Diunduh oleh: mBah Darmo

Letter Name

alpha beta delta zeta eta theta iota

Sound value Ancient[5] Modern[6] [a] [a] [a] [b] [d]

[v] [] [] [e] [i] [ ] [i] [k] [l] [m]

gamma [] epsilon [e] [] [t] [i] [i]

[zd] (or [dz] ) [z]

kappa [k] lambda [l] mu [m]

Letter Name

nu xi pi rho sigma tau phi chi psi

Sound value Ancient Modern [n] [n] [ks] [p] [r] [s] [t] [p] [k] [ps] [ks] [o] [p] [r] [s] [t] [f] [x] [ps] [o]

omicron [o]

upsilon [y] [y] [i]

omega []

Important Statistics Formulas

Parameters

Population mean = = ( Xi ) / N Population standard deviation = = sqrt [ ( Xi - )2 / N ] Population variance = 2 = ( Xi - )2 / N Variance of population proportion = P2 = PQ / n Standardized score = Z = (X - ) / Population correlation coefficient = = [ 1 / N ] * { [ (Xi - X) / x ] * [ (Yi - Y) / y ] }

Statistics
Unless otherwise noted, these formulas assume simple random sampling.

Sample mean = x = ( xi ) / n Sample standard deviation = s = sqrt [ ( xi - x )2 / ( n - 1 ) ] Sample variance = s2 = ( xi - x )2 / ( n - 1 ) Variance of sample proportion = sp2 = pq / (n - 1) Pooled sample proportion = p = (p1 * n1 + p2 * n2) / (n1 + n2)

Pooled sample standard deviation = sp = sqrt [ (n1 - 1) * s12 + (n2 - 1) * s22 ] / (n1 + n2 - 2) ]

Sample correlation coefficient = r = [ 1 / (n - 1) ] * { [ (xi - x) / sx ] * [ (yi - y) / sy ] }

Correlation

Pearson product-moment correlation = r = (xy) / sqrt [ ( x2 ) * ( y2 ) ] Linear correlation (sample data) = r = [ 1 / (n - 1) ] * { [ (xi - x) / sx ] * [ (yi - y) / sy ] } Linear correlation (population data) = = [ 1 / N ] * { [ (Xi - X) / x ] * [ (Yi - Y) / y ]}

Simple Linear Regression

Simple linear regression line: = b0 + b1x Regression coefficient = b1 = [ (xi - x) (yi - y) ] / [ (xi - x)2] Regression slope intercept = b0 = y - b1 * x Regression coefficient = b1 = r * (sy / sx) Standard error of regression slope = sb1 = sqrt [ (yi - i)2 / (n - 2) ] / sqrt [ (xi - x)2 ]

Counting

n factorial: n! = n * (n-1) * (n - 2) * . . . * 3 * 2 * 1. By convention, 0! = 1. Permutations of n things, taken r at a time: nPr = n! / (n - r)! Combinations of n things, taken r at a time: nCr = n! / r!(n - r)! = nPr / r!

Probability

Rule of addition: P(A B) = P(A) + P(B) - P(A B) Rule of multiplication: P(A B) = P(A) P(B|A) Rule of subtraction: P(A') = 1 - P(A)

Random Variables
In the following formulas, X and Y are random variables, and a and b are constants.

Expected value of X = E(X) = x = [ xi * P(xi) ] Variance of X = Var(X) = 2 = [ xi - E(x) ]2 * P(xi) = [ xi - x ]2 * P(xi) Normal random variable = z-score = z = (X - )/ Chi-square statistic = 2 = [ ( n - 1 ) * s2 ] / 2 f statistic = f = [ s12/12 ] / [ s22/22 ] Expected value of sum of random variables = E(X + Y) = E(X) + E(Y) Expected value of difference between random variables = E(X - Y) = E(X) - E(Y) Variance of the sum of independent random variables = Var(X + Y) = Var(X) + Var(Y) Variance of the difference between independent random variables = Var(X - Y) = Var(X) + Var(Y)

Sampling Distributions

Mean of sampling distribution of the mean = x =

Mean of sampling distribution of the proportion = p = P Standard deviation of proportion = p = sqrt[ P * (1 - P)/n ] = sqrt( PQ / n ) Standard deviation of the mean = x = /sqrt(n) Standard deviation of difference of sample means = d = sqrt[ (12 / n1) + (22 / n2) ] Standard deviation of difference of sample proportions = d = sqrt{ [P1(1 - P1) / n1] + [P2(1 - P2) / n2] }

Standard Error

Standard error of proportion = SEp = sp = sqrt[ p * (1 - p)/n ] = sqrt( pq / n ) Standard error of difference for proportions = SEp = sp = sqrt{ p * ( 1 - p ) * [ (1/n1) + (1/n2) ] }

Standard error of the mean = SEx = sx = s/sqrt(n) Standard error of difference of sample means = SEd = sd = sqrt[ (s12 / n1) + (s22 / n2) ] Standard error of difference of paired sample means = SEd = sd = { sqrt [ ((di - d)2 / (n 1) ] } / sqrt(n)

Pooled sample standard error = spooled = sqrt [ (n1 - 1) * s12 + (n2 - 1) * s22 ] / (n1 + n2 - 2) ] Standard error of difference of sample proportions = sd = sqrt{ [p1(1 - p1) / n1] + [p2(1 p2) / n2] }

Discrete Probability Distributions

Binomial formula: P(X = x) = b(x; n, P) = nCx * Px * (1 - P)n - x = nCx * Px * Qn - x

Mean of binomial distribution = x = n * P Variance of binomial distribution = x2 = n * P * ( 1 - P ) Negative Binomial formula: P(X = x) = b*(x; r, P) = x-1Cr-1 * Pr * (1 - P)x - r Mean of negative binomial distribution = x = rQ / P Variance of negative binomial distribution = x2 = r * Q / P2 Geometric formula: P(X = x) = g(x; P) = P * Qx - 1 Mean of geometric distribution = x = Q / P Variance of geometric distribution = x2 = Q / P2 Hypergeometric formula: P(X = x) = h(x; N, n, k) = [ kCx ] [ N-kCn-x ] / [ NCn ] Mean of hypergeometric distribution = x = n * k / N Variance of hypergeometric distribution = x2 = n * k * ( N - k ) * ( N - n ) / [ N2 * ( N - 1 )] Poisson formula: P(x; ) = (e-) (x) / x! Mean of Poisson distribution = x = Variance of Poisson distribution = x2 = Multinomial formula: P = [ n! / ( n1! * n2! * ... nk! ) ] * ( p1n1 * p2n2 * . . . * pknk )

Linear Transformations
For the following formulas, assume that Y is a linear transformation of the random variable X, defined by the equation: Y = aX + b.

Mean of a linear transformation = E(Y) = Y = aX + b. Variance of a linear transformation = Var(Y) = a2 * Var(X). Standardized score = z = (x - x) / x. t-score = t = (x - x) / [ s/sqrt(n) ].

Estimation

Confidence interval: Sample statistic + Critical value * Standard error of statistic Margin of error = (Critical value) * (Standard deviation of statistic) Margin of error = (Critical value) * (Standard error of statistic)

Hypothesis Testing

Standardized test statistic = (Statistic - Parameter) / (Standard deviation of statistic) One-sample z-test for proportions: z-score = z = (p - P0) / sqrt( p * q / n ) Two-sample z-test for proportions: z-score = z = z = [ (p1 - p2) - d ] / SE One-sample t-test for means: t-score = t = (x - ) / SE Two-sample t-test for means: t-score = t = [ (x1 - x2) - d ] / SE Matched-sample t-test for means: t-score = t = [ (x1 - x2) - D ] / SE = (d - D) / SE Chi-square test statistic = 2 = [ (Observed - Expected)2 / Expected ]

Degrees of Freedom
The correct formula for degrees of freedom (DF) depends on the situation (the nature of the test statistic, the number of samples, underlying assumptions, etc.).

One-sample t-test: DF = n - 1 Two-sample t-test: DF = (s12/n1 + s22/n2)2 / { [ (s12 / n1)2 / (n1 - 1) ] + [ (s22 / n2)2 / (n2 - 1) ] }

Two-sample t-test, pooled standard error: DF = n1 + n2 - 2 Simple linear regression, test slope: DF = n - 2 Chi-square goodness of fit test: DF = k - 1 Chi-square test for homogeneity: DF = (r - 1) * (c - 1) Chi-square test for independence: DF = (r - 1) * (c - 1)

Sample Size
Below, the first two formulas find the smallest sample sizes required to achieve a fixed margin of error, using simple random sampling. The third formula assigns sample to strata, based on a proportionate design. The fourth formula, Neyman allocation, uses stratified sampling to minimize variance, given a fixed sample size. And the last formula, optimum allocation, uses stratified sampling to minimize variance, given a fixed budget.

Mean (simple random sampling): n = { z2 * 2 * [ N / (N - 1) ] } / { ME2 + [ z2 * 2 / (N 1) ] }

Proportion (simple random sampling): n = [ ( z2 * p * q ) + ME2 ] / [ ME2 + z2 * p * q / N ]

Proportionate stratified sampling: nh = ( Nh / N ) * n Neyman allocation (stratified sampling): nh = n * ( Nh * h ) / [ ( Ni * i ) ]

Optimum allocation (stratified sampling): nh = n * [ ( Nh * h ) / sqrt( ch ) ] / [ ( Ni * i ) / sqrt( ci ) ]