HIGHWAY ENGINEERING 18CV56

HIGHWAY ENGINEERING 18CV56

MODULE - 01

Principles of Transportation Engineering: Importance of transportation, Different modes of

transportation and comparison, Characteristics of road transport Jayakar committee
recommendations, and implementation – Central Road Fund, Indian Roads Congress, Central
Road Research Institute
Highway Development and Planning: Road types and classification, road patterns, planning
surveys, master plan – saturation system of road planning, phasing road development in India,
problems on best alignment among alternate proposals, Salient Features of 3rd and 4th twenty
year road development plans and Policies, Present scenario of road development in India
(NHDP & PMGSY) and in Karnataka (KSHIP & KRDCL) Road development plan - vision
2021.

Highway Alignment and Surveys: Ideal Alignment, Factors affecting the alignment,
Engineering Surveys-Map study, Reconnaissance, Preliminary and Final location & detailed
survey, Reports and drawings for new and re-aligned projects

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MODULE-1
PRINCIPLES OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING
Basic Definition
A facility consisting of the means and equipment necessary for the movement of passengers
or goods. At its most basic, the term “Transportation System” is used to refer to the
equipment and logistics of transporting passengers and goods.
Importance of Transportation
The evolution and advancements in transportation facilities have been closely linked with the
development of human beings throughout the history of the world.
Role of Transportation
Transportation plays a vital role in economic development of any region of any country, since
every commodity produced, whether it may be agricultural or industrial products they need to
be transported at various stages from production to distribution. At production stage for
carrying raw materials and at distribution stage for transportation from farms and factories to
marketing centers to retailers to consumers.
Inadequate transportation facilities retard the process of socio-economic and cultural
development. Development of transportation facilities in a country indicates its economic
growth and progress in social development.
The main objective of a good transportation system is to provide a safe, economical and
efficient transportation facility for passengers and goods.
Economic Activity and Transport
These are the processes in which the products are utilized to satisfy human needs. Two
important factors well known in economic activity are
1) Production or supply
2) Consumption for human needs or demands

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Social Effects of Transportation

The progress of a nation depends on transportation facilities. The population usually settles
along the transportation routes such as road sides, river shores and railway stations. However,
in the present concept of road network planning the above said kind of ribbon development is
discouraged for the sake of high speed travel and safety. Attempts are being made to
decentralize the population away from main transportation routes.
To avoid congestion on major cities, suburbs and satellite towns are being developed and are
linked to the major cities with mass rapid transit system.
The various social effects of transportation are
a) Sectionalism and transportation
b) Concentration of population in urban area
c) Aspect of safety, law and order

1. Sectionalism and Transportation

 Improved transportation has important implication in reducing sectionalism within
the country and also with other countries in the world
 The living conditions and facilities of under developed colonies and tribes get
improved since the distances are apparently reduced with reduction in travel time.
 Frequent travel to the other parts of the country and outside the country tend to
increase knowledge of the people by learning from other sections of society which
results in improved trade and cultural exchanges.
 International understanding for the better peace and order also improves with
efficient network of transportation.
2. Concentration of Population in Urban Areas
 Improved transportation facilities bring prosperity to the urban population
 The employment opportunities, prosperity and superior facilities for education,
medical care etc., are available in urban areas attract the population from other
areas leading to increased economic activities
 Adequate mass transportation facilities are needed to cater for the internal
movements for daily movements and other social needs
 Effective rapid transportation facilities are needed for suburban and intercity long-
distance travel

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 Inadequate transportation facilities lead to concentration of population in cities

which often results in congestion and related issues.
 If adequate facilities are provided people tend to prefer to reside at localities away
from urban centers.
3. Aspect of safety, Law and order
 Transportation facilities are required for rushing aid to areas affected by an
emergency.
 To maintain law and order and defend the territory of the country against external
aggression and to guard borders with foreign territory transportation facilities are
needed.
 Sometimes defense needs alone are a sufficient reason to develop transportation
needs which may not have any social and economic benefits.

Role of Transportation for the Development of rural areas in India

About 70% of population in India is living in rural areas. Therefore, development in urban
centers alone does not indicate overall development of the country. Only with the
improvements in transportation facilities in rural areas, there could be faster development of
these areas, resulting in overall development of country.
Impacts of rural roads connectivity from rural road development in India
Improvements in transportation services leads to improved access to market centers for the
rural producers, better availability of farm inputs at reduced prices.
Diversification of agricultural produce with improved market access promotes shift in favor of
cash crops and commercialization of agricultural activities.
Diversification of livelihood opportunities with better connectivity enhances employment
opportunity with better connectivity enhances employment opportunities in non-agricultural
sectors.
a) Improved services with improved road connectivity, inter-alia, enhances access to
education, health and financial services.
b) Increase in outreach due to improved rural roads facilities better availability of public
services and functionaries in rural areas.

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DIFFERENT MODES OF TRANSPORTATION

Transportation has developed along three basic modes of transport
(a) Land (b) Water (c) Air
Land has given scope for development of transportation by road and rail transport. Water and
air media have developed waterways and airways respectively. The roads or the highways not
only include modern highway system but also includes the urban arterials, city streets, feeder
roads and village roads catering for a wide variety of vehicles and pedestrians. Railways have
been developed both for long distance travel and also urban travel. Waterways include
transportation by oceans, rivers, canals and lakes for the movement of ships and boats. The
airways help in faster transportation by aircrafts and carriers.
Apart from these major modes of transportation, other modes include pipelines, elevators,
belt conveyors, cable cars, aerial ropeways and monorails. Pipe lines are used for the
transportation of water, other fluids and even solid particles
The four major modes of transportation are:
(i) Roadways or highways (ii) Railways (iii) Waterways (iv) Airways

ROADWAYS
The transportation by road is the only mode which could give maximum service to one and
all. Road transport mode has the maximum flexibility for travel with reference to choice of
the route, direction, time and speed of travel. This is only mode which caters for the
movement of passengers and goods independently right from the place of origin up to the
destination of any trip along the route. The other three modes (railways; water ways; airways)
have to depend on transportation by road for the service to and from their respective terminals.
Therefore, the roadway essentially serves as a feeder network. It is possible to provide door
to door service by road transport. Ultimately, road network is therefore needed not only to
serve as feeder system for other modes of transportation and to supplement them, but also to
provide independent facility for road travel by a well-planned network of roads throughout the
country
Advantages:
(a) Flexibility: It offers complete freedom to the road users.
(b) It requires relatively smaller investments and cheaper in construction with respect to
other modes.
(c) It serves the whole community alike the other modes.

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(d) For short distance travel, it saves time.

(e) The road network is used by various types of vehicles.
Disadvantages:
(a) Speed is related to accidents and more accidents results due to higher speed and is
usually not suitable for long distance travel
(b) Power required per tonne is more.

RAILWAYS
The concept of rail transportation is movement of multiple wagons or a train of wagons
passenger’s bogies on two parallel steel rails. The resistance to traction along the railway track
for the movement of steel wheels is much lower than that along more uneven road surface for
the movement of road vehicles with rubber tyres. The transportation along the railway track
could be advantageous by railways between the stations both for the passengers and goods,
particularly for longer distances. The energy requirement to haul unit load through unit distance
by the railway is only a fraction (one fourth to one sixth) of the required by road. Hence, full
advantage of this mode of transportation should be taken for the transportation of bulk goods
along land where the railway facilities are available. The Indian railway is one of the world’s
largest Railway network in the world. It was introduced in 1853 and it is spread over 1,09,221
km covering 6906 stations.
Advantages:
(a) Can transport heavy loads of goods at higher speed
(b) Power required per tonne is less compared to roadways
(c) Chances of accidents are less.
Disadvantages:
(a) Entry and exist points are fixed
(b) Requires controlling system and no freedom of movement
(c) Establishment and maintenance cost is higher

WATERWAYS
Transportation by water offers minimum resistance to traction and therefore needs minimum
energy to haul unit load through distance. The water transportation is the most energy efficient
but it is the slowest among the four modes. The highest use of this mode is for bulk cargo of

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relatively low value. The transportation by water is possible between the ports on the sea
routes or along the rivers or canals where inland transportation facilities are available.
Advantages:
(a) Cheapest: Cost per tonne is lowest
(b) Possess highest load carrying capacity
(c) Leads to the development of the industries.
Disadvantages:
(a) Slow in operation and consumes more time and Depends on whether condition
(b) Chances of attack by other countries on naval ships are more.
(c) Ocean tides affect the loading and unloading operation and the routes are circuitous.

AIRWAYS
The transportation by air is the fastest among the four modes. Air transport provides more
comfortable and fast travel resulting in substantial saving in travel time for the passengers
between the airports. The shipment of high value freight on long hauls is possible in the shortest
time by air transport. Unlike other modes of transport, air transport allows continuous journey
over the land and water, even across inaccessible places in between two airports.
For shorter hauls helicopters are used and they were developed for their landing and takeoff.
Military aviation is also important to meet the defense needs of a country.
Advantages
(a) It has highest speed.
(b) Intercontinental travel is possible
(c) Journey is continuous over land and water
Disadvantages
(a) Highest operating cost (cost/tonne is more) and the load carrying capacity is lowest
(b) Depends on whether condition
(c) Should follow the flight rules.

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COMPARISON BETWEEN VARIOUS MODES OF TRANSPORT

Highways Railways Airways Waterways
Parameter

Investment Small High High High

Maintenance Small High High High

Airport to
Service Door to Door Station to station Port to Port
airport

Various type can

Vehicles Only locomotive Only aircrafts Only ships
use

Freedom of
Complete Nil Nil Nil
movement

Comfortable Comfortable
Comfortable for Comfortable for
Comfort for long for long
short distance long distance
distance distance

Speed of vehicles Moderate Moderate Fastest Slowest

Less but Less but Less but

Accidents More
disastrous disastrous disastrous

To whole To whole
Availability Restricted Restricted
community community

1/4 to 1/6 of that

Energy to haul Small Highest Minimum
required by road

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CHARACTERISTICS OF ROAD TRANSPORTATION

It is accepted that the fact road transport is the nearest to the people. All classes of road
vehicles consisting of both personal or public transport vehicles and also the pedestrians can
make use of the roadway system. The passengers and goods have to be first transported by road
before reaching a railway station or an airport. The far-flung border areas located in high
altitude and difficult terrains of the country and the remote villages in the under developed
villages could be served by the road network. Road network is very economical and convenient
for short road trips and even some times for longer trips.
The characteristics are of roads are as follows
(1) Roads are used by various types of road vehicles like passenger, goods vehicles and
pedestrians. But the rail locomotives and wagons can only make use of the railway
track. The ships and boats can make use of only the waterways and the aircraft’s only
the airports
(2) Road transport infrastructure requires the lowest initial investments in comparison to
that for the infrastructure of other transportation modes. The cost of any class of road of
road vehicle is much lower is much lower than that of other carriers like the railways,
ships and aircrafts. The initial cost of construction and the cost of maintenance of roads is
also lesser than those for railway tracks, harbors and airports
(3) Roads offer complete freedom to the roads to the road user to make use of the roadway
facilities at any time convenient to them or to move the vehicle from a lane of the road
to the adjoining one and from one road to another, according to the need and
convenience
(4) It is possible to travel directly from the respective places of origin to the destination by
road vehicle
(5) Speed of movement is directly related with the severity of accidents. The road safety
decreases with the increasing running speed dispersion in the traffic stream. Road
transport is prone to a high rate of accidents due to the flexibility of movements offer to
the road users. However, in other modes of transport, in spite of various safety measures
and strict controls in the movements, major accidents do occur even in the form of head
on collisions and the accidents in these modes are more severe and disastrous
(6) Road transport is the only mode that offers the facilities to the whole section of society

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JAYAKAR COMMITTEE
RECOMMENDATIONS:
Over a period after the First World War, motor vehicles using the roads increased and this
demanded a better road network which can carry mixed traffic conditions. The existing roads
when not capable to withstand the mixed traffic conditions. For the improvement of roads in
India government of India appointed Mr. Jayakar Committee to study the situations and to
recommend suitable measures for road improvement in 1927 and a report was submitted in
1928 with following recommendations
(1) The road development in the country should be considered as a national interest as this
has become beyond the capacity of provincial governments and local bodies.
(2) An extra tax should be levied on petrol from the road users to develop a road
development fund called ‘Central Road Fund’
(3) A Semi-official technical body should be formed to pool technical know-how from
various parts of the country and to act as an advisory body on various aspects of roads.
(4) A research organization should be instituted to carry out research and development work
pertaining to roads and to be available for consultations.
IMPLEMENTATIONS:
Majority of the Jayakar Committee recommendations were accepted by the government
implemented. Some of the technical bodies were formed such as,
(a) Central Road Fund (CRF) in 1929
(b) Indian Road Congress (IRC) in 1934
(c) Central Road Research Institute (CRRI) in 1950.
CENTRAL RESEARCH FUND (CRF):
(a) Central Research Fund (CRF) was formed on 1st March 1929.
(b) The consumers of petrol were charged an extra levy of 2.64 paisa/liter of petrol to build
up this road development fund.
(c) From the fund collected 20 percent of the annual revenue is to be retained as meeting
expenses on the administration of the road fund, road experiments and research on road
and bridge projects of special importance.
(d) The balance 80 percent of the fund to be allotted by the Central Government to the
various states based on actual petrol consumption or revenue collected
(e) The accounts of the CRF are maintained by the Accountant General of Central
Revenues.

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(f) The control of the expenditure is exercised by the Roads Wings of Ministry of
Transport.

INDIAN ROAD CONGRESS (IRC):

(a) It is a semi-official technical body formed in 1934. It was formed to recommend
standard specifications.
(b) It was constituted to provide a forum of regular technical pooling of experience and
ideas on all matters affecting the planning, construction and maintenance of roads in
India.
(c) IRC has played an important role in the formulation of the 20-year road development
plans in India.
(d) Now, it has become an active body of national importance controlling specifications,
guidelines and other special publications on various aspects of Highway Engineering.

CENTRAL ROAD RESEARCH INSTITUTE (CRRI):

(a) CRRI was formed in the year 1950 at New Delhi
(b) It was formed for research in various aspect of highway engineering
(c) It is one of the National laboratories of the Council of Scientific and Industrial
Research.
(d) This institute is mainly engaged in applied research and offers technical advice to state
governments and the industries on various problems concerning roads.

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HIGHWAY DEVELOPMENT AND PLANNING

Highway design is only one element in the overall highway development process.
Historically, detailed design occurs in the middle of the process, linking the preceding phases
of planning and project development with the subsequent phases of right-of-way acquisition,
construction, and maintenance. While these are distinct activities, there is considerable overlap
in terms of coordination among the various disciplines that work together, including designers,
throughout the process.
It is during the first three stages, planning, project development, and design, that designers
and communities, working together, can have the greatest impact on the final design features
of the project. In fact, the flexibility available for highway design during the detailed design
phase is limited a great deal by the decisions made at the earlier stages of planning and
project development. This Guide begins with a description of the overall highway planning and
development process to illustrate when these decisions are made and how they affect the
ultimate design of a facility.
Objectives of Highway Planning
Planning if considered as pre-requisite before attempting any development program in the
present era. Highway planning is of great importance when funds available are limited
whereas the total planning is of great importance when the funds are limited whereas the total
requirement is much higher. The objectives are as follows
(a) To plan the overall road network for efficient and safe traffic operations, but at
minimum cost. Here the costs of construction, maintenance and resurfacing or
strengthening of pavement layers and vehicle operation costs are taken into
consideration
(b) To arrive at the road system and the lengths of different categories of roads which could
provide maximum utility and could be constructed within the available resources during
the plan period under construction
(c) To divide the overall plan into phases and to decide priorities
(d) To fix up date wise priorities for development of each road link based on utility as the
main criterion for phasing the road development program
(e) To plan for the future requirements and improvements of roads in view of anticipated
developments.
(f) To work out suitable financing systems

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Phases of Highway Planning

Highway planning includes the following phases
(i) Assessment of road length requirement for an area.
(ii) Preparation of master plan showing the phasing of plan in five year plans or annual plans

MEANING OF HIGHWAY AND ROAD

Road: A road is a thoroughfare, route or way on land between two places, which typically has
been paved or otherwise improved to allow travel by some conveyance, including a horse, cart,
or motor vehicle.
Highway: A highway is a public road, especially a major road connecting two or more
destinations. Any interconnected set of highways can be variously referred to as a "highway
system", a "highway network", or a "highway transportation system". Each country has its
own national highway system.

CLASSIFICATION OF ROADS
TYPES OF ROADS
Based on the season
(a) All-weather roads and
(b) Fair-weather roads.
(a) All-weather roads: These roads are negotiable during all weather, except at major river
crossings where interruption of traffic is permissible up to a certain limit extent, the road
pavement should be negotiable during all weathers.
(b) Fair-weather roads: On these roads, the traffic may be interrupted during monsoon
season at causeways where streams may overflow across the roads.
Based on the Carriage Way
(a) Paved Roads: These are the roads which have a hard pavement surface on the carriage
way
(b) Unpaved Roads: These are the roads without the hard pavement surface on the carriage
way, usually they are earthen or gravel roads.
Based on Pavement Surface
(a) Surface Roads: These roads are provided with any type of bituminous or cement
concrete surfacing.
(b) Unsurfaced Roads: These roads are not provided with a bituminous or cement concrete
surfacing.
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Roads which are provided with bituminous surfacing are called as Black Toped Roads and
that of concrete are referred to as Concrete Roads respectively
Methods of Classification of Roads
The roads are generally classified based on the following
(a) Traffic Volume
(b) Load transported of tonnage
(c) Location and function
Based on Traffic Volume: The classification based on traffic volume or tonnage have been
arbitrarily fixed by different agencies and are classified as
(i) Heavy (ii) Medium (iii) Low volume roads
Based on Load transported or tonnage:
(a) Class-I or Class-A b) Class-II or Class-B.
Based on location and Function:
The Nagpur Road Plan classified the roads in India into the following categories
(i) National Highways (NH): The NH are main highways running through the length and
breadth of the country connects the capital cities of the states and the capital cities to the
port. The roads connecting the neighboring countries are also called as NH. The NH are at
least 2 lanes of traffic about 7.5m d wide. The NH are having concrete or bituminous
surfacing.
(ii) State Highways (SH): SH are the arterial roads within the state and connect
important towns and cities of state. The width of state highways is generally 7.5m.
(iii) Major District Roads (MDR): These are important roads within a district connect
the areas of production and markets with either a SH or railway. The MDR should have at
least metaled single lane carriage way (i.e., 3.8m) wide. The roads carry mixed traffic.
(iv) Other District Roads (ODR): These roads connect the village to other village or the
nearest district road, with ghat, river etc. these roads have a single lane and carry mixed
traffic.
(v) Village Roads (VR): These roads, like other district roads, connect the village or
village or nearby district road. The roads carry mixed traffic.

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Modified Classification of Road System by Third Road Development Plan

The road classification system was modified in the third 20-year development plan. The roads
are now classified into three classes and are as follows
1. Primary System
(a) Expressways
(b) National Highways(NH)
2. Secondary System
(a) State Highways (SH)
(b) Major District Roads (MDR)
3. Tertiary System
(a) Other District Roads (ODR)
(b) Village Roads (VR)

Classification of Urban Roads

The road system within urban areas is classified as Urban Roads and will form a separate
category of roads taken care by respective urban authorities. The lengths of urban roads are
not included in the targets of the 3rd 20-year road development plan 1981-2001.
(a) Arterial roads
(b) Sub-arterial roads
(c) Collector Streets
(d) Local Streets
Arterial and Sub-arterial roads are primarily for through traffic on a continuous route, but
sub-arterials have a lower level of traffic mobility than the arterials.
Collector streets provide access to arterial streets and they collect and distribute traffic from
and to local streets which provide access to abutting property.

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ROAD PATTERNS
There are various types of road patterns and each pattern has its own advantages and
limitations. The choice of the road pattern depends upon the various factors such as:
(a) Locality
(b) Layout of the different towns, villages, industrial and production centers
(c) Planning Engineer
The various road patterns may be classified as follows:
Rectangular or block pattern: In this, entire area is divided into rectangular segments having
a common central business and marketing area. This area has all the services located in the
central place. This pattern is not convenient or safe from traffic operation point of view and it
results into more number of accidents at intersections. E.g.: Chandigarh city.

Fig 1.1 Rectangular or block pattern

Radial or star and block pattern: In this, roads radially emerge from the central business
area in all directions and between two built-up area will be there. The main advantage in this,
central place is easy accessible from all the directions. E.g.: Nagpur

Fig. 1.2 Radial or star and block pattern

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Radial or star and circular pattern: In this road radiate in all the directions and also
circular ring roads are provided.
Advantages: Traffic will not touch the heart of the city and it flows radially and reaches the
other radial road and thereby reducing the congestion in the center of the city. This ring road
system is well suited for big cities where traffic problems are more in the heart of the city. E.g.:
Connaught place in New Delhi.

Fig. 1.3 Radial or star and circular pattern

Radial or star and grid pattern: It is very much similar to star and the circular pattern
expects the radial roads are connected by grids. In this pattern, a grid is formed around the
central point which is a business center. E.g. Nagpur road plan.

Fig. 1.4 Radial or star and grid pattern

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Hexagonal pattern: In this entire zone of planning is divided into hexagonal zones having
separate marketing zone and central services surrounded by hexagonal pattern of roads. Each
hexagonal element is independent. At each corner of hexagon three roads meet.

Fig. 1.5 Radial or star and grid pattern

Minimum travel pattern: In this type, city is divided into number of nodal points around a
central portion by forming sectors. And each sector is divided again in such a way that from
each of the nodal center, the distance to the central place is minimum.

Fig. 1.6 Concept of Star and grid pattern

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PLANNING SURVEYS
The studies for collecting the factual data for highway planning are known as ‘Fact Finding
Studies’ or ‘Planning Surveys’. The fact-finding studies point to an intelligent approach for
planning and these studies should be carried if the highway programme is to be protected
from inconsistent and short-sighted policies. Planning based on the factual data and analysis
may be considered scientific and sound.

Objectives of Planning Surveys:

(a) Workout, the financial system and recommended changes in tax arrangements and
budget procedures, provide efficient, safe economics, comfortable and speedy
movement for goods and people.
(b) Plan a road network for efficient traffic operation at minimum cost.
(c) Plan for future requirements and improvements of roads in view of developments and
social needs.
(d) Fix up data wise priorities for development of each road link based on their utilities.
The planning surveys consist of the following studies:
(a) Economic Studies
The details to be collected during the economic studies are useful in estimation of the
requirements, cost involved for the proposed highway improvement programme and economic
justification. This study consists the following details:
(i) Population and its distribution
(ii) Trend of population growth
(iii)Age and land products
(iv) Existing facilities
(v) Per Capita income

(b) Financial Studies

The financial studies are essential to study the various financial aspects such as sources of
income, various types of revenues from duties and taxes on products, road transport, vehicle
registration, court fees etc. and the future trends. This study involves collecting the details such
as:
(i) Sources of income
(ii) Living Standards
(iii) Resources from local levels
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(iv) Future trends in financial aspects

(c) Traffic or Road Use Studies
All the details of the existing traffic, such as classified traffic volume, growth rate of different
vehicle classes, pattern of flow or origin destination characteristics, particulars of passenger
trips and goods movements, existing facilities for mass transportation, trend in road
accidents, accidents costs etc. The detail collected is as follows
(i) Classified traffic volume in vehicles per day, annual average daily traffic, peak and
design hourly volume
(ii) Origin and destination studies based on home interview method
(iii) Traffic flow pattern
(iv) Mass transportation facilities
(v)Accidents, their causes and cost analysis
(vi) Future trend and growth in traffic volume and goods traffic, trend in traffic pattern
(vii)Growth of passenger trips and the trend in the choice of modes
(d) Engineering Studies
All the details of the topography, soil and drainage characteristics, alignment of the existing
roads, deficiencies in drainage, alignments and geometrics of existing roads and requirements
of essential up gradation, identification of maintenance and problems etc.,. This involves:
(i) Topographic study and Soil details
(ii) Location and classification of existing roads
(iii) Assessment of various other developments in the area that are likely due to the
proposed highway development
(iv) Road life studies
(v) Specific problems in drainage constructions and maintenance.

PREPARATION OF PLANS
The details collected during the planning surveys are tabulated and plotted on the maps of the
area under planning. Before finalizing the alignment and other details of the road development
program, the information collected during the fact-finding studies are presented in the form of
various plans. They are as follows
Plan-1: General area plan showing most of the existing details about the topographical
details related to existing road network, drainage, structures, towns and villages with
population, agricultural, industrial and commercial activities.

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Plan-2: Plan showing the distribution of population groups in accordance with the categories
made in appropriate plan.
Plan-3: Plan showing the locations of places with their respective quantities of productivity.
Plan-4: Should indicate the existing network of roads and proposals received. Ultimately, the
Master plan is the one to be implemented.

MASTER PLAN
Master plan is referred to as road development plan of a city; district or a street or for whole
country. It is an ideal plan showing full development of the area at some future date. It serves
as the guide for the plan to improve some of the existing roads and to plan the network of
new roads.
It helps in controlling the industrial, commercial and agricultural and habitat growth in a
systematic way of that area. It gives a perceptive picture of a fully developed area in a plan
and scientific way.

Stages in the preparation of master plan:

(a) Data Collection: It includes data regarding existing land use, industrial and agricultural
growth, population, traffic flow, topography, future trends.
(b) Preparation of draft plan and invite suggestions and comments from public
(c) Revision of draft plan in view of the discussions and comments from experts and public.
(d) Comparison of various alternate proposals of road system and finding out the sequence
in which the master plan will be implemented.
In India, targeted road lengths were fixed in various road plans, based on population, area and
agricultural and industrial products. The same way it may be taken as a guide to decide the
total length of road system in each alternate proposal while preparing a master plan for a
town or locality.

SATURATION SYSTEM
In this system optimum road length is calculated for an area based on the concept of attaining
maximum utility per unit length of the road. This is also called as MAXIMUM UTILITY
SYSTEM.
Factors to attain maximum utility per unit length are:
(a) Population served by the road network
(b) Productivity served by the network

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(c) Agricultural Products

(d) Industrial Products

The various steps to be taken to obtain maximum utility per unit length are:
Population factors or units: Since, the area under consideration consists of villages and
towns with different population these are grouped into some convenient population range and
some reasoning values of utility units to each range of population serve are assigned.
(a) Population less than 500, utility unit = 0.25
(b) 501 to 1001, utility unit = 0.50
(c) 1001 to 2000, utility unit = 1.00
(d) 2001 to 5000, utility unit = 2.00 etc.

Productivity Factors or units: The total agricultural and industrial products served by each
road system are worked out and the productivity served may be assigned appropriate values
of utility units per unit weight.
Optimum Road length: Based on the master plan the targeted road length is fixed for the
country on the basis of area or population and production or both. And the same may be taken
as a guide to decide the total length of the road system in each proposal.

PHASING ROAD DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA

The first attempt for proper planning of the highway development programme in India on a
long-term basis was made at the Nagpur Conference in 1943. After the completion of the
Nagpur Road Plan targets, the Second Twenty year Plan was drawn for the period 1961- 1981.
The Third Twenty Year Road Development Plan for the period 1981-2001 was approved
only by the year 1984.
The fourth 20-year road development plan of the country for the period 2001 – 2021 has not
yet been approved as an official plan document, instead ‘Roads Development Vision: 2021’
has been formulated.

First 20-Year Road Plan (Nagpur Road plan): 1943- 1963

This plan was formed in the year 1943 at Nagpur and plan period was from 1943- 1963.Two
plan formulae were finalized at the Nagpur Conference for deciding two categories of road
length for the country as a whole as well as for individual areas (like district). This was the

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first attempt for highway planning in India. The two plan formulae assumed the Star and Grid
pattern of road network. Hence, the two formulae are also called “Star and Grid Formulae”.
Salient Features of Nagpur Road Plan
All the roads were classified into 5 categories namely
(i) National Highways (NH) (ii) State Highways (SH) (iii) Major District Roads (MDR)
(iv) Other District Roads (ODR) (v) Village Roads (VR)
Two plan formulas were suggested for deciding the length of two categories of roads as given
below:
Category – 1: Surfaced or metaled roads meant for NH/SH/MDR
Category – 2: Unsurfaced roads meant for ODR/VR
Nagpur road plan aimed at achieving a modest average road density of 16 km per km2 area.

Second Twenty Year Road Plan (Bombay Road Plan): 1961-81

As the target road length of Nagpur road plan was completed nearly earlier in 1961 a long-
term plan was initiated for twenty-year period which was initiated by IRC. Hence, the second
twenty year road plan came into picture which was drawn for the period of 1961-81. The
second twenty year road plan was envisaged overall road length of 10, 57,330 km by the year
1981.
Salient Features of Second 20-year Road Plan:
(a) Every town with population above 2000 in plains should be connected by a bituminous
road or metaled road, above 1000 in semi-hilly area above 500 in hilly area
(b) 1600 km length of expressways was proposed
(c) Development allowance is 5% only
(d) Length of railway track was not deducted
(e) Five equations are given to find NH/SH/MDR/ODR/VR

Third Twenty Year Road Plan (Lucknow Road Plan): 1981-2001

The Third twenty year road plan was prepared by the Road Wing of the Ministry of Shipping
and Transport with the active co-operation from a number of organizations and the experts in
the field of Highway Engineering and Transportation. This document was released during the
45th Annual Session and the Golden Jubilee celebrations of the Indian Road Congress in
February 1985 at Lucknow. Therefore, this plan for 1981-2001 is also called as ‘Lucknow
Road Plan’.

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Salient Features of Second 20-year Road Plan

(a) The future road development should be based on the revised classification of road system
consisting of Primary, secondary and tertiary systems.
(b) The road network should be developed so as to preserve the rural oriented economy and
to develop small to towns with all the facilities. All the villages with population above
500 should be connected with all-weather roads by the end of the century.
(c) The overall road density should be increased to 82 km per 100 sq. km area by the year
2001 and 40 km for hill areas of altitude up to 2100 m and 15k m for altitude over 2100 m.
(d) The NH network should be expanded to form square grids of 100 km sides so that no part
of the country in more than 50 km away from a NH
(e) The length of SH and MDR required should be decided based on the areas and no. of
towns with population above 5000 in the state or region.
(f) Expressway should be constructed along the major traffic corridors to provide fast travel.
(g) All the towns and villages with population above 1500 should be connected by MDR and
villages with population 1000 to 1500 by ODR. There should be road within a distance of
3 km in plain and 5 km in hilly terrain connecting the villages with population less than
500. Roads should be built in less industrialized areas to attract the growth of industries.
(h) Long term master plans for road development should be prepared at various level i.e.,
taluk, district, state and national level. The road network should be scientifically decided
to provide maximum utility.
(i) The existing roads should be improved by rectifying the defects in the road geometrics,
widening of the pavements, improving the riding quality of the pavement surface and
strengthening of pavement structure
(j) There should be improvements in environmental quality and road safety.

Road length by Third 20-year road development plan

Area
(a) Length of NH =
50
Area
(b) (i) Length of SH =
25
Area
(ii) Length of SH, km = 62.5 x No. of towns -
50
Adopt length of SH (higher of the two criteria)

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Area
(c) (i) Length of MDR =
12.5
(ii) Length of MDR = 90 x No. of towns in the state.
Adopt length of MDR (higher of the two criteria).
82
Total Length of the road = Area x
100
82
NH+SH+MDR+ODR+VR = Area x
100
Length of ODR+VR = Total length – (NH+SH+MDR)

PRESENT SCENARIO OF ROAD DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA

NATIONAL HIGHWAY DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS (NHDP)
Realizing the deficiencies in the National Highway System in the country the National
Highways Authorities of India (NHAI) took up the National Highways Development Projects
(NHDP) by the year 2000 in different phases
The National Highways Development Project (NHDP) is a project to upgrade, rehabilitate
and widen major highways in India to a higher standard.
The project was started in 1998 under the leadership of then Prime Minister, Atal Bihari
Vajpayee. National Highways account for only about 2% of the total length of roads, but carry
about 40% of the total traffic across the length and breadth of the country.
This project is managed by the National Highways Authority of India (NHAI) under the Ministry
of Road, Transport and Highways.
The NHDP represents 49,260 km of roads and highways work and construction in order to
boost economic development of the country.
The government has planned to end the NHDP program in early 2018 and consume the
ongoing projects under a larger Bharatmala project.
Phase I: Golden Quadrilateral of total length 5846km connecting the 4 major metropolitan
cities. The four sides of the quadrilateral are Delhi – Mumbai, Mumbai – Chennai (Via
Bengaluru), Chennai – Kolkata and Kolkata- Delhi.
Phase II: North-South and East-West corridors comprising national highways connecting four
extreme points of the country. The North–South and East–West Corridor (NS-EW; 7,142 km)
connecting Srinagar in the north to Kanyakumari in the south, and Silchar in the east to
Porbandar in the west. Total length of the network is 7,142 km.

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Phase III: The government on 12th April, 2007 approved NHDP-III to upgrade 12,109 km
(7,524 mi) of national highways on a Build, Operate and Transfer (BOT) basis, which takes
into account high-density traffic, connectivity of state capitals via NHDP Phase I and II, and
connectivity to centers of economic importance.
Phase IV: The government on 18th June, 2008 approved widening 20,000 km of highway that
were not part of Phase I, II, or III. Phase IV will convert existing single-lane highways into two
lanes with paved shoulders.
Phase V: As road traffic increases over time, a number of four-lane highways will need to be
upgraded/expanded to six lanes. On 5 October, 2006, the government approved for upgradeof
about 5,000 km (3,100 mi) of four-lane roads.
Phase VI: The government is working on constructing 1,000 km (620 mi) expressways that
would connect major commercial and industrial townships. It has already identified 400 km
(250 mi) of Vadodara (earlier Baroda)-Mumbai section that would connect to the existing
Vadodara (earlier Baroda)-Ahmedabad section. The World Bank is studying this project. The
project will be funded on BOT basis. The 334 km (208 mi) Expressway between Chennai—
Bangalore and 277 km (172 mi) Expressway between Kolkata—Dhanbadhas been identified
and feasibility study and DPR contract has been awarded by NHAI.
Phase VII: This phase calls for improvements to city road networks by adding ring roads to
enable easier connectivity with national highways to important cities. In addition,
improvements will be made to stretches of national highways that require additional flyovers
and bypasses given population and housing growth along the highways and increasing traffic.
The government has planned to invest Rs. 16,680 Cr for this phase. The 19 km (12 mi) long
Chennai Port—Maduravoyal Elevated Expressway is being executed under this phase.

PRADHAN MANTRI GRAM SADAK YOJANA (PMGSY)

 An accelerated village road village road development called Pradhan Mantri Gram
Sadak Yojana was launched by the Govt. of India in Dec 2000 under the guidance of
Ex. Prime Minister Shri Atal Bihari Vajpayee to provide villages with all-weather roads.
 The ministry of Rural Development was given the responsibility to prepare the master
plans in consultation with the State Governments.
 The objective of PMGSY was to provide connectivity to all unconnected habitations
having a population of 500 and above with all-weather roads.

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 The above population limit is relaxed in the case of hills, tribal and desert areas of the
country.
 The Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY) is a 100% Centrally Sponsored Scheme.
0.75 Rs/ liter out of the Cess on High Speed Diesel (HSD) is earmarked for this Programme.
PROGRAMME OBJECTIVES
(a) The primary objective of the PMGSY is to provide Connectivity, by way of an All-weather
Road (with necessary culverts and cross-drainage structures, which is operable throughout
the year), to the eligible unconnected Habitations in the rural areas with a population of 500
persons and above in Plain areas.
(b) In respect of the Hill States (North-East, Sikkim, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir
and Uttarakhand), the Desert Areas (as identified in the Desert Development Programme),
the Tribal (Schedule V) areas and Selected Tribal and Backward Districts (as identified by
the Ministry of Home Affairs and Planning Commission).
(c) The objective would be to connect eligible unconnected Habitations with a population of
250 persons and above.

KSHIP
 The Karnataka State Highways Improvement Project (KSHIP) is an initiative of
the Public Works Department of the Government of Karnataka for improvement of road
network of the state with World Bank assistance.
 The Public Works Department carried out Strategic Option Study (SOS) during 1996
on a road network of 13,362 km comprising State Highways and Major District Roads
and the study identified 2888 km of roads for prioritized improvements.
 The World Bank have extended Technical Assistance (T.A.) Loan of US $ 3.2 million
for project preparation through the Department of Economic Affairs of Ministry of
Finance, Government of India for taking up the Project Coordinating Consultancy
(PCC) Services to investigate and prepare detailed project report on the 2888 km and
Institutional Development Strategy (IDS) Study.
 With concurrence of the World Bank, M/s. Scott Wilson Kirkpatrick, United Kingdom
were selected and appointed on 07-01-1999 to carryout PCC Services for 2505 km of
roads.
 The PCC Services were divided into Phase I & II. The PCC Consultants carried out
feasibility and social & environmental screening and identified 2271 km for prioritized

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improvement. It is proposed to undertake Up gradation of 992 Km and Rehabilitation

of 1277 Km.
KRDCL
 Karnataka Road Development Corporation (KRDCL) was incorporated on 21st of
July 1999 as a wholly owned Government of Karnataka Company as per the Provisions
of the Company's Act, 1956
 KRDCL is a company under the Public Works, Ports & Inland Water Transport
Department. This Company was established to promote surface infrastructure by taking
up Road Works, Bridges etc., and to improve road network by taking up construction
widening and strengthening of roads, construction of bridges, maintenance of roads
etc., and to take up projects on BOT, BOOT, BOLT.
 Since inception Karnataka Road Development Corporation Limited has strived to
improve the road network and to establish connectivity to all the nook & corner of the
State.
ROAD DEVELOPMENT PLAN: VISION 2021
Actual achievement in terms of length of different categories of roads in the country at
the end of the 3rd 20-year road development plan period was compared with the plan
targets.
It was observed that actual length of NH and SH achieved fell short of plan targets.
The total length of NH achieved was 57,700km as against the target of 66,000km and
that the SH achieved was 1,24,300km as against of 1,45,000km.
This vision document has considered the need for overall development of road system
in country. The total target length of primary and secondary road system to be
achieved in the country by the year 2020 are given below
Primary highway system consisting of 15,766km of expressway and 80,000km of NH
Secondary road system consisting of 1,60,000 km of SH and 3,20,000km of MDR
The above document also has given special attention for road development needs in
North-Eastern regions and other isolated areas. In view of rapid growth rate of urban
centers, some suggestion has been made for the development of urban road system
also.
Tertiary system of rural roads consisting of ODR and VR are to be developed in order
to provide all-weather road connectivity to all the villages of the country in a phased

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manner. Considering the importance of this subject, a rural road development plan
document was prepared.
Rural Road Development Plan: Vision 2025
It was developed for the 20-year period of 2005-2025 to provide basic access to villages in
phases:
(a) Phase – I: Villages with population above 1000
(b) Phase – II: Villages with population above 500
(c) Phase – III: Villages with population below 500
Lower population limits were fixed for under developed regions including hills, deserts and
tribal areas.

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HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT AND SURVEYS

The position or the layout of the central line of the highway on the ground is called the
alignment. Highway Alignment includes both
(a) Horizontal alignment includes straight and curved paths, the deviations and horizontal
curves.
(b) Vertical alignment includes changes in level, gradients and vertical curves.
A new road should be aligned very carefully as improper alignment will lead to increase in
construction, maintenance and vehicle operation cost. Once the road is aligned and constructed,
it is not easy to change it due to increase in cost of adjoining land and construction of costly
structures by the roadside

REQUIREMENTS
The requirements of an ideal alignment are
a) Short: The alignment between two terminal stations should be short and as far as
possible be straight, but due to some practical considerations deviations may be
needed.
b) Easy: The alignment should be easy to construct and maintain. It should be easy for
the operation of vehicles. So, to the maximum extend easy gradients and curves
should be provided.
c) Safe: It should be safe both from the construction and operating point of view
especially at slopes, embankments, and cutting. It should be safe for traffic
operation with safe geometric features.
d) Economical: The alignment should be economical and it can be considered so only
if the total life cycle cost considering the initial cost, maintenance cost, and vehicle
operating cost is lowest.

FACTORS CONTROLLING ALIGNMENT

For an alignment to be shortest, it should be straight between the two terminal stations, but
this is not always possible due to various practical difficulties such as intermediate
obstructions or topography. A road which is economical with low initial investment may not
be the most economical in terms of maintenance or vehicle operation cost (VOC). Thus, is

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may be seen that an alignment can fulfill all the requirements simultaneously; hence a judicial
choice is made considering all the factors.
The various factors that control the alignment are as follows:
(a) Obligatory Points
(b) Traffic
(c) Geometric Design
(d) Economics
(e) Other Considerations

(a) Obligatory Points

These are the control points governing the highway alignment. These points are classified
into two categories.
(i) Points through which the alignment should pass
(ii) Points through which the alignment should not pass.
(i) Points through which the alignment should pass
 Bridge site: The Bridge can be located only where the river has straight and
permanent path and also where the abutment and pier can be strongly founded.
The road approach to the bridge should not be curved and skew crossing should
be avoided as possible. Thus, to locate a bridge the highway alignment may be
changed.
 Mountain: While the alignment passes through a mountain, the various
alternativesare to either
 Construct a tunnel or to go around the hills. The suitability of the alternative
depends on factors like topography, site conditions and construction and
operation cost.
 Intermediate town: The alignment may be slightly deviated to connect an
intermediate town or village nearby. These were some of the obligatory points
through which the alignment should pass.
(ii) Points through which the alignment should not pass
 Religious places: These have been protected by the law from being acquired for
any purpose. Therefore, these points should be avoided while aligning.
 Very costly structures: Acquiring such structures means heavy compensation
which would result in an increase in initial cost. So, the alignment may be deviated

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not to pass through that point.

 Lakes/ponds etc.: The presence of a lake or pond on the alignment path would also
necessitate deviation of the alignment.

(b) Traffic
The alignment should suit the traffic requirements. Based on the origin- destination data of
the area, the desire lines should be drawn. The new alignment should be drawn keeping in
view the desire lines, traffic flow pattern etc.

(c) Geometric design

Geometric design factors such as gradient, radius of curve, sight distance etc. also governs the
alignment of the highway. To keep the radius of curve minimum, it may be required to change
the alignment of the highway. The alignments should be finalized such that the obstructions
to visibility do not restrict the minimum requirements of sight distance. The design standards
vary with the class of road and the terrain and accordingly the highway should be aligned.

(d) Economics
The alignment finalized should be economical. All the three costs i.e. construction,
maintenance, and operating cost should be minimum. The construction cost can be decreased
much if it is possible to maintain a balance between cutting and filling. Also try to avoid very
high embankments and very deep cuttings as the construction cost will be very higher in
these cases.

(e) Other Considerations

The various other factors that govern the alignment are drainage considerations, political
considerations and monotony. The vertical alignment is often guided by drainage
considerations such as sub surface drainage, water level, seepage flow, and high flood levels.
A foreign territory coming across the alignment will necessitate the deviation of the horizontal
alignment. In flat terrain, even though it is possible to have a very long stretch of road which
is absolutely straight may be monotonous for driving. Hence it is recommended to have a slight
bend or road side amenities to break monotony.

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ENGINEERING SURVEYS FOR HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT

STAGES OF ENGINEERING SURVEYS
Before a highway alignment is finalized in a new highway project, engineering surveys are to
be carried out. These engineering surveys may be completed in the following four stages:
(a) Map Study
(b) Reconnaissance Survey
(c) Preliminary Surveys
(d) Final Location and Detailed Surveys

(a) Map Study

It is possible to suggest the likely routes of the roads if the topographic map of the area is
available. In India, topographic maps are available from the Survey of India, with 15 or 30
meter contour intervals. The main features like rivers, hills valleys, etc. are also shown on these
maps.
The probable alignment can be located on the map from the following details available on the
map.
 Alignment avoiding valleys, ponds or lakes
 When the road has to cross a row of hills or mountains, possibility of crossing through
a mountain pass.
 Approximate location of bridge site for crossing rivers, avoiding bend of the river, if
any
 When a road is to be connected between two stations, one of the top and the other on
the foot of the hill, then alternate routes can be suggested keeping in view the design or
ruling gradient and the maximum permissible gradient
Thus, from the map study alternate routes can be suggested. It may also be possibly from map
study to drop a certain route in view of any unavoidable obstructions or undesirable ground
and map study gives a rough guidance of the routes to be further surveyed in the field.

(b) Reconnaissance Survey

The second stage of engineering surveys for highway alignment is the reconnaissance survey.
During the reconnaissance, the engineer visits the site and examines the general
characteristics of the area before deciding the most feasible routes for detailed studies. A field
survey party may inspect a fairly broad stretch of land along the proposed alternative routes of
the map in the field; very simple survey instruments are used by the reconnaissance party to

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collect additional details rapidly, but not accurately. All relevant details which are not available
in the map are collected and noted down. Some of the details to be collected during
reconnaissance are given below:
 Valleys, ponds, lakes, marshy land, ridge, hills, permanent structures and other
obstructions alone the route which are not available in the map
 Approximate values of gradient, length of gradients and radius of curves of alternate
alignments.
 Number and type of cross drainage structures, maximum flood level and natural ground
water level along the probable routes.
 Soil type along the routes from field identification tests and observation of geological
features
 Sources of construction materials, water and location of stone quarries
 When the road passes through hilly or mountainous terrain, additional data regarding
the geological formation, type of rocks, dip of strata, seepage flow etc. may be observed
so as to decide the stable and unstable sides of the hill for highway alignment
A rapid reconnaissance of the area, especially when it is vast and the terrain is difficult and it
may be done by aerial survey. From the details collected during the survey the alignment
proposed may be altered or even changes completed.

(c) Preliminary Survey

The main objectives of the preliminary survey are
 To survey the various alternate alignment proposed after the reconnaissance and to
collect all the necessary physical information and details of topography, drainage and
soil
 To compare the different proposals in view of the requirements of a good alignment.
 To estimate quantity of earthwork materials and other construction aspects and to work
out the cost of alternate proposals.
The preliminary survey may be carried out by of following methods
a) Conventional approach, in which a survey party carries out surveys using the required
field equipment, taking measurements, collecting topographical and other data and
carrying out soil survey
b) Rapid approach, by aerial survey taking the required aerial photographs and by
photogrammetric methods and photo-interpretation techniques for obtaining the

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necessary topographic and other maps including details of soil and geology
c) Modem techniques by use of Global Positioning System (GPS)
The procedure of the conventional methods of preliminary survey is given in following steps:
(a) Primary Traverse
(b) Topographical Features
(c) Leveling Work
(d) Drainage Studies and Hydrological Data
(e) Soil Survey
(f) Material Survey
(g) Traffic Studies

(a) Primary Traverse

The first step in the preliminary survey is to establish the primary traverse, following the
alignment recommended in the reconnaissance. For alternate alignments either secondary
traverses or independent primary traverses may be necessary. As these traverses are open
traverses and adjustment of errors is not possible later, the angles should be very accurately
measured using a precision theodolite.
(b) Topographic Features
After establishing the center lines of preliminary survey, the topographical features are
recorded. All geographical and other man-made features along the traverse and for a certain
width on either side are surveyed and plotted. The width to be surveyed is generally decided
by the survey party, but the absolute minimum width is the land width of the proposed
alignment.
(c) Leveling work
Leveling work is also carried out side by side to give the center line profiles and typical cross
sections. Permanent and temporary bench marks should be first established at appropriate
locations and the levels should be connected to the GTS datum. The leveling work in the
preliminary survey is kept to a minimum just sufficient to obtain the approximate earth work
in the alternate alignments. To draw contours of the strip of land to be surveyed, cross section
levels should be taken at suitable intervals, generally 100 to 200 m in plain terrain, up to 50 m
in rolling terrain and up to 30 m in hilly terrain.
(d) Drainage Studies and Hydrological Data

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Drainage investigations and hydrological data are collected so as to estimate the type, number
and approximate size of cross drainage structures. Also, the vertical alignment of the
highway, particularly the grade line is decided based on the hydrological and drainage data,
such as HFL. Ponded water level, depth of water table, amount of surface runoff, etc.
(e) Soil Survey
Soil survey is an essential part of the preliminary survey as the suitability of the proposed
location is to be finally decided based on the soil survey data. The soil survey conducted at
this stage also helps in working out details of earth work, slopes, suitability of materials,
subsoil and surface drainage requirements and pavement type and the approximate thickness
requirements. All these details are required to make a comparative study of alternate
proposals. A detailed soil survey is not necessary. Post-hole auger or any other suitable types
of hand augers may be used depending on the soil type to collect the soil sample up to a depth
of 1 to 3 meter below the likely finished road level or the existing ground level, whichever is
lower. When the road is expected to be constructed over an embankment, the depth of
exploration should extend up to twice the height of embankment from the ground level. During
the soil exploration if the ground water table is struck, the depth from the ground surface is
also noted. The types of soils encountered along the route up to the depth under consideration
are marked on the soil profile either symbolically or by suitable color coding.
(f) Material Survey
The survey for naturally occurring materials likes stone aggregates, soft aggregates, etc. and
identification of suitable quarries should be made. Also, availability of manufactured
materials like cement, lime, brick, etc. and their locations may be ascertained.
(g) Traffic Survey
Traffic surveys conducted in the region form the basis for deciding the number of traffic lanes
and roadway width, pavement design and economic analysis of the highway project. Traffic
volume counts of the classified vehicles are to be carried out on all the existing roads in the
region, preferably for 24 hours per day for seven days. Origin and destination surveys are
very useful for deciding the alignment of the roads. This study may be earned out on a
suitable sample of vehicle users or drivers. In addition, the required traffic data may also be
collected so that the traffic forecast could be made for 10 to 20 year periods.
(h) Determination of Final Centre Line
After completing the preliminary surveys and conducting the comparative studies of
alternative alignments, the final center line of the road is to be decided in the office before the

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final location survey. For this, the preliminary survey maps consisting of contour plans,
longitudinal profile and cross sections of the alternate alignments should be prepared and
carefully studied to decide the best alignment satisfying engineering aesthetic and economical
requirements. After selecting the final alignment, the grade lines are drawn and the geometric
elements of the horizontal and vertical alignments of the road are designed.

Rapid method using aerial survey and modern technique using GPS
Aerial photographic surveys and photogrammetric methods are very much suited for
preliminary surveys, especially when the distance and area to be covered are vast, The
survey may be divided into the following steps:
Taking aerial photographs of the strips of land to be surveyed with the required
longitudinal and lateral overlaps. Vertical photographs are necessary for the preparation of
mosaics.
a) The photographs are examined under stereoscopes and control points are selected for
establishing the traverses of the alternate proposals. The control points are located on
the maps
b) Using stereo-pair observations, the spot levels and subsequently contour details may be
noted down on the maps
c) Photo-interpretation methods are used to assess the geological features, soil conditions,
drainage requirements etc.

Final Location and Detailed Survey

The alignment finalized at the design office after the preliminary survey is to be first located
on the field by establishing the center line. Next detailed survey should be carried out for
collecting the information necessary for the preparation of plans and construction details for
the highway project.
Location
The center line of the road finalized in the drawings is to be transferred on the ground during
the location survey. This is done using a transit theodolite and by staking of the center line.
The location of the center line should follow, as closely as practicable, the alignment
finalized after the preliminary surveys. Major and minor control points are established on the
ground and center pegs are driven, checking the geometric design requirements. However,
modifications in the final location may be made in the field, if found essential. The center line

Department of Civil Engineering, NIT-Raichur Page 37

HIGHWAY ENGINEERING 18CV56

stakes are driven at suitable intervals; say at 50 meter intervals in plain and rolling terrains and
at 20 meter in hilly terrain.
Detailed Survey
 Temporary bench marks are fixed at intervals of about 250 m and at all drainage and
under pass structures. Levels along the final center line should be taken at all staked
points.
 Leveling work is of great importance as the vertical alignment, earth work calculations and
drainage details are to be worked out from the level notes.
 The cross-section levels are taken up to the desired width, at intervals of 50 to 100 m
in plain terrain, 50 to 75 m in rolling terrain, 50 m in built-up areas and 20 m in hilly
terrain.
 The cross sections may be taken at closer intervals at horizontal curves and where
there is abrupt change in cross slopes.
 All river crossing, valleys etc. should be surveyed in detail up to considerable
distances on either side.
 All topographical details are noted down and also plotted using conventional signs.
Adequate hydrological details are also collected and recorded.
 A detailed soil survey is carried out to enable drawing of the soil profile. The depth
up to which soil sampling is to be done may be 1.5 to 3.0 m below the ground line or
finished grade line of the road whichever is lower. However, in case of high
embankments, the depth should be up to twice the height of the finished
embankment. The spacing of auger borings very much depends upon the soil type
and its variations.
 CBR value of soils along the alignment may be determined for designing the pavement.
 The data during the detailed survey should be elaborate and complete for preparing
detailed plans, design and estimates of the project.

Department of Civil Engineering, NIT-Raichur Page 38

HIGHWAY ENGINEERING 18CV56

HIGHWAY PROJECTS
GENERAL
In a new highway project, the engineer has to plan, design and construct either a net- work of
new roads or a road link. There are also projects requiring re-design and re-alignment of
existing roads of upgrading the geometric design standards.
Once a highway is constructed, development takes place along the adjoining land and
subsequent changes in alignment or improvements in geometric standards become very
difficult. A badly aligned highway is not only a source of potential traffic hazard, but also
causes a considerable increase in transportation cost and strain on the drivers and the
passengers. Therefore, proper investigation and planning are most important in a road project,
keeping in view the present day needs as well as the future developments of the region.

New Highway Project

The new highway project work may be divided into the following stages:
(a) Selection of route, finalization of highway alignment and geometric design details
(b) Collection of materials and testing of subgrade soil and other construction materials,
mix design of pavement materials and design details of pavement layers
(c) Construction stages including quality control.

Route Selection
The selection of route is made keeping in view the requirements of alignment and the
geological, topographical and other features of the locality. However special care should be
taken as regards the geometric design standards of the road for possible upgrading of speed
standards in future, without being necessary to realign the road. After the alignment if finalized,
the plans and working drawings are prepared.
Materials and Design
The soil samples collected from the selected route during the soil surveys are tested in the
laboratory in order to design the required pavement thickness and the design of embankment
and cut slopes. The basic construction materials such as selected soil, aggregates etc. are
collected from the nearest borrow pits and quarries and stacked along the road alignment after
subjecting these materials to the specified laboratory tests. In order to design the mixes for the
pavement component layers and to specify quality control test values during road
construction, mix design tests are carried out in the laboratory.

Department of Civil Engineering, NIT-Raichur Page 39

HIGHWAY ENGINEERING 18CV56

The possibility of using low-cost construction material like soil-aggregate mixes, soft
aggregates, stabilized soil and pozzalonic concrete mixes, in the sub-base or base course layers
of pavement should be fully explored. When high quality pavement materials like bituminous
mixes or cement concrete are to be used in the surface course, the mix design specification and
construction control tests should be strictly followed. The pavement thickness is designed
based on anticipated traffic, stability and drainage conditions of the subgrade and the type
and thickness of pavement layers chosen for the construction.
In India, the CBR method has been recommended by the Indian Roads Congress for
designing the thickness of flexible pavements.
Construction
The construction of the road may be divided into two stages as follows
1) Earth Work
2) Pavement Construction.

Earth Work
It consists of excavation and construction of the embankments. During the excavation for
highway cuts, the earth slopes, their protection and construction of drainage network are
taken care of. Highway embankments may be best constructed by rolled-fill method by
compacting the soil in layers under controlled moisture and density using suitable rollers. In
the case of high embankments, the stability of the embankment foundation and slopes and the
possible settlement of the embankment with time are to be investigated.
Pavement Construction
It is subsequently taken up starting with the preparation of subgrade and the construction of
sub-base, base and surface courses of the pavement.

STEPS IN A NEW PROJECT WORK

The various steps in a new highway project may be summarized as given below:
(a) Map Study: This is carried out with the help of available topographic maps of the area
(b) Reconnaissance Survey: During reconnaissance survey, a general idea of a topography
and other features, field identification of soils and survey of construction materials, by an
on-the spot inspection of the site.
(c) Preliminary Survey: Topographic details and soil survey along alternate alignments,
consideration of geometric design and other requirements of alignment, preparation of
plans and comparison of alternate routes; economic analysis and selection of final
Department of Civil Engineering, NIT-Raichur Page 40
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING 18CV56

alignment.
(d) Location of Final Alignment: Transfer of the alignment from the drawings to the ground
by driving pegs along the center line of finally chosen alignment, setting out geometric
design elements by location of tangent points, apex points, circular and transition curves,
elevation of center line and super elevation details.
(e) Detailed Survey: Survey of the highway construction work or the preparation of
longitudinal and cross sections, computations of earth work quantities and other
construction material and checking details of geometric design elements.
(f) Materials Survey: Survey of construction materials, their collection and testing.
(g) Design: Design details of embankment and cut slopes, foundation of embankments and
bridges, and pavement layers and cross drainage structures.
(h) Earth Work: Excavations for highway cutting and drainage system, construction of
embankments.
(i) Pavement Construction: Preparation of subgrade, construction of sub-base, base and
surface courses.
(j) Construction Controls: Quality control tests during different stages of construction and
check for finished road surface such as unevenness, camber, super elevation and extra
widening of pavements at curves.
(k) Construction Planning and Programming: The construction planning and
programming to be carried out taking into accounts all the restraints and existing
problems. In order to minimize the construction cost and time, it is essential to resort to
appropriate approaches such as use of Critical Path Method (CPM) and Project
Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT).

RE-ALIGNMENT PROJECT
Necessity of Re Alignment
Most of the present highways in India have been upgraded in stages, from the existing local
roads of the pre-automobile era. As these roads were then meant for slow traffic, they are
found deficient in the geometric design elements for the present-day automobile traffic. There
are several stretches of NH in the country having single lane carriageway, narrow bridges and
culverts and many locations with sharp horizontal curves and avoidable zigzags, steep gradients
and inadequate sight distances. These defects are to be rectified as early as possible at least in
stages, starting with roads of greater importance like NH and SH’s. It will be worth-while to

Department of Civil Engineering, NIT-Raichur Page 41

HIGHWAY ENGINEERING 18CV56

adopt more liberal values of geometric design parameters than the ruling minimum values
specified where the conditions are favorable and the costs involved are not excessive. In such
cases, it would be possible to upgrade the highway if necessary in future by increasing the
width standards only, but without the necessity of re-aligning the road. However, in constrained
situations and in difficult terrain, it may not always be economical to improve the existing
highway geometries to the recommended design standards. In such cases appropriated speed
restrictions have to be imposed to minimize road accidents.
It has been decided as a policy that NH’s should as far as possible be able to fully cater to the
traffic moving at design speed, fulfilling the comfort and safety requirements, both for the
present and future traffic needs. To achieve this objective, it is necessary to plan
improvements in the geometries of roads wherever deficient, to the extent economically
practicable along with other improvements such as raising of the road above flood water level,
pavement resurfacing or construction of overlay for strengthening the pavement structure.
Types of Improvement
The following types of improvement in alignment of existing road may be carried out:
(a) Improvement of horizontal alignment design elements such as, radius, super elevation,
transition curve, providing adequate clearance on inner side of the curve or shifting the
curve to provide adequate sight distance, elimination of reverse curve and undesirable
zigzags, etc.
(b) Improvement of vertical alignment design elements like steep gradients, changes in
summit curves to increase sight distance, correction of undesirable undulations like
humps any dips, etc.
(c) Raising the level of a portion of a road which is subjected to flooding, submergence or
water-logging during monsoons.
(d) Re-construction of weak and narrow bridges and culverts and changes in waterway at
locations slightly away from the existing site.
(e) Construction of over-bridges or under-bridges at suitable locations across a railway line
in place of level crossing or across another road to provide grade separated
intersections.
(f) Re-alignment required due to a portion of the road being submergedunder water at the
reservoir area on account of construction of a new dam.
(g) Construction of a bypass to avoid the road running through a town or city
(h) Defence requirements.

Department of Civil Engineering, NIT-Raichur Page 42

HIGHWAY ENGINEERING 18CV56

General Principles of Re-Alignment

While improving the horizontal alignment of roads, improvement in sharp curves and zigzags
should be done after considering the whole alignment and not on piece meal basis. The
improvement of transition curves would not generally be very costly and therefore such
deficiencies should be rectified where-ever necessary. The sight distance available generally
gets increased when the horizontal alignment is improved, otherwise the setback distance
may be increased at horizontal curves by removing or shifting the obstruction from the inner
side of the curve, up to the desired extent,
 While improving the horizontal alignment of roads, improvement in sharp curves and
zigzags should be done after considering the whole alignment and not on piece meal
basis. The improvement of transition curves would not generally be very costly and
therefore such deficiencies should be rectified where-ever necessary. The sight distance
available generally gets increased when the horizontal alignment is improved,
otherwise the setback distance may be increased at horizontal curves by removing or
shifting the obstruction from the inner side of the curve, up to the desired extent,
 While improving the vertical alignment, attempts should be made to provide
Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD) at summit curves. On divided highways, the
overtaking distance required will be lesser than on un-divided two-way roads, as there
is no need to provide for the on-coming vehicles during overtaking operations.
However, if it is not possible to provide for OSD, at- least the safe stopping sight
distance should be available for the design speed at all locations of the road
 The corrections of minor undulations such as humps and dips may not involve high cost
and so it is desirable to provide suitable vertical transition curves for shock-free
movement of vehicles travelling at the design speed. Valley curves may be checked for
comfort condition and for visibility under the head lights of the vehicles during night
driving.
 The road stretches which remain submerged under water even for a short duration of
the year or those which are in water-logged areas should be raised before strengthening
or widening pavement section. The formation level be raised such that the subgrade is at least
0.6 m above the HFL. Suitable measures should be adopted against water- logging and care
should be taken to provide suitable drainage facilities including the cross drainage works.
 While reconstructing bridges of length greater than 60 m on sites other than the existing
ones, separate surveys should be carried out for the selection of suitable sites. The

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HIGHWAY ENGINEERING 18CV56

selection of site for major bridges would be governed by the river training works, sub-
soil conditions for foundation and hydraulic considerations. However, in small bridges,
the road alignment would essentially govern the bridge site selection
 The deciding factor which is being considered for providing over-bridges or under
bridges for a NH across railway level crossings is product of number of gate closures
and the intensity of traffic on the highway in tonnes per day in the design year. When
this product exceeds 50,000 or when the level crossing is within the shunting limits of
a railway station, the grade separation is justified. The location is decided keeping in
view the highway alignment, the topographic and other site conditions,
 The necessity to provide alternate routes to bypass through traffic is assessed from the
origin and destination studies. If the by-passable traffic more than the traffic terminating
at the town or built-up area then the bypass may be justified.

STEPS IN THE RE-ALIGNMENT PROJECT

(a) Reconnaissance of the stretch of road to be re-aligned, study of the deficiencies and the
possible changes in alignment
(b) Survey of existing road, recording the topographic features and all other existing
features including drainage conditions. The width of the land to be surveyed depends
on the amount of shifting anticipated when the road is re-aligned.
(c) Observations of spot levels along the center line of the road and cross section levels at
suitable intervals. The intervals should be taken at closer intervals at horizontal and
vertical curves and near cross drainage works.
(d) Soil survey along the stretches of land through which the re-aligned road may pass,
preparation of typical soil profiles after testing the soil samples in the lab.
(e) Finalization of the design features of re-aligned road stretches
(f) Preparation of drawings and Marking out the center line of re-aligned road while trying
to utilize the existing road to the maximum extent possible.
(g) Earth-work and preparation of subgrade of the re-alignment road stretches, setting out
and construction of new bridges and culverts
(h) Checking the geometric design elements of the newly aligned stretches of the road
(i) Design and construction of the new highway pavements

Department of Civil Engineering, NIT-Raichur Page 44

HIGHWAY ENGINEERING 18CV56

Preparation of Drawing for Re-Alignment Project

The drawings for the re-alignment project should show all the existing features of the road as
well as all the proposed improvements.
The following drawings would be needed
(a) Plan showing existing road, proposed re-alignment, contours and all other features of
importance.
(b) Longitudinal section showing natural ground elevation, surface of the existing road and
the grade line for the re-construction
(c) Cross section showing the existing highway and new roadway drawn at 250m intervals
on straights, at the beginning and end of transition curves and at the middle of circular
curves. Cross sections are drawn at 50m intervals where the new carriageway falls
entirely outside the existing one.

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HIGHWAY ENGINEERING 18CV56

MODULE 01 QUESTIONS (PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTION PAPERS)

1. Explain the various characteristics of Road Transport.
2. What are the objectives of IRC & CRRI?
3. Explain briefly the salient features of third twenty year road development plan.
4. Explain the role of transportation in social and economic development of the country.
5. What are the significant recommendations of Jayakar committee report? Explain how it is
implemented in the road development of a country.
6. Briefly explain the planning surveys of a highway project.
7. Mention different modes of transportation. Explain the characteristics of modes in
comparison with other modes.
8. What are types of roads and its classifications? Briefly outline its classifications.
9. Write a short note on followings:
a) KSHIP b) KRDCL c) PMGSY d) RDP Vision-2021.
10. Define Master Plan and Saturation System. Draw a neat sketches of types of road patterns.
11. Define Highway Engineering. Briefly outline the scope of highway engineering.
12. Determine the length of different categories of roads in a district in India by the year 2021
as per 3rd year road plan formulae. The area of district is 8400 km². The number of towns as
per 1981 census was 9. Overall road density aimed at 82 km per 100 km².
13. The area of a certain district in India is 3,08,000 sq.km and there are 276 towns as per 1981
Census and the number of villages are 41,833. Determine the lengths of different categories
of roads to be provided in third twenty year road development plan.
14. There are three alternate proposals of road plans for a district in Karnataka state. Suggest
the order of priority for planning road based on the maximum utility approach. Assume
utility units of 0.5, 1.0, 2.0 for the three population ranges and utility of 1.0 and 10.0 per
1000 tonnes of agricultural and industrial products served. ( Refer Table No 01)
15. There are four alternate proposals of road plans for a district in Karnataka state. Suggest the
order of priority for planning road based on the maximum utility approach. Assume utility
units of 0.5, 1.0, 2.0 and 4 for the four population ranges and utility of 2, 2 and 5 per 1000
tonnes of agricultural, raw materials and industrial products served. ( Refer Table No 02)

Department of Civil Engineering, NIT-Raichur Page 46

 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING 18CV56

Q. No. 14 Table No 01
Total
road Number of towns and villages Productivity in thousand
Proposals length, served with population range tonnes
km
<2000 2001- >5000 Agricultural Industrial
5000
P 200 80 40 10 90 12
Q 250 75 45 12 105 22
R 300 85 50 18 110 26

Q. No 15 Table No 02
Total
road Number of towns and villages served with Productivity in thousand tonnes
Proposals length, population range
km <500 501-1000 1001- >2000 Agricultural Raw Industrial
2000 Materials
A 75 30 15 10 3 8000 3000 1000
B 35 20 08 06 3 5000 1000 1600
C 40 15 06 05 5 6000 2000 3200
D 50 40 04 03 2 3000 7000 500

16. What are the main objectives of preliminary survey and steps followed in the preliminary
survey by conventional method (Name the Steps).
17. Briefly explain how MAP study is helpful in the alignment of new highway.
18. Give the details of drawings to be prepared in highway project and discuss briefly.
19. What are the basic requirements of an ideal highway alignment? List and explain briefly.
20. Explain with neat sketches various factors which affecting ideal alignment of a road.
21. Write a brief outline on engineering surveys.

Staff In-charge

(Mr. Santosh Kumar)

Asst Prof, NIT-Raichur.

Department of Civil Engineering, NIT-Raichur Page 47

 ModueI-_Nuivncoid al
tamulas-
|4 mgth oNH Cm) Aua o th 9uuon
50

Lngth oSu Cbm)

a By a a ,SH (km) =
Aa thuGon

b Bao Mo o Toww, SH Ckm)

own H
mo. o
-

6a.5
sH Cghu o two witua)
Aclopt uth o
olistiich
33ugth MDR, in the

a) Botd aua, MOP Clem) Aa o ugion

mo. otowns
Basd on m. towns, MDR Ckm) - q0 x
triluia)
MDR high w e
adopt ngth
all categokius HLOacds may e
1otal ungth o 9Lo acds lnqth
suoacs lnqth
auumed 1 prouide an ULall dunsily of
001.
by y4as
em/wo s4. umn
aua
Lqual to 99

otal ngh,
NH Sti 4 MDR + ODR +
VR (tm 4ua o h ugion *_83|

7kuuloe ngth opR4VR (km)

Total ungth -(Mu .SH 4 MDe)
Numuicalk -

The aua oa ceatain dlubict in Jndia u 13,400 bm

and h u aAL 13 me. o tow au p Luclonow sLoad plan.

Dutu min th
uugth odunt tatugosius oroads to
hroui ded in this aiurict by h
yaa 001

& Gn data Auo =

13, 400 km.
No. o osn = t.

ngth oNH,(km) = 3 400 268 k

50

i Lngth SH.m) 3400

25

By L a , SH Cm) 13400 536 bm

26

By me. otown , Su t km) - (62 S » 12) - 268

482 km

dopt ungth oSH ( highar) = 636km

ti Lngth MDP, Ckm)

B y aua, MDR (Em) = 13400 o32 km
12.5

no tow, MDR (Em) q0 »l2 : lo8o km

6y
MDP ( ighu ) 1o8o bm
pouids ngth
-

uTotal ugth a l l edegous o

oad may
aMud to poui de an Ouall dnity oocd Lugth

Lqual o 8m/00 sq.bm aLO by th 2001 y1ol

NH 4 S 4 MDR4 ODR4 ve 13400 g2 - to,198 km
LO0
 oDR +V2
Thuuo iuungth o
10, 988- H 4SH 4MDR)
10,990 (268 +536 L08o)
Q04 kw

Paim an yuvmw H =
268 k
)&LOnday hystm o SH 536 km
ALcendaly ytem o MpP LO8obm
10tm
1Luti as Lystin CopR 4ue).
Total Aoad lungth 0, 988 km
the yuu `oo1

Hoad
Calculati ungth ooadu uuiud as puL
duutlop munb plan. ua o the diuirit s 4500 s4.b
20.
and thu mumu otoww

Sol ) Lungth o H Aa 4500 0 km

50 50

) Lngth o 8 Ctm)
@ By a u a , SH Cm) 4500 80 bm
25 25

e y m. towws 63-Smo.otows -lungth o NH

6 S x 0)- q0
Go mM

n t h oSH UGo bm
i) ungth o MDP, km)

u aa a , MDR Ckm) ALa 4 5 00 - 3 Cobw

12S 12S

y me o owns 40 v ne. otowns

40 x 20 =1800 km
| v) Total ungth oall cutugoues o9oads may loe aMumud
t0 pouiole an 0uLAal
dunity ooad ungth
2 bm100 89 vm arua »y the
Io01.
NH ISH+ MDR + O DR 4 VR
_2 Ahno
LOO

92 4500
100

3 690 bm
=
oDR + VR 2 AA NH + SH +MD2)
LO0

3640 Ca0 tll60 + 1800)

3640 3050

2 640 bmM
Pri may dytm, lungth o H» 4o bm.
of SH 6 o b m
ltonday uuim, nath
S0o bm
ngth oMDR
640km
i) 014 ystm,ODR +
V Ao bm.
1tul sad ungth in this disick by th L
yLa
a

J001 360 t

1e aua Mahan ashtua is 3.68,o00 s4,bm T

we Loons a Bhe y 14S u 6 . The

M uilagu O 41,933. Calculate the unqtn of
he Joo.
vaiou tugoiies hoad
by ya
GWen dala e 3.08.000.sq.km.
16
n o. otown -
41, 933
 Lngth ALH(tm) Aua 3,98,000
50 50

61Go b

) Lth osu, (bm)

By aua, lungth o SH 309o00 2320 bm

o toons, Sh (62.5x 236)

6iGo
Bad dn mo.

. dopt lungth o 8 12320 bw

mo. oLowns, ungth o MDR 0 » 096
i) 8asud on

4 840

By aua ngth o MDR : 308o00 4 6 40 km

12 5

Adopb nth oMDR 34840 b

ungth ODR + ve
and owns 6 + 41833
No. o u i l a g u 42109 bm

Ama o Mahanashia

lo.ouWages ? 1own

308000 3.314 s4, kw

42 10.

.40 bmM
4314
d o squ
0.90 5.40bm
ngth o the oad
ulugotes osOads oual lo
1otal ungth oal
ol uil ag4 f toond
64rmo
- 5 4 « 42lo9

, 4,389 bm
 Loud NH SU 4 MDR 0DR + VR
gotal nsth bl
22 4399 ( 61G0+2320 + 24, 9 4
ODR +UR
8 40 69

ytm, ungth o NH 6160 kw

Result e Piimaiy
12320tm
84
acondauy sytim, Lugth o
ungth MDR 2 4 84o bm

utiasy uystim, ungth o 0DR VR : 84,06qL

Total ungth 2 7389 b

u w i cals e-

Tre a 4 altunali plan puopesal P, 9, R S

with diunt soad ng. luggst u osudu o
puo rily o planning o stoad baud on 1 maximum
wiity pphoach.
utilily appoach. Auume utilily Limils 0.16,0.5,
2.5 4
populalon Rangu
hopela Tetal Mo. ow uiuagn uvuud Gotal aqricultura
| Hoad with populalion ánga ndustnal prodec
ungth 200l-5000 | 5000 -LO000>L0,000
0ol-2000 thousands.

P 300 t60 80 6
30 200

400 200 90 60 240

500 240
315
S 550 248 3 12 335
and
ekkout h uliity pu unt length
0
oLah sytum
indicol which Aplim u2oniduud lo u oplimum wth
wm.uximum liiy t lungth

| 3o" t

(4
 otal urib pron
Poad oad NO. otown f vilags &OULed
pvO ungth wlth populalioo sngu ba
enakm) LOOl 200o 2001-5000 500- LO000 >o 000 popul |produtoungth

P
300
160x0.15| 80 r 0.580
40
6x2.S
25 200 32/300
2 40 30 L5 -1-083

200 x0-2S 0 0 GOx 8 2-S

L5 0
445/400
400G0 45 z 60 20 2l.12

500
240 x0.2
60
uO 0

55
S
LO»2.
= 25 o 31S
52%00
OS

248 x0-25u2 O 2x2

556
550

550661 56 3
30 221 33 0

it Aun hat Ihu

Kuult e hom abow toub
Hoad lungth 400 bm
with Total
plon pepoial
lungth o road
ha w.aximum iliy Uunit

Thuuloe optimum
suoad ngth in ths
12
aLa 400 bm

5) Thue a 5 altumalie puopojal Loada oplanu o

a bacbwad diuic. The oltuils u giwen olow

with uAon which pHopesol t h u but ameng

Justily
Limits oO.5, 2 , R8
span. Auming utilily
5 poputatíon Hangu uliy units o t5
h and induillial
1houuand 1enws aqiult unal
pu
phoduct wL
o-otal
hoad
No. otoww ulagu svwud
hoad
poial

engh wilh_populalion Hange 1000 tonns

Ce) L1000 001-5000 5001-10,000 o 000-10,000|10,ooo

Curas
1Industr|
al

S0O 00 15 0 40 20 3 150 20

600 00 250 68 28 3 220 25

00 290 350 82 36 300 35
800 28So 4 LO 41 400 42
00 290 430 q6 44 4
430 45
SeL
wueed wth pTOdutla n uikty Tp
pro.1otal No.o townuuiWags LO00T
LOad popul" range.
unit
Lengt ool-10,0oLo,o0020,000
m) 22000
20ol-600o
T
20,000

Aq.Pndu | ungth

L50 x 20 x4
634
A 40x2 3xL50 SDO
SOo 2 ISo 280 16D=00 2 68
50 4

200 250x 6fxa 2 4 38 46

GO0 xOS 600
x
250 l36 24
2 20 1?S 6

3 00
230 350 x 82 x2 36 4 4x8 300 35x50
350 64 - l44 32 3 Oo=las
13
|D 800 28o 4lx4 4x8 400 42 538
S 800
-140 4 t0 18 2 G 4 3
4 00 310.911
0o 29 430 4s L630
xoS A30 x1 q6 x1 44 x4 4|4 x8
x8
-192 - 176 32 430 22S-9t
14 430
sulk- hom above tabl i un that the plam
opeial D wth LoTal koad ength 800 bm har
man'mum ility p uvit unsth 90ad L92
heuo oalimum hoad ngth in hs aLa u

09lea)20
 FORMULAE
anea ef the negion /5o
ength o NH CKn) =

iemgti, SH (m)
a By.asica ,
sH
( Km)= a%ea
e q.on25
Based no.
o touwns, (Km) SH
b on

62.5X n0 of towns
NH. -

adept length q H ( highe ef hoo aitnta).

the rtoiet
MDR, in
iiengdh ef
a Based on amca, MDRKm ) = aa
gion/2.5
Based on no. e! towns, MDR Km)
90x vo.
a touons.

adept leogth mpA Lhighan q hoo niten ia).

20adr may be
iTotal leng th e all Categonies
va a dens hoad
a stumed to pn ov ide an

o 32 Hm/t00 szn anea. he

leng th 6gual
ean 2eol.

Te lal leng th
NH + SH MDR DDR + VR(Kmn)
X82
a n ea o he region

Thenetone leng th
oDR t VR CKm)
Tolad brngth. - ( NH + SH +MDR)

Exomp led
( The 9ea a Gotain dis touet in Tndia
3,HO0 Sg. Km anad thene ane 2 toOns as
/981 censu. tesm ine he pes
leng ths 4
Catcgonies noadr o be
poovided inths
distniat by he
yea
2oo1(ne/July -2017)
Solution iven Sala
Anea = 13, HOOkm 2
Na.o owns 12. PTO
 ength e NH, 13 HOO 268 m
So

Km
Lengh e SH,
13UOO 36Km.
Q9ea, SH , 4m
=

2S
ah ca 4 no
o toun s, sH ,
Km
X 12 268
62.5
2 Km
adept length ef sH highen) Ss6
iiength NDR, m

MDR, Km 13 oD 072 Km.

y aea,
2 S
b)y 7a.
o touons, MDR lkm) =9oxJ2= loBo Km

phovide length e4 MDR Chtghe) loRo Kro

ivTotal length e all Categos7ie e 9o ads may be

asumed to provide an ovaa all endity oed
Leng th Eg ual e 82km /t00 sq.m anea by the 20o1 yeas

NHt SH+ MDR t 0 DRt VA = (13HO0 Y 82 =lo, 983 Km

oo.
0DR + VA
Thanefore dength
lo, 988 - NHt SH tMDA ).

(268+ S36 + lo 3o

loy Km

ouinany rtemo NH= 263 Krn

econolasuy yttem SH =S3& Km.
ii o
1DR 10o K

Zen
tiany yrtem ( 0DR + VR)= )ou )%o.
i
Tolal 9oad longth = 19 98 4
 alculartHe dength 4910adt negu Pn ed a pan
n 0 a d lovelopmernd plen. Pnea e the distnict
fs 1So0 sG. Km. and the numban o touwns 20.
CSee-Jon- 20l3 8M)

Solat iorn
dength o NH Kn)= HSoo =
go kr
SH CKn).
dength 4
90 118o Km.
eBy aea, SH (Km) =(62. s X20)
tocons. SH Cn) =C62.5 x20)
-

qo =
116o Km
13y a ca 4 no.

adopt highesn dength SH =

U6o km
s) dength e M DRkrm)
360 KYn .
anea, MDR C h ) = H Soo
2.5

o toons, MIDR LKr) =62Sx 20 12 So Km

Pro vide denglh e mDR 12So H Chighe).
Total length e all categon o noadr may bs
umed o pnovide an ovasnall endity a90ad
82 loo sg ana by yea 200).
dength
Tolal lang th -
V HSoo X32 3390 Km
NH + SH 4 MMOR DDR

Zolal leng to-(NH SH 4PDR

dength o (oDRtvA) =

369o-904 116o +123o

l17o K

) i) nimary yst em: NH = qo hm.

ii) Secen odesuy Sysl emSH= 116oKn.
MDR 12Sol
f Teticy yslem ODR +VR =117 %
Total 0od Leng th - 36 90 Km
 Jo U Ted boak sK. Khanna G.Eb sta
HE
No-2 26] 2fo/utio»

.of. NH (m) = 6bo K

H (km)
a Dy ana 3200

y no tons 37 76Km.
of MDRK).

a By
By bhoo Ha
aea

b).no.o towns 7ho

y Tetal leng bh
ooR VR)
S24S km
vd
 ShTUAATION SYSTEM

t hbts a stem he epdimum neodleng th is

Caleulate s ton a anea based onthe Concept
Cbtaining marimum utility pa nit Jerzh
d
oatunatlon dystem
o9nOa d
ad. Caed
x

The 7acdoons ohieh ane token fan oblain ing ullty

he
uni910ad length ane
he noad ne tuwon K.
aepula tion deved by
Pedue dvty
To ind 1oadvetuonk hoving mani Mum ut

Lenit leng th by etunation stem fotasing'rtepa

ane folowecd

=tep:-1 Popula tloro ibs:llagas 4 Taon)

opulation s Consists y u n b F
fvilages4
toins wth eent popula tPrms. and fon Cach
easo2a 6le
popula tions to assigr Some
Vallue
utlh nik. CP AN-I).

Ceam p l s - pepula tion dess then Soo, vlrlity voit: o.s

sol to 1o00, vlrlity unit = o.So

lool to 2000, vCility Unit= .00.

200 to So00, VleAy it 2.00,

-epola blon femd by outltpling ulilly enilea

to éoch e the in espeeti've popela tim e m s
and
addng Eoch pez Popula lfe nang

lep 2 ctivity hls

Zolal Znda rd i a l 4 ag>ie ultus al pmoduetp
Served by ah ad
ystem. sheutd be
wONMed out.

The Produe livg ty

The dcn ved may be
be
astignes
appnopiate Values ulillty vn ?t pes
/n't0eight. PAN- T . locot 1.c
u l t l i t tnit
 21
=lep.-3 Dilrly e vni Aength ef noad
Zhe lotal ultlt vnidr Saved by ach oad
tion
y rlem
nd

divtded by
Ne
pro duc tiv
oun

he
vnl.
dotal
by
hy
adda.!el
adding he popula

noad
The V l a l

leagth
v»fts

q 6ach.
ane

yrtem o obtain the vltlity ote pesn vniF

lrngth biv
Total nits =
Tepulo tion+ Produe
otal n itt
vnit leng th Leog th
Vtl y p Total noad
Snch yulen
Road 2D9 nom

Phasing ,

maximum uti
whi'eh givma
The pmoposal as he
cho den
pen lenJ"e
unalength
Pyrtem
m
ey
oth
wth speimum
b ea
e aadd

7inal 9noad
based on
m eximum
/;ty by
sbili y this
t*
.length
Pne th o
ptimurm Dead to9 a
lenglh
t e s decidog
plan paiod
We ipet ep ir he pharinghe e

91oad v e l o pment plan by ixing p

boe event
Dnionitieg tos he cons tuctton

the nebvo%15 is L'rded in

l'rted in
bach livk
The
prtoi oafe en uttlrt
bascd on u:lthy pes
P es
onden
the
toe
he
vnit leng th V.V m P -
&*

Num end'e alk ) .

amples:
Thene ane H altenative plon opoSalf P 3.R
and wlh {eren eadlength by addin2
Etna 9 ead n B s to he Ezistirng Inoaos

the an ea
and he details h e pepulatien

poduets saa ved ven below

PT
 satota
P°tpakal
Numben e towns 4 vt lo ges
Tolal Agniult
ind produels
nood ved wth
Leogtb
fan
popula t ion
hanys
nan temved, thoutand
4m loD-200o 2001-S Do s001-locoo lo00o
200
T 300 166 30

HOO 2.00 270

R Soo 31S

2 4& 335
S e »-
s o u t the
12
ultli ky pen
13
untt deng th o
12
éach yste
and n ol/cate sbteh yutem it ceniidasned to be optirn

twh marimum utUty p s vnit dength. Arrume

um

udt unts O25, .S2.0 4 2. respeebively fo

Fesvedpepula tion nonges
wit too-20on)
lage
C20o1-Sooo), Cool-l,o0o) lojo0o.

Solut ion
plan, Rodd
Reed Wo. o town 4 vUlages Sen ved
vEily Pnloniy
l e nt
gh

t h popu la teon a ve d Total

sodo peen vnit based
bttk 8n thousand units.
length |n Ueil
K 1-2 2-S-1o>lo popl2 prode
300 160x 8ox 30 6 325/30
P o.2S| O. So
x
12S 200
2. .o13

H00 o ox
HOo
o 60
X 20 usuoo
O25 o.5o 1 1.112

Soox 1o
S00 | 2l6 3L
R osoT
2.S

SSox 112 73 2 33 /sse

S6 O.2S
.O.So
So
221
I.olo
T

Y Ptfeen h a t
nom above able the plan paopolal
eilh otal 9)oad Length Hoom has meYimu
viiltty eogth noad 112. Thencfe
Optivm oa d Jeng th n his aSa Ca
 23
Ezomple No'. o2
Thene ahe Sallchnative proporals o nood plons for
a baca d dt9ict. the lelotlr I 2 given belous.
dustity wih c a
ionr wh ch phopoial is he best.
ajfum ufily mids
ing 0., 2.o, 2, u and& fon the
9ange f dnd ulility units ej 10 and
7 C popula lto
leoot g%icultoal 4 in duttniak pmoducs
Sp

M ot a l

hoad Nurnbet townt ond vitleps

of poeductrvity in

t h
Per veo with popu le t lon thousand tovnt.

Sool lo66o
hn <2000
200l
lo006 20000 20ddo "C u koal |Tickutnial
A Soo loo ISo o 20 3 ISO 20

6co 200 2 28 3 220 2S

20 82 36 300 3S

28
91 DO

E 9oo 20 L30 6 H4 H30

Solutfon:
dility pn
Total ultliy uoits Sanved by un't
noad dength y

ASO
gOx

+SoXI
0St1gox 1+ ox2+20 X u +3 x
+ 20x 5 63
634/p
1-26

600
200X0.S t2sox1 + 68x2 t 2 xu t 3xKB
22oXI + 2SX S
q6600
1.6 11
29010.S +350x +322 +36 xu + ux8
13D00
+300 xI + 185
800 u */sooT
1412

29o x 0 t 430 Xt96X2 t H xu + H Y3 5 9 0

E00 11L
+30x+ H SXS 1/
.'.Ondes 1eionity is D ,c, E, B A