ANOVA is actually a rather specific and restricted
example of the general approach adopted in multiple regression.

To put this another way, in ANOVA we can directly manipulate the factors and
measure the resulting change in the dependent variable. In multiple regression we
simply measure the naturally occurring scores on a number of predictor variables
and try to establish which set of the observed variables gives rise to the best
prediction of the criterion variable.

A current trend in statistics is to emphasise the similarity between multiple

 regression and ANOVA, and between correlation and the ​t​-test. All of these
statistical techniques are basically seeking to do the same thing – explain the
variance in the level of one variable on the basis of the level of one or more other
variables. These other variables might be manipulated directly in the case of
controlled experiments, or be observed in the case of surveys or observational
studies, but the underlying principle is the same. Thus, although we have given
separate chapters to each of these procedures they are fundamentally all the same
procedure. This underlying single approach is called the General Linear Model – a
term you first encountered when we were undertaking ANOVA in Chapter 6,
Section 1.

SPSS for Psychologists – Chapter Seven ​207

WHEN SHOULD I USE MULTIPLE REGRESSION?

1. You can use this statistical technique when exploring linear relationships between
the predictor and criterion variables – that is, when the relationship follows a
straight line. (To examine non-linear relationships, special techniques can be used.)
2. The criterion variable that you are seeking to predict should be measured on a
continuous scale (such as interval or ratio scale). There is a separate regression
method called logistic regression that can be used for dichotomous dependent
variables (not covered here).
3. The predictor variables that you select should be measured on a ratio, interval, or
ordinal scale. A nominal predictor variable is legitimate but only if it is
dichotomous, i.e. there are no more that two categories. For example, sex is
acceptable (where male is coded as 1 and female as 0) but gender identity
(masculine, feminine and androgynous) could not be coded as a single variable.
Instead, you would create three different variables each with two categories
(masculine/not masculine; feminine/not feminine and androgynous/not
androgynous). The term dummy variable is used to describe this type of
dichotomous variable.
4. Multiple regression requires a large number of observations. The number of cases
(participants) must substantially exceed the number of predictor variables you are
using in your regression. The absolute minimum is that you have five times as many
participants as predictor variables. A more acceptable ratio is 10:1, but some people
argue that this should be as high as 40:1 for some statistical selection methods (see
page 210).

TERMINOLOGY
 There are certain terms we need to clarify to allow you to understand the results of
this statistical technique.

Beta (standardised regression coefficients)

The beta value is a measure of how strongly each predictor variable influences the
criterion variable. The beta is measured in units of standard deviation. For example,
a beta value of 2.5 indicates that a change of one standard deviation in the predictor
variable will result in a change of 2.5 standard deviations in the criterion variable.
Thus, the higher the beta value the greater the impact of the predictor variable on the
criterion variable.

When you have only one predictor variable in your model, then beta is equivalent to
the correlation coefficient between the predictor and the criterion variable. This

208 ​SPSS for Psychologists – Chapter Seven

equivalence makes sense, as this situation is a correlation between two variables.
When you have more than one predictor variable, you cannot compare the
contribution of each predictor variable by simply comparing the correlation
coefficients. The beta regression coefficient is computed to allow you to make such
comparisons and to assess the strength of the relationship between each predictor
variable to the criterion variable.

R, R Square, Adjusted R Square

R is a measure of the correlation between the observed value and the predicted value
of the criterion variable. In our example this would be the correlation between the
levels of job satisfaction reported by our participants and the levels predicted for
them by our predictor variables. R Square (R​2​) is the square of this measure of
correlation and indicates the proportion of the variance in the criterion variable
which is accounted for by our model – in our example the proportion of the variance
in the job satisfaction scores accounted for by our set of predictor variables (salary,
etc.). In essence, this is a measure of how good a prediction of the criterion variable
we can make by knowing the predictor variables. However, R square tends to
somewhat over-estimate the success of the model when applied to the real world, so
an Adjusted R Square value is calculated which takes into account the number of
variables in the model and the number of observations (participants) our model is
based on. This Adjusted R Square value gives the most useful measure of the
success of our model. If, for example we have an Adjusted R Square value of 0.75
we can say that our model has accounted for 75% of the variance in the criterion
variable.
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

Multicollinearity
When choosing a predictor variable you should select one that might be correlated
with the criterion variable, but that is not strongly correlated with the other predictor
variables. However, correlations amongst the predictor variables are not unusual.
The term multicollinearity (or collinearity) is used to describe the situation when a
high correlation is detected between two or more predictor variables. Such high
correlations cause problems when trying to draw inferences about the relative
contribution of each predictor variable to the success of the model. SPSS provides
you with a means of checking for this and we describe this below.

Selection methods

SPSS for Psychologists – Chapter Seven ​209

There are different ways that the relative contribution of each predictor variable can
be assessed. In the “simultaneous” method (which SPSS calls the ​Enter ​method),
the researcher specifies the set of predictor variables that make up the model. The
success of this model in predicting the criterion variable is then assessed.

In contrast, “hierarchical” methods enter the variables into the model in a specified
order. The order specified should reflect some theoretical consideration or previous
findings. If you have no reason to believe that one variable is likely to be more
important than another you should not use this method. As each variable is entered
into the model its contribution is assessed. If adding the variable does not
significantly increase the predictive power of the model then the variable is
dropped.

In “statistical” methods, the order in which the predictor variables are entered into
(or taken out of) the model is determined according to the strength of their
correlation with the criterion variable. Actually there are several versions of this
method, called forward selection, backward selection and stepwise selection. In
Forward ​selection, SPSS enters the variables into the model one at a time in an
order determined by the strength of their correlation with the criterion variable. The
effect of adding each is assessed as it is entered, and variables that do not
significantly add to the success of the model are excluded.

In ​Backward ​selection, SPSS enters all the predictor variables into the model. The
weakest predictor variable is then removed and the regression re-calculated. If this
 significantly weakens the model then the predictor variable is re-entered – otherwise
it is deleted. This procedure is then repeated until only useful predictor variables
remain in the model.

Stepwise ​is the most sophisticated of these statistical methods. Each variable is
entered in sequence and its value assessed. If adding the variable contributes to the
model then it is retained, but all other variables in the model are then re-tested to see
if they are still contributing to the success of the model. If they no longer contribute
significantly they are removed. Thus, this method should ensure that you end up
with the smallest possible set of predictor variables included in your model.

In addition to the ​Enter​, ​Stepwise​, ​Forward ​and ​Backward ​methods, SPSS also
offers the ​Remove ​method in which variables are removed from the model in a
block – the use of this method will not be described here.

How to choose the appropriate method?

210 ​SPSS for Psychologists – Chapter Seven

If you have no theoretical model in mind, and/or you have relatively low numbers
of cases, then it is probably safest to use ​Enter​, the simultaneous method. Statistical
procedures should be used with caution and only when you have a large number of
cases. This is because minor variations in the data due to sampling errors can have a
large effect on the order in which variables are entered and therefore the likelihood
of them being retained. However, one advantage of the ​Stepwise ​method is that it
should always result in the most parsimonious model. This could be important if
you wanted to know the minimum number of variables you would need to measure
to predict the criterion variable. If for this, or some other reason, you decide to
select a statistical method, then you should really attempt to validate your results
with a second independent set of data. The can be done either by conducting a
second study, or by randomly splitting your data set into two halves (see Chapter 5,
Section 3). Only results that are common to both analyses should be reported.
 SPSS for Psychologists – Chapter Seven ​211
Section 2: Performing a multiple regression on
SPSS

EXAMPLE STUDY

In an investigation of children’s spelling, a colleague of ours, Corriene Reed,

decided to look at the importance of several psycholinguistic variables on spelling
performance. Previous research has shown that age of acquisition has an effect on
children’s reading and also on object naming. A total of 64 children, aged between 7
and 9 years, completed standardised reading and spelling tests and were then asked
 to spell 48 words that varied systematically according to certain features such as age
of acquisition, word frequency, word length, and imageability. Word length and age
of acquisition emerged as significant predictors of whether the word was likely to be
spelt correctly.

Further analysis was conducted on the data to determine whether the spelling
performance on this list of 48 words accurately reflected the children’s spelling
ability as estimated by a standardised spelling test. Children’s chronological age,
their reading age, their standardised reading score and their standardised spelling
score were chosen as the predictor variables. The criterion variable was the
percentage correct spelling score attained by each child using the list of 48 words.

For the purposes of this book, we have created a data file that will reproduce some
of the findings from this second analysis. As you will see, the standardised spelling
score derived from a validated test emerged as a strong predictor of the spelling
score achieved on the word list. The data file contains only a subset of the data
collected and is used here to demonstrate multiple regression. (These data are
available in the Appendix.)

HOW TO PERFORM THE TEST

For SPSS Versions 9 and 10, click on ​A​nalyze ​⇒ ​R​egression ​⇒ ​L​inear

For SPSS Version 8, click on ​S​tatistics ​⇒ ​R​egression ​⇒ ​L​inear

You will then be presented with the ​Linear Regression ​dialogue box shown below.
You now need to select the criterion (dependent) and the predictor (independent)
variables.

We have chosen to use the percentage correct spelling score (“spelperc”) as our
criterion variable. As our predictor variables we have used chronological age

212 ​SPSS for Psychologists – Chapter Seven

(“age”), reading age (“readage”), standardised reading score (“standsc”), and
standardised spelling score (“spellsc”).

As we have a relatively small number of cases and do not have any strong
theoretical predictions, we recommend you select ​Enter ​(the simultaneous method).
This is usually the safest to adopt.

Select the Criterion (or

dependent) variable and
click here to move it into
 the ​D​ependent ​box.

Select the predictor (or

independent) variables
and click here to move
them into ​I​ndependent(s)
box.

Choose the ​M​ethod ​you

wish to employ. If in
doubt use the ​Enter
method.

Now click on the button. This will bring up the ​Linear Regression: Statistics
dialogue box shown below

Select ​E​stimates.

Select ​M​odel fit ​and

Descriptives​. You may
also select ​Co​l​linearity
diagnostics​. If you are
not using the ​Enter
method you should also
select ​R ​s​quared
change​.

The ​Co​l​linearity diagnostics ​option gives some useful additional output that allows
you to assess whether you have a problem with collinearity in your data. The ​R
s​quared change ​option is useful if you have selected a statistical method such as

SPSS for Psychologists – Chapter Seven ​ 213

stepwise as it makes clear how the power of the model changes with the addition or
removal of a predictor variable from the model.

When you have selected the statistics options you require, click on the ​Continue
button. This will return you to the ​Linear Regression ​dialogue box. Now click on
the button. The output that will be produced is illustrated on the following pages.
 Tip ​The SPSS multiple regression option was set to ​Exclude cases ​l​istwise​. Hence,
although the researcher collected data from 52 participants, SPSS analysed the data
from only the 47 participants who had no missing values.

214 ​SPSS for Psychologists – Chapter Seven

SPSS Output for multiple regression USING ENTER METHOD

Obtained Using Menu Items: ​R​egression ​> ​L​inear ​(Method =

Enter)
 14.9882 47

percentage
correct spelling chronological age This second table gives details of
reading age the correlation between each pair
standardised of variables. We do not want strong
reading score standardised correlations between the criterion
spelling score and the predictor variables. The
Descriptive Statistics values here are acceptable.

Mean Std. Deviation N 59.7660

23.9331 47

93.4043 7.4910 47 89.0213 21.3648

47
Correlations
95.5745 17.7834 47 107.0851 percentage
This first table is produced by the
Descriptives ​option.
chronological

age reading age

standardised
reading score
standardised
correct spelling spelling score
Pearson Correlation Sig. (1-tailed) correct spelling chronological age .570 .793 1.000
reading age
standardised . .311 .000 .000 .000
reading score standardised
spelling score percentage .311 . .203 .009 .002 .000 .203 . .000
correct spelling chronological age .000
reading age .000 .009 .000 . .000 .000 .002 .000 .000
standardised
reading score standardised .
N spelling score
percentage
1.000 -.074 .623 .778 .847 47 47 47 47 47
correct spelling chronological age
reading age -.074 1.000 .124 -.344 -.416 .623 .124 47 47 47 47 47 47 47 47 47 47
standardised 1.000 .683 .570
47 47 47 47 47 47 47 47 47 47
reading score standardised
spelling score percentage .778 -.344 .683 1.000 .793 .847 -.416

SPSS for Psychologists – Chapter Seven ​ 215

about the predictor
variables and the method
Variables Entered/Removed​
b used. Here we can see that
This third table tells us
 age, all of our predictor
Model 1
a
standardis ed reading score​ Removed Method . Enter variables were entered
Variables Entered Variables simultaneously (because
we selected the Enter
standardis ed spelling score,
method.
chronologi cal age,
reading

b. ​
Dependent Variable: percentage correct spelling

Model Summary

This table is important. The Adjusted R Square

value tells us that our model accounts for 83.8%
of variance in the spelling scores – a very good

a. ​
All requested variables entered.
R R Square Square Estimate
Std. Error of the model!
Model Adjusted R

1
a. This table reports an ANOVA,
.923​a ​.852 .838 9.6377 which assesses the overall
significance of our model. As p <
Predictors: (Constant), standardised ANOVA​b 0.05 our model is significant.
spelling score, chronological age,
reading age, standardised reading Sum of
score
Squares df Mean Square F 92.884
Model 1 Sig. 22447.277 4 5611.819
Regression Residual Total 26348.426 46
60.417 .000​a​ ​3901.149 42
a.
Predictors: (Constant), standardised spelling score, The Standardized Beta
chronological age, reading age, standardised reading score
b. ​
Dependent Variable: percentage correct unit change in this
predictor variable has a large
effect on the criterion variable.
a
The t and Sig (p) values give a rough
spelling ​Coefficients​ indication of the impact of
Standardi zed
Coefficien ts
Coefficients give a measure of the
Unstandardized contribution of each variable to the
Coefficients model. A large value indicates that a
Model B Std. Error Beta
t Sig. variable – a big
each predictor
1 spelling score absolute t value and small p value
(Constant) -232.079 30.500 -7.609 .000 1.298 .252 .406 suggests that a predictor variable is
chronological age 5.159 .000 -.162 .110 -.144 -1.469 .149 having a large impact on the
reading age .530 .156 .394 3.393 .002 1.254 .165 .786 criterion variable. If you
standardised requested ​Co​l​linearity diagnostics
reading score 7.584 .000 these will also be included in this
standardised table – see next page.
a. ​
Dependent Variable: percentage correct spelling

216 ​SPSS for Psychologists – Chapter Seven

Collinearity diagnostics
 If you requested the optional ​Co​l​linearity diagnostics​, these will be shown in an
additional two columns of the Coefficients table (the last table shown above) and a
further table (titled Collinearity diagnostics) that is not shown here. Ignore this extra
table and simply look at the two new columns.
a
Coefficients​

Standardi
zed
Unstandardized Coefficients Beta t Sig. ​Tolerance VIF
B Std. Error
Model Coefficien ts Collinearity Statistics
1 -232.079 30.500 -7.609 .000
(Constant) 1.298 .252 .406 5.159 .000 ​.568 1.759 ​-.162 .110 -.144
chronological age -1.469 .149 ​.365 2.737
reading age
.530 .156 .394 3.393 .002 ​.262 3.820 ​1.254 .165 .786
standardised
reading score
7.584 .000 ​.329 3.044
standardised
spelling score
a. ​
Dependent Variable: percentage correct spelling

The tolerance values are a measure of the correlation between the predictor
variables and can vary between 0 and 1. The closer to zero the tolerance value is for
a variable, the stronger the relationship between this and the other predictor
variables. You should worry about variables that have a very low tolerance. SPSS
will not include a predictor variable in a model if it has a tolerance of less that
0.0001. However, you may want to set your own criteria rather higher – perhaps
excluding any variable that has a tolerance level of less than 0.01. VIF is an
alternative measure of collinearity (in fact it is the reciprocal of tolerance) in which
a large value indicates a strong relationship between predictor variables.

Reporting the results

When reporting the results of a multiple regression analysis, you want to inform the
reader about the proportion of the variance accounted for by your model, the
significance of your model and the significance of the predictor variables. In the
results section, we would write:
Using the enter method, a significant model emerged (​F​4,42​=60.417, ​p ​< 0.0005.
Adjusted R square = .838. Significant variables are shown below:
Predictor Variable Beta ​p
​ 0.0005
Chronological age .406 ​p <
Standardised reading score .394 ​p = 0​ .002
​ 0.0005
Standardised spelling score .786 ​p <
(Reading age was not a significant predictor in this model.)
 SPSS for Psychologists – Chapter Seven ​ 217
OUTPUT FROM MULTIPLE REGRESSION USING STEPWISE METHOD

Obtained Using Menu Items: ​R​egression ​> ​L​inear ​(Method = Stepwise)

Reproduced below are the key parts of the output produced when you the ​Stepwise
method is selected. When using this method you should also select the ​R Squared
Change ​option in the ​Linear Regression: Statistics ​dialogue box (see page 213).

Variables Entered/Removed​a
.100).
.
This table shows us the ed spelling Stepwise (Criteria: Probabilit
Model 1
Variables Entered
order in which the score y-of-F-to-e nter <=
variables were entered case three variables
and removed form our were added and none
model. We can see that were removed.
standardis in this
Variables

Removed Method Stepwise

(Criteria: chronologi
Probabilit nter <=
y-of-F-to-e .050,
2
Probabilit y-of-F-to-r emove >=
.050,
Probabilit y-of-F-to-r
emove >= .100).
Stepwise (Criteria:
Probabilit y-of-F-to-e
.
ed reading
cal age .​
score
nter <=
.050,
Probabilit y-of-F-to-r
3 emove >= .100).

standardis
a. ​
Dependent Variable: percentage correct spelling

Here we can see that model 1, which included only standardised spelling score
accounted for 71% of the variance (Adjusted R​2​=0.711). The inclusion of
chronological age into model 2 resulted in an additional 9% of the variance being
explained (R​2​ ​change = 0.094). The final model 3 also included standardised reading
score, and this model accounted for 83% of the variance (Adjusted R​2​=0.833).

Model Summary

Change Statistics
R R Square Std. Error of the Estimate Ch​ange ​F Change df1 df2
Model Adjusted R Square R Square Sig. F Change
.847​a ​.717 ​.711 ​12.8708 ​.717 ​114.055 1 45 .000
1
.900​b ​.811 ​.802 ​10.6481 ​.094 ​21.747 1 44 .000
2
.919​c ​.844 ​.833 ​9.7665 ​.034 ​9.302 1 43 .004
3
 a. ​
Predictors: (Constant), standardised spelling score
b. ​
Predictors: (Constant), standardised spelling score, chronological age
c. ​
Predictors: (Constant), standardised spelling score, chronological age, standardised reading score

218 ​SPSS for Psychologists – Chapter Seven

ANOVAd​

Sum of

This table reports the

Model 1 Regression Residual Total 21359.610 2 10679.805 ​94.193 ​.000b​
Regression Residual Total ANOVA result for the
4988.815 44 113.382
Regression Residual Total 26348.426 46
three models.
2 Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
22246.870 3 7415.623 ​77.744 .​ 000c​
18893.882 1 18893.882 ​114.055
a​ 4101.556 43 95.385
.000​ 7
​ 454.543 45 165.657
26348.426 46
3 26348.426 46

a. ​
Predictors: (Constant), standardised spelling score
b. ​
Predictors: (Constant), standardised spelling score, chronological age
c.
Predictors: (Constant), standardised spelling score, chronological
age, standardised reading score
d. ​ zed
Dependent Variable: percentage correct spelling

Here SPSS
Coefficients​a reports the Beta, t and sig (p)
Standardi
values for each of the models. These
Unstandardized Coefficients Beta t Sig. Tolerance VIF output from the ​Enter
the method.
B Std. Error
Model
Coefficien ts Collinearity Statistics were explained in
1 spelling score chronological age 1.576 .115 .987 13.679 .000 .827 1.209
(Constant)
1.075 .230 .336 4.663 .000 .827 1.209
standardised
23 -209.171 26.562 -7.875 .000
spelling score chronological age
standardised 1.197 .163 .750 7.349 .000 .348 2.875
reading score
-85.032 13.688 -6.212 .000 1.092 .211 .342 5.162 .000 .827 1.210
(Constant) .406 .133 .301 3.050 .004 .371 2.698
1.352 .127 .847 10.680 .000 1.000
standardised
spelling score (Constant) 1.000 -209.328 28.959 -7.228 .000
standardised
a. ​
Dependent Variable: percentage correct spelling

d
Excluded Variables​
This table gives statistics for the
variables that were
Partial
Collinearity Statistics
Minimum
Model
Beta In t Sig.
Correlation Tolerance VIF
Tolerance
excluded from each
1
 chronological age reading age a​ b​
.336​ 4.663 .000 .575 .827 1.209 .827 .301​ 3.050 .004 .422 .371 2.698 .348
standardised a​
.208​ 2.249 .030 .321 .675 1.481 .675 -.144​c ​-1.469 .149 -.221 .365 2.737
reading score reading age
a​
standardised .288​ 2.317 .025 .330 .371 2.696 .371 .262
23
reading score reading age b​
.036​ .395 .695 .060 .517 1.933 .435 model.

a. ​
Predictors in the Model: (Constant), standardised spelling score
b. ​
Predictors in the Model: (Constant), standardised spelling score, chronological age
c. ​
Predictors in the Model: (Constant), standardised spelling score, chronological age, standardised reading
d. ​
score ​ Dependent Variable: percentage correct spelling

SPSS for Psychologists – Chapter Seven ​ 219

Thus, the final model to emerge from the ​Stepwise ​analysis contains only three
predictor variables. The predictor variable reading age, which was not significant in
the ​Enter ​analysis, was also not included in the ​Stepwise ​analysis as it did not
significantly strengthen the model.

REPORTING THE RESULTS

In your results section, you would report the significance of the model by citing the
F a​ nd the associated ​p ​value, along with the adjusted R square, which indicates the
strength of the model. So, for the final model reported above, we would write:

Adjusted R square = .833; ​F​3,43​ ​= 77.7, ​p ​< 0.0005 (using the stepwise method).
Significant variables are shown below.

Predictor Variable Beta ​p

Standardised spelling score: .750 ​p <​ 0.0005
​ 0.0005
Chronological age .342 ​p <
Standardised reading score .301 ​p =​ 0.004
(Reading age was not a significant predictor in this model.)
220 ​SPSS for Psychologists – Chapter Seven