NET’s

NAVODAYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, RAICHUR

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
1

Subject : TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING (BCV403)

Semester : 4th Sem
MODULE- 1
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING
Presented by
Mr Santoshkumar
Assistant Professor
Department of Civil Engineering
NIT – Raichur, 584103
Email.id – santhosh.kumar@navodaya.edu.in
Mobile No - 7892128748
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING
2 MODULE 01 SYALLABUS
 TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING: Introduction, Different Modes of
Transportation, M R Jayakar Committee recommendations, Road Classifications
and Road Patterns.
 Highway Alignment: Factors affecting highway alignment, Engineering
surveys for alignment conventional and modern methods.
 Highway Geometric Design: Factors affecting geometric design of roads,
Cross Sectional Elements, Sight distances, Horizontal alignment- Transition
curve, superelevation, Extrawidening, Vertical alignment–gradients, summit and
valley curves. (No derivations)
 Problems on Sight distance, Super elevation, extra widening of curves,
Length of transition curve, Length of summit and valley curve. (L1, L2)

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TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

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 7 Transportation engineering
• Transportation engineering is the application of
technology and scientific principles to the planning,
functional design, operation and management of facilities
for any mode of transportation in order to provide for the
safe, efficient, rapid, comfortable, convenient, economical,
and environmentally compatible movement of people and
goods from one place to other.

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 PRINCIPLES OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING
10  Importance of Transportation
 Transportation plays a vital role in economic development of any region of any country, since every commodity produced,
whether it may be agricultural or industrial products they need to be transported at various stages from production to
distribution.
 At production stage for carrying raw materials and at distribution stage for transportation from farms and factories to
marketing centers to retailers to consumers.
 Inadequate transportation facilities retard the process of socio-economic and cultural development. Development of
transportation facilities in a country indicates its economic growth and progress in social development.
 The main objective of a good transportation system is to provide a safe, economical and efficient transportation facility for
passengers and goods.
 Economic Activity and Transport
 Production or supply
 Consumption for human needs or demands
 Social Effects of Transportation
 Sectionalism and transportation
 Concentration of population in urban area
 Aspect of safety,
HIGHWAY law and order
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11

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 DIFFERENT MODES OF TRANSPORTATION
12
 Transportation has developed along three basic modes
(a) Land
(b) Water
(c) Air

 The four major modes of transportation are:

(i) Roadways or highways
(ii) Railways
(iii) Waterways
(iv) Airways

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 13
ROADWAYS
 The transportation by road is the only mode which could give maximum service to one and all. It is possible to provide door to door service by
road transport.
 Advantages:
 Flexibility: It offers complete freedom to the road users.
 It requires relatively smaller investments and cheaper in construction with respect to other modes.
 It serves the whole community alike the other modes.
 For short distance travel, it saves time.
 The road network is used by various types of vehicles.
 Disadvantages:
 Speed is related to accidents and more
accidents results due to higher speed and is
usually not suitable for long distance travel
 Power required per tonne is more.

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 Highways
14
• It gives the maximum service to one and all
• It gives maximum flexibility for travel with reference to route, direction,
time and speed of travel
• It provide door to door service
• Other modes are depend on it
• It requires small investment for the government
• Motor vehicles are cheaper than other carriers like rail locomotive and
wagons
• It saves the time for short distance
• High degree of accident due to flexibility of movement
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 RAILWAYS
15
 The concept of rail transportation is movement of multiple wagons or a train of wagons passenger’s bogies
on two parallel steel rails.
 The transportation along the railway track could be advantageous by railways between the stations both for
the passengers and goods, particularly for longer distances.
 Advantages:
 Can transport heavy loads of goods at higher speed
 Power required per tonne is less compared to roadways
 Chances of accidents are less.
 Disadvantages:
 Entry and exist points are fixed
 Requires controlling system and no
freedom of movement
 Establishment and maintenance cost is
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higher
 Railways
16

• The transportation along the railways track could be advantageous by

railways between the stations both for the passengers and goods,
particularly for long distance.
• It depends upon the road transport i.e. road could serve as a feeder system.
• Energy require to haul a unit load through unit distance by the railway is
only ¼ to 1/5 of that required by road.
• Safety

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 WATERWAYS
17
 The water transportation is the most energy efficient but it is the slowest among the four modes.
 The transportation by water is possible between the ports on the sea routes or along the rivers or canals where inland
transportation facilities are available.
 Advantages:
 Cheapest: Cost per tonne is lowest
 Possess highest load carrying capacity
 Leads to the development of the industries.
 Disadvantages:
 Slow in operation and consumes more time
and Depends on whether condition
 Chances of attack by other countries on naval
ships are more.
 Ocean tides affect the loading and unloading
operation and the routes are circuitous.
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 AIRWAYS
18

 The transportation by air is the fastest among the four modes. Air transport provides more comfortable and
fast travel resulting in substantial saving in travel time for the passengers between the airports.
 Advantages
 It has highest speed.
 Intercontinental travel is possible
 Journey is continuous over land and water
 Disadvantages
 Highest operating cost (cost/tonne is more)
and the load carrying capacity is lowest
 Depends on weather condition
 Should follow the flight rules.
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 COMPARISON BETWEEN VARIOUS MODES OF TRANSPORT

19
Parameter
Investment Small High High High
Maintenance Small High High High
Airport to
Service Door to Door Station to station Port to Port
airport
Various type can
Vehicles Only locomotive Only aircrafts Only ships
use
Freedom of
Complete Nil Nil Nil
movement
Comfortable Comfortable
Comfortable for Comfortable for
Comfort for long for long
short distance long distance
distance distance
Speed of vehicles Moderate Moderate Fastest Slowest
Less but Less but Less but
Accidents More
disastrous disastrous disastrous
To whole To whole
Availability Restricted Restricted
community community
1/4 to 1/6 of that
Energy to haul Small Highest Minimum
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 20 Scope of highway engineering

• Development, planning and location

• Highway design, geometric and structure

• Traffic performance and its control

• Materials, construction and maintenance

• Economic, finance and administration

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 21
Characteristics of road transport
• Roads are used by various types of road vehicles, like passenger cars, buses, trucks,
pedal cycle and animal drawn vehicle.
• It requires a relatively small investment for the government.
• It offers a complete freedom to road users to transfer the vehicle from one lane to
another and from one road to another according to need and convenience.
• Speed and movement is directly related with the severity of accident.
• Road transport is the only means of transport that offers itself to the whole
community alike.

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 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF ROAD
22 CONSTRUCTION
• Oldest mode
 Foot paths- animal ways, cart path……..
• As civilization evolved the need for transportation increased
ROMAN ROAD-(500 B.C.)
 They were built straight regardless of gradient
 They were built after the soft soil was removed and a hard stratum
was reached.
 Thickness varies from 0.75 m to 1.2m

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 Roman Road Construction
23
Basic cross section

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 24

Modern Highway
Roman Roads

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 Highway Development in India
25
• Jayakar Committee (1927)
• Central Road Fund (1929)
• Indian Roads Congress (IRC), 1934
• Central Road Research Institute (CRRI), 1950
• Motor vehicle act (1936)
• National Highway Authority of India (NHAI),1995
• First twenty year road plan ( 1943-61 )
• Second twenty year road plan ( 1961-81 )
• Highway Research board ( 1973 )
• National Transport Policy committee ( 1978 )
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• Third twenty year road plan ( 1981-2001 )

 Jayakar Committee,1927
26
• After the first World War, motor vehicle using the roads increases, this demanded a
better road network.
• In 1927,Indian road development committee was appointed by the government with
M.R. Jaykar as chairman.
• Road development in the country should be made as a national interest since local
govt. do not have financial and technical capacity for road development.
• An extra tax should be levied on petrol from road users to
create the road development fund.
• To establish a semi-official ,technical institution to pool technical knowledge,
sharing of ideas and to act as an advisory body.
• To create a national level institution to carry research , development works and
consultation.

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 JAYAKAR COMMITTEE - 1927
 RECOMMENDATIONS:
27
 For the improvement of roads in India government of India appointed Mr. Jayakar Committee to study the situations and to
recommend suitable measures for road improvement in 1927 and a report was submitted in 1928 with following recommendations:
 The road development in the country should be considered as a national interest as this has become beyond the capacity of
provincial governments and local bodies.
 An extra tax should be levied on petrol from the road users to develop a road development fund called ‘Central Road Fund’
 A Semi-official technical body should be formed to pool technical know-how from various parts of the country and to act as an
advisory body on various aspects of roads.
 A research organization should be instituted to carry out research and development work pertaining to roads and to be
available for consultations.
 IMPLEMENTATIONS:
 Majority of the Jayakar Committee recommendations were accepted by the government implemented. Some of the technical bodies
were formed such as,
 Central Road Fund (CRF) in 1929
 Indian Road Congress (IRC) in 1934
 Central Road Research Institute (CRRI) in 1950.

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 Central road fund
28
• Central Research Fund (CRF) was formed on 1st March 1929.
• The consumers of petrol were charged an extra levy of 2.64 paisa/liter of petrol to build
up this road development fund.
• From the fund collected 20 percent of the annual revenue is to be retained as meeting
expenses on the administration of the road fund, road experiments and research on road
and bridge projects of special importance.
• The balance 80 percent of the fund to be allotted by the Central Government to the
various states based on actual petrol consumption or revenue collected
• The accounts of the CRF are maintained by the Accountant General of Central Revenues.
• The control of the expenditure is exercised by the Roads Wings of Ministry of Transport.

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 Central Road Fund , 1929
29

CRF Act , 2000

Distribution of 100% cess on petrol as follows:

 57.5% for NH
MORTH
 30% for SH
 12.5% for safety works on rail-Road crossing.

50% cess on diesel for Rural Road development

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 Indian Roads Congress, 1934
30
• It is a semi-official technical body formed in 1934. It was formed to recommend standard
specifications.
• It was constituted to provide a forum of regular technical pooling of experience and ideas
on all matters affecting the planning, construction and maintenance of roads in India.
• IRC has played an important role in the formulation of the 20-year road development
plans in India.
• Now, it has become an active body of national importance controlling specifications,
guidelines and other special publications on various aspects of Highway Engineering.

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 Central
31 road research institute(1950)
• CRRI was formed in the year 1950 at New Delhi
• It was formed for research in various aspect of highway engineering
• It is one of the National laboratories of the Council of Scientific and Industrial
Research.
• This institute is mainly engaged in applied research and offers technical advice
to state governments and the industries on various problems concerning roads.

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 32 Motor vehicle act

• It was formed in 1939

• To regulate the road traffic in the form of traffic laws, ordinances and
regulations.

• Three phases primarily covered are control of driver, vehicle ownership and
vehicle operation

• It was revised on 1988

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 Ministry of Road Transport & Highways
33

• Planning, development and maintenance of National Highways in the

country.

• Extends technical and financial support to State Governments for the development
of state roads and the roads of inter-state connectivity and economic importance.

• Evolves standard specifications for roads and bridges in the country.

• It stores the data related to technical knowledge on roads and bridges.

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 34 Highway Research Board

• To ascertain the nature and extent of research required

• To correlate research information from various organisation in India and abroad.

• To collect and correlation services.

• To collect result on research

• To channelise consultative services

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 HIGHWAY DEVELOPMENT AND PLANNING
 Objectives of Highway Planning
35  Planning if considered as pre-requisite before attempting any development program in the present era. Highway planning is of great importance
when funds available are limited whereas the total planning is of great importance when the funds are limited whereas the total requirement is
much higher. The objectives are as follows
 To plan the overall road network for efficient and safe traffic operations, but at minimum cost. Here the costs of construction, maintenance
and resurfacing or strengthening of pavement layers and vehicle operation costs are taken into consideration
 To arrive at the road system and the lengths of different categories of roads which could provide maximum utility and could be constructed
within the available resources during the plan period under construction
 To divide the overall plan into phases and to decide priorities
 To fix up date wise priorities for development of each road link based on utility as the main criterion for phasing the road development
program
 To plan for the future requirements and improvements of roads in view of anticipated developments.
 To work out suitable financing systems
 Phases of Highway Planning
 Highway planning includes the following phases
 Assessment of road length requirement for an area.
 Preparation of master plan showing the phasing of plan in five year plans or annual plans

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 36 MEANING OF HIGHWAY AND ROAD
 Road: A road is a thoroughfare, route or way on land between two places, which typically has been paved
or otherwise improved to allow travel by some conveyance, including a horse, cart, or motor vehicle.
 Highway: A highway is a public road, especially a major road connecting two or more destinations. Any
interconnected set of highways can be variously referred to as a "highway system", a "highway network", or
a "highway transportation system". Each country has its own highway system.

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 37 CLASSIFICATION OF ROADS
 TYPES OF ROADS
 Based on the season
 All-weather roads: These roads are negotiable during all weather, except at major river crossings
where interruption of traffic is permissible up to a certain limit extent, the road pavement should be
negotiable during all weathers.
 Fair-weather roads: On these roads, the traffic may be interrupted during monsoon season at
causeways where streams may overflow across the roads.
 Based on the Carriage Way
 Paved Roads: These are the roads which have a hard pavement surface on the carriage way
 Unpaved Roads: These are the roads without the hard pavement surface on the carriage way, usually
they are earthen or gravel roads.

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 CLASSIFICATION OF ROADS
38

Based on Pavement Surface

Surface Roads: These roads are provided with any type of bituminous or
cement concrete surfacing.
Unsurfaced Roads: These roads are not provided with a bituminous or
cement concrete surfacing.
 Roads which are provided with bituminous surfacing are called as Black Toped
Roads and that of concrete are referred to as Concrete Roads respectively
 The roads are generally classified based on the following
 Traffic Volume
 Load transported of tonnage
 Location and function
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39 CLASSIFICATION OF ROADS

 Based on Traffic Volume: The classification based on traffic volume or

tonnage have been arbitrarily fixed by different agencies and are classified as
(i) Heavy (ii) Medium (iii) Low volume roads
 Based on Load transported or tonnage:
(a) Class-I or Class-A (b) Class-II or Class-B.
 Based on location and Function:
 National Highways (NH)

 State Highways (SH)

 Major District Roads (MDR)

 Other District Roads (ODR)

 Village Roads (VR)

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40 MODIFIED CLASSIFICATION OF ROAD SYSTEM BY THIRD ROAD
DEVELOPMENT PLAN
The road classification system was modified in the third 20-year development plan. The roads are now
classified into three classes and are as follows
 Primary System
 Expressways
 National Highways (NH)
 Secondary System
 State Highways (SH)
 Major District Roads (MDR)
 Tertiary System
 Other District Roads (ODR)
 Village Roads (VR)
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 Expressways
41
• Heavy traffic at high speed (120km/hr)
• Land Width (90m)
• Full access control
• Connects major points of traffic generation
• No slow moving traffic allowed
•No loading, unloading, parking.

The Mumbai-Pune Expressway as seen from

Khandala

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 National Highways
42
• NH are the main highways running through the length and breadth of India, connecting
major parts,foreign highways,capital of large states and large industrial and tourist
centres including roads required for strategic movements for the defence of India.
• The national highways have a total length of 70,548 kms. Indian highways cover 2% of
the total road network of India and carry 40% of the total traffic.
• The highway connecting Delhi-Ambala-Amritsar is denoted as NH-1, whereas a
bifurcation of this highway beyond Jalandar to Srinagar and Uri is denoted NH-1-A
• The longest highway in India is NH7 which stretches from Varansi in Uttar Pradesh to
Kanyakumari in the southern most point of Indian mainland.

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 National Highways cont…
43

• The shortest highway is NH47A which stretches from Ernakulam to Kochi

and covers total length of 4 Kms.
• Golden Quadrilateral – (5,846 K Kolkata-Chennai-
Mumbai ms) connecting Delhi-
 NH-2 Delhi- Kol (1453 km)
 NH 4,7&46 Che-Mum (1290km
 NH5&6 Kol- Che (1684 m) )
 NH 8 Del- Mum (1419 km)

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 State Highways
44
• They are the arterial roads of a state, connecting up with the national highways of
adjacent states, district head quarters and important cities within the state.

• Total length of all SH in the country is 1,37,119 Kms.

• Speed 80 kmph

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 Major District Roads
45

• Important roads with in a district serving areas of production and markets ,

connecting those with each other or with the major highways.

• India has a total of 4,70,000 kms of MDR.

• Speed 60-80kmph

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 Other district roads
46
 serving rural areas of production and providing them with outlet to market centers or
other important roads like MDR or SH.
 Speed 50-60kmph
Village roads
• They are roads connecting villages or group of villages with each other or to the nearest
road of a higher category like ODR or MDR.
• India has 26,50,000 kms of ODR+VR out of the total 33,15,231 kms of all type of roads.
• Speed-40-50kmph

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 47 CLASSIFICATION OF URBAN ROADS

 The road system within urban areas is classified as Urban Roads and will form a
separate category of roads taken care by respective urban authorities.
 Arterial roads
Arterial road
 Sub-arterial roads

 Collector Streets Building

Sub –arterial road

 Local Streets
Collector Street

Local Street
Building

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 48 ARTERIAL
• No frontage access, no standing vehicle, very little cross
traffic.
• Design Speed : 80km/hr
• Land width : 50 – 60m
• Divided roads with full or partial parking

• Pedestrian allowed to walk only at intersection

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 SUB ARTERIAL ROAD
49

• Bus stops but no standing vehicle.

• Less mobility than arterial.
• Spacing for CBD : 0.5km
• Design speed : 60 km/hr
• Land width : 30 – 40 m

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 50
Collector Street
• Collects and distributes traffic from local streets
• Provides access to arterial roads
• Located in residential, business and industrial
areas.
• Full access allowed.
• Parking permitted.
• Design speed : 50km/hr
• Land Width : 20-30m

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 51 Local Street

• Design Speed : 30km/hr.

• Land Width : 10 – 20m.
• Primary access to residence, business or other abutting
property
• Less volume of traffic at slow speed
• Unrestricted parking, pedestrian movements. (with
frontage access, parked vehicle, bus stops and no
waiting restrictions)

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 ROAD PATTERNS
52
1. Rectangular or block pattern
2. Radial or star and block pattern
3. Radial or star and circular pattern
4. Radial or star and grid pattern
5. Hexagonal pattern
6. Minimum travel pattern

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53

 Rectangular or block pattern: In this, entire area is divided into

rectangular segments having a common central business and marketing
area. This area has all the services located in the central place. This pattern
is not convenient or safe from traffic operation point of view and it results
into more number of accidents at intersections. E.g.: Chandigarh city.

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54

 Radial or star and block pattern: In this, roads radially emerge from the
central business area in all directions and between two built-up area will be
there. The main advantage in this, central place is easy accessible from all the
directions. E.g.: Nagpur

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55

 Radial or star and circular pattern: In this road radiate in all the directions and
also circular ring roads are provided.
 Advantages: Traffic will not touch the heart of the city and it flows radially and
reaches the other radial road and thereby reducing the congestion in the centre of
the city.
 This ring road system is well suited for big cities where traffic problems are more
in the heart of the city. E.g.: Connaught place in New Delhi.
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56

 It is very much similar to star and the circular pattern expects the radial roads
are connected by grids. In this pattern, a grid is formed around the central
point which is a business center. E.g. Nagpur road plan.

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57

 Hexagonal pattern: In this entire zone of planning is divided into hexagonal

zones having separate marketing zone and central services surrounded by
hexagonal pattern of roads. Each hexagonal element is independent. At each
corner of hexagon three roads meet.

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58

HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT AND SURVEYS

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 Highway Alignment
59
• The position or lay out of centre line of the highway on the ground is called the alignment.

• It includes straight path, horizontal deviation and curves.

• Due to improper alignment , the disadvantages are,

 Increase in construction

 Increase in maintenance cost

 Increase in vehicle operation cost

 Increase in accident cost

• Once the road is aligned and constructed, it is not easy to change the alignment due to increase in
cost of adjoining land and construction of costly structure.

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5
9
60

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6
0
61

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6
1
62

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6
2
 Requrements of highway alignment
63
 Short
 Easy
 Safe
 Economical

• Short- desirable to have a short alignment between two terminal stations.

• Easy- easy to construct and maintain the road with minimum
problem also easy for operation of vehicle.
• Safe- safe enough for construction and maintenance from the view point of stability
of natural hill slope, embankment and cut slope also safe for traffic operation.
• Economical- total cost including initial cost, maintenance

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cos1t0-a
03-n
20d
20
vehHIGicHWlAeY ENoGINpEEeRINrGation cost should be minimum. 6
64
Factors controlling alignment
 Obligatory points
 Traffic
 Geometric design
 Economics
 Other considerations
Additional care in hill roads
 Stability
 Drainage
 Geometric standards of hill roads
 Resisting length
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Factors controlling alignment cont...
65

Obligatory points
 Obligatory points through which alignment is to pass
Examples:-bridge site, intermediate town , Mountain pass etc…
 Obligatory points through which alignment should not
pass.
Examples:-religious places, costly structure, unsuitable land etc…

Traffic
• origin and destination survey should be carried out in the area and the desire
lines be drawn showing the trend of traffic flow.
• New road to be aligned should keep in view the desired lines,
traffic flow patterns and future trends.
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66

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 Geometric design
67
• Design factors such as gradient ,radius of curve and sight
distance also govern the final alignment of the highway.
• Gradient should be flat and less than the ruling gradient or
design gradient.
• Avoid sudden changes in sight distance, especially near
crossings
• Avoid sharp horizontal curves
•Avoid road intersections near bend Economy
• Alignment finalised based on total cost including initial cost, maintenance cost
and vehicle operation cost.
Other consideration
• Drainage consideration, political consideration
• Surface water level, high flood level
• Environmental consideration
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 Topographical control points
68
• The alignment, where possible should avoid passing
through
 Marshy and low lying land with poor drainage
 Flood prone areas
 Unstable hilly features

Materials and constructional features

 Deep cutting should be avoided
 Earth work is to be balanced; quantities for filling and excavation
 Alignment should preferably be through better soil area
to minimize pavement thickness
 Location may be near sources of embankment and
pavement materials
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69
Stability
• A common problem in hilly roads is land sliding
• The cutting and filling of the earth to construct the roads on hilly sides causes steepening
of existing slope and affect its stability.
Drainage
• Avoid the cross drainage structure
• The number of cross drainage structure should be minimum.
Geometric standard of hilly road
• Gradient, curve and speed
• Sight distance, radius of curve
Resisting length
• The total work to be done to move the loads along the route taking horizontal length, the
actual difference in level between two stations and the sum of the ineffective rise and fall in
exce10s-03-20
so 20
f floHaIGHtiWn
AYENGINEERING 12
g gradient. Should kept as low as possib le.

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70
Engineering Surveys for Highway locations
Before a highway alignment is finalised in highway project, the
engineering survey are to be carried out. The various stages of
engineering surveys are

 Map study (Provisional alignment Identification)

 Reconnaissance survey

 Preliminary survey

 Final location and detailed surveys

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 MAP STUDY
71

• From the map alternative routes can be suggested in the office, if

the topographic map of that area is available.
• The probable alignment can be located on the map from the
fallowing details available on the map.
 Avoiding valleys, ponds or lake
 Avoiding bend of river
If road has to cross a row of hills, possibility of crossing
through mountain pass.
• Map study gives a rough guidance of the routes to be further
surveyed in the field
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 RECONNAISSANCE SURVEY
72

• To confirm features indicated on map.

• To examine the general character of the area in field for deciding the most
feasible routes for detailed studies.
• A survey party may inspect along the proposed alternative routes of the map in
the field with very simple instrument like abney level, tangent clinometer,
barometer etc…. To collect additional details.
• Details to be collected from alternative routes during this survey are,
 Valleys, ponds, lakes, marshy land, hill, permanent structure and other
obstruction.
 Value of gradient, length of gradient and radius of curve.

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RECONNAISSANCE SURVEY cont..
73

 Number and type of cross drainage structures.

 High Flood Level (HFL)
 Soil Characteristics.
 Geological features.
 source of construction materials- stone quarries, water sources.
• Prepare a report on merits and demerits of different alternative routs.
• As a result a few alternate alignments may be chosen for further study based
on practical considerations observed at the site.

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 Preliminary survey
74
Objective of preliminary survey are:
• To survey the various alternative alignments proposed after the reconnaissance
and to collect all the necessary physical information and detail of topography,
drainage and soil.
• To compare the different proposals in view of the requirements of the
good alignment.
• To estimate quantity of earthwork materials and other construction aspect and
to workout the cost of the alternate proposals.
Methods of preliminary survey:
a) Conventional approach-survey party carries out surveys using the required
field equipment, taking measurement, collecting topographical and other data
and carrying out soil survey.
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 Preliminary survey
75
• Longitudinal and cross sectional profile.
 Plain Terrain` : 100 – 200m
 Rolling Terrain : 50m
 Hilly Terrain : 30m
• Other studies
 Drainage, Hydrological survey, soil survey, Traffic and Material survey.
b) Modern rapid approach-
By Aerial survey taking the required aerial photographs for obtaining the
necessary topographic and other maps including details of soil and geology.

• Finalise the best alignment from all considerations by

comparative analysis of alternative routes.
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 Final location and detailed survey
76

• The alignment finalised at the design office after the preliminary survey is to
be first located on the field by establishing the centre line.
Location survey:
• Transferring the alignment on to ground.
• This is done by transit theodolite.
• Major and minor control points are established on the ground and centre pegs
are driven, checking the geometric design requirements.
• Centre line stacks are driven at suitable intervals, say 50m interval in plane and
rolling terrains and 20m in hilly terrain.

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 Final location and detailed survey cont..
77
Detailed survey:
• Temporary bench marks are fixed at intervals of about 250m
and at all drainage and under pass structure.
• Earthwork calculations and drainage details are to be workout
from the level books.
• Cross sectional levels are taken at intervals of 50-100m in Plane terrain, 50-75m in
Rolling terrain, 50m in built-up area, 20m in Hill terrain.
• Detail soil survey is to be carried out.
• CBR value of the soils along the alignment may be determined for design of
pavement.
• The data during detailed survey should be elaborate and complete for preparing
detailed plans, design and estimates of project.
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 PRILIMINARY AND DETAILED
78
SURVEYS

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 SOIL SAMPLE COLLECTION AND
79 MATERIALS TESTS

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22
 ES PROJECT 2019-20 BATCH
80

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 Drawing and Report
81

1. Key map
2. Index map
3. Preliminary survey plans
4. Detailed plan and longitudinal section
5. Detailed cross section
6. Land acquisition plans
7. Drawings of cross drainage and other retaining structures
8. Drawings of road intersections
9. Land plans showing quarries etc
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 New highway project
82
1. Map study
2. Reconnaissance survey
3. Preliminary survey
4. Location of final alignment
5. Detailed survey
6. Material survey
7. Geometric and structural design
8. Earth work
9. Pavement construction

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10.Construction controls
SL HIGHWAY PROJECT STEPS PROCEDURE
NO 83
1 MAP STUDY Help of available topographic maps of the area
2 RECONNAISSANCE SURVEY Field identification of soils and survey of construction materials, by an on-the spot inspection of
the site
3 PRELIMINARY SURVEY Alternate alignments, consideration of geometric design and other requirements of alignment,
preparation of plans and comparison of alternate routes

4 LOCATION OF FINAL Transfer of the alignment from the drawings to the ground by driving pegs along the centre line
ALIGNMENT of finally chosen alignment

5 DETAILED SURVEY Survey of the highway construction work or the preparation of longitudinal and cross sections

6 MATERIAL SURVEY Survey of construction materials, their collection and testing.

7 GEOMETRIC AND STRUCTURAL Design details of embankment and cut slopes, foundation of embankments and bridges, and
DESIGN pavement layers and cross drainage structures.

8 EARTH WORK Excavations for highway cutting and drainage system, construction of
embankments.
9 PAVEMENT CONSTRUCTION Preparation of subgrade, construction of sub-base, base and surface
courses.
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10 CONSTRUCTION CONTROLS The construction planning and programming to be carried out taking
10-03-2020 HIGHWAY ENGINEERIN G 27
into accounts all the restraints and existing problems
84

Highway Geometric Design

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85

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86

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87

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 Factors affecting geometric design
88 Design speed
• In India different speed standards have been assigned for different class of road

• Design speed may be modified depending upon the terrain condition.

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 Factors affecting geometric design
89

 Topography
• Classified based on the general slope of the country.
 Plane terrain- <10%

 Rolling terrain- 10-25%

 Mountainous terrain- 25-60%

 Steep terrain- >60%

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 Factors affecting geometric design
90

Traffic factor
 Vehicular characteristics and human characteristics of road users.

 Different vehicle classes have different speed and acceleration

characteristics, different dimensions and weight .

 Human factor includes the physical, mental and psychological

characteristics of driver and pedestrian.

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 Factors affecting geometric design
91  Design hourly volume and capacity
• Tr5affic flow fluctuating with time
• Low value during off-peak hours to the highest value during the peak hour.
• It is uneconomical to design the roadway for peak traffic flow.
 Environmental factors
 Aesthetics
 Landscaping
 Air pollution
 Noise pollution

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92 Highway Geometric Design
• Geometric design of highways deals with following elements
 Cross section elements
 Sight distance considerations
 Horizontal alignment details
 Vertical alignment details
 Intersection Elements

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93

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 Highway cross section elements
94
• Carriageway • Side slope
• Shoulder • Kerb
• Roadway width • Guard rail
• Right of way • Side drain
• Building line • Other facilities
• Control line
• Median
• Camber/ cross slope
• Crown
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 Cross Section Elements of Road
95

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96

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97 1. Pavement surface characteristics
 Pavement surface depend on the type of pavement which is decided based
on the,
• Availability of material
• Volume and composition of traffic
• Soil subgrade
• Climatic condition
• Construction facility
• Cost consideration

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98

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 Friction
99
• Sk7idding: when the path travelled along the road surface is more than the
circumferential movement of the wheels due to their rotation.
• Slipping: when a wheel revolves more than the corresponding
longitudinal movement along the road.
 Factors affecting the friction or skid resistance
• Types of pavement surface
• Roughness of pavement
• Condition of the pavement: wet or dry
• Type and condition of tyre
• Speed of the vehicle
• Brake efficiency
• Load and tyre pressure
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• Temperature of tyre and pavement

 Friction
100
 Smooth and worn out tyres offer higher friction factor on dry pavement but new
tyre with good threds gives higher friction factor on wet pavement
 IRC recommended the longitudinal co- efficient of friction varies
0.35 to 0.4 and lateral co-efficient of friction of 0.15

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 Pavement unevenness
101
• Higher operating speed are possible on even surface than uneven surface.
• It affects,
 Vehicle operation cost
 Comfort and safety
 Fuel consumption
 Wear and tear of tyres and other moving parts
• It is commonly measure by an equipment call “Bump Integrator”
• Bump integrator is the cumulative measure of vertical undulations of
the pavement surface recorded per unit horizontal length.
• 250 cm/km for a speed of 100kmph and more than 350 cm/km considered
very unsatisfactory even at speed of 50kmph

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102
Light reflecting characteristics
• Night visibility very much depends upon the light reflecting
characteristics of the pavement surface

• The glare caused by the reflection of head light is high on wet

pavement surface than on dry pavement particularly in case of black
top pavement or flexible pavement.

• Light colored or white pavement or rigid pavement surface give good

visibility at night particularly during the rain, and produces glare or
eye strain during bright sunlight.

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 2. Carriageway:
103
 It is the travel way which is used for movement of vehicle, it takes the
vehicular loading .

 It may be cement concrete road or bituminous pavement.

 Width of carriageway is determined on the basis of the width of the vehicle

and the minimum side clearance for safety.

 As per IRC specification, the maximum width of vehicle is 2.44m,

minimum clearance of 0.68 in case of single lane and 1.02m in case of
double lane.

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 WIDTH OF CARRIAGEWAY AS
PER IRC SPECIFICATION
SL. NO. Class of road Width of carriageway in ‘m’
104
1 Single lane 3.75
2 Two lane without raised kerbs 7.0
3 Two lane with raised kerbs 7.5
4 Intermediate lane 5.5
5 Multilane pavement 3.5/lane
WIDTH OF ROADWAY OF VARIOUS CLASSES OF ROADS
SL. No. Road classification Roadway Width in m
Plane and rolling terrain Mountainous and steep
terrain
1 NH & SH
a) Single lane 12 6.25
b) two lane 12 6.25
2 MD
R a) Single lane 9 4.75
b) two lane 9 4.75
3 ODR
a) Single lane 7.5 4.75
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9 4.75 08-05-2024
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4 Village roads-single lane 7.5 4
105
Two lane two-way road

carriageway

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 3. Shoulder
106  It is provided along the road edge to serve as an emergency lane for
vehicle.

 It act as a service lane for vehicles that have broken down.

 The minimum shoulder width of 4.6 m so that a truck stationed at the side of the
shoulder would have a clearance of 1.85m from the pavement edge.

 IRC recommended the minimum shoulder width is 2.5 m

 It should have sufficient load bearing capacity even in wet weather.

 The surface of the should be rougher than the traffic lanes so that vehicles are
discouraged to use the shoulder as a regular traffic.
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 The colour should be different from that of the pavement so as to be distinct.
 shoulder
107

Cycle track

Footpath

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 Treated
unTreated shoulder
108 shoulder

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 4.Width of the roadway or formation width:
109
It is the sum of the width of the carriageway or pavement including
separators if any and the shoulders.

 Right of way:

• It is the total area of land acquired for the road along its alignment.

• It depends on the importance of the road and possible future

development.

• It is desirable to acquire more width of land as the cost of adjoining land

invariably increases very much , soon after the new highway is constructed.

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  Building lane
110 • In order to reserve sufficient space for future development of roads, It is desirable
to control the building activities on either side of the road boundary, beyond the
land width acquired for the land.
 Control lines:
• In addition to “building line”, it is desirable to control the nature of building upto
further “set back distance” .
 Traffic separators or median
• The main function is to prevent head on collision between the vehicle moving
in opposite direction.
• Channelize traffic into streams at intersection.
• Segregate slow traffic and to protect pedestrians.
• IRC recommends a minimum desirable width of 5 m and may be reduce to 3 m
where land is restricted.
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• The minimum width of median in urban area is 1.2m.
 4-lane divided carriage way or dual carriage way
111

Median/
separator

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 5.Cross slope or camber:
112
• It is the slope provided to the road surface in the transverse direction to
drain off the rain water from the road surface.

• To prevent the entry of surface water into the subgrade soil through
pavement.

• To prevent the entry of water into the bituminous pavement layer.

• To remove the rain water from the pavement surface as quick as possible
and to allow the pavement to get dry soon after the rain.

• It is expressed as a percentage or 1V:Nh.

• It depends on the pavement surface and amount of rainfall.

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113

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114

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115
IRC Recommended values of camber for different types of
road surface
Sl no. Type of road surface Range of camber in areas of
rain fall range
heavy light
1 Cement concrete and high type 1 in 50(2%) 1 in 60(1.7%)
bituminous pavement

2 Thin bituminous surface 1 in 40(2.5%) 1 in 50(2%)

3 Water bound macadam(WBM) and 1 in 33(3%) 1 in 40(2.5%)

gravel pavement

4 Earth 1 in 25(4%) 1 in 33(3%)

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116

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 Numerical On Camber
117 1. In a district where the rainfall is heavy, major district road of WBM pavement, 3.8
m wide, and a state highway of bituminous concrete pavement, 7.0 m wide are to
be constructed. What should be the height of the crown with respect to the edges
in these two cases ?
Solution : Straight line type camber has been suggested.
A) For WBM road in heavy rain fall area , provide a cross slope of 1 in 33 or 3.0
%
Rise of crown with respect to edges on a pavement of width 3.8 m
= (3.8 * 1 ) / ( 2 * 33 ) = 0.058 m
B) For SH width of two lane pavement 7.0 m
For bituminous surface in heavy rain fall area , provide cross slope of 1 in 50.
Rise of crown with respect to the edges = ( 7 * 1 ) / ( 2 * 50 ) = 0.07 m
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118 6. KERBS

• It indicates the boundary between the

pavement and shoulder.
• It is desirable to provide kerbs in
urban areas.

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119 1. Low or mountable kerb:
 It allow the driver to enter the shoulder area with little difficulty.
 The height of the this type of shoulder kerb is about 10 cm above the
pavement edge with slope to help the vehicle climb the kerb easily.
2. Semi-barrier kerb
2It8is provided on the periphery of a roadway where the pedestrian traffic is high.
 Height of about 15 cm above the pavement edge with a batter of 1:1 on the
top 7.5 cm.
 It prevents parking the vehicle but during emergency it is possible to drive over
this kerb with some difficulty.
3. Barrier type kerb:
 It is provided in built-up area adjacent to the foot paths with considerable
pedestrian traffic.
 The height of the kerb is about 20 cm above the pavement edge with a steep
batter of 1V:0.25H.
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29

kerb

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30/03/202
0
 7. Guard rail
121 • It is provided at the edge of the shoulder when the road is
constructed on a fill exceeds 3 m.
• It is also provided on horizontal curve so as to provide a better night
visibility of the curves under the head light of the vehicle.

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122

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 Road margins
Par3k2ing lane:
• These are provided on urban roads to allow kerb parking
• As far as possible only parallel parking should be allowed as it is safer
for moving vehicle.
•It should have sufficient width say 3m
Lay bay:
• These are provided near the public conveniences with guide map to
enable driver to stop clear off the carriageway.
• It has 3m width,30m length with 15m end tapers on both sides.
Bus bays:
• These may be provided by recessing the kerb to avoid conflict with
moving traffic.
• It is located at least 75m away from the intersection
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Frontage road:
• 3These are provided to give access to properties along an important highway
with control access to express way or free way
• It may run parallel to the highway and are isolated by separator.
Driveway:
• It connect the highway with commercial establishment like fuel stations,
service stations etc…
• It should be located away from the intersection.
Cycle track:
• It provided in urban areas when the volume of cycle traffic on the road is very
high.
• A minimum width of 2m is provided for cycle track.
Footpath:
• These are provided in urban areas when the vehicular as well as
pedestrian traffic are heavy.
• To protect the pedestrian and decrease accident.
• Minimum width of 1.5m is provided.
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34

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35

Bus
bays
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36

Frontage
road

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128

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 SIGHT DISTANCE
129

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130
TYPES OF SIGHT DISTANCES

1. Stopping or absolute minimum sight distance(SSD)

2. Safe overtaking or passing sight distance (OSD)
3. Safe sight distance for entering into uncontrolled intersection.
4. Intermediate sight distance (ISD)
5. Head light sight distance (HSD)

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 1. STOPING SIGHT DISTANCE (SSD) : The minimum sight distance available on a highway at any
131 spot should be of sufficient length to stop a vehicle traveling at design speed, safely without collision
with any other obstruction.
2. OVER TAKING SIGHT DISTANCE:
The minimum distance open to the vision of the driver of a vehicle intending to overtake slow vehicle
ahead with safety against the traffic of opposite direction is known as the minimum overtaking sight
distance (OSD) or the safe passing sight distance.
3. SIGHT DISTANCE AT INTERSECTION:
Driver entering an uncontrolled intersection (particularly unsignalised Intersection) has sufficient
visibility to enable him to take control of his vehicle and to avoid collision with another vehicle.
4. INTERMEDIATE SIGHT DISTANCE
This is defined as twice the stopping sight distance. When overtaking sight distance can not be provided,
intermediate sight distance is provided to give limited overtaking opportunities to fast vehicles.
5. HEAD LIGHT SIGHT DISTANCE:
This is the distance visible to a driver during night driving under the illumination of the vehicle head
lights. This sight distance is critical at up-gradients and at the ascending stretch of the valley curves.

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132 1. Stopping or absolute minimum sight distance(SSD)
 SSD is the minimum sight distance available on a highway at any
spot having sufficient length to enable the driver to stop a vehicle
traveling at design speed, safely without collision with any other
obstruction.

• Height of driver’s eye above road surface (H)

• Height of object above road surface(h)

H h

IRC
• H = 1.2m
• h = 0.15m
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 Factors affecting the SSD
133
• 5Totalreaction time of driver
• Speed of vehicle
• Efficiency of brakes
• Frictional resistance between road and tyre
• Gradient of road
Total reaction time of driver:
• It is the time taken from the instant the object
is visible to the driver to the instant the brake
is effectively applied, it divide into types
1. Perception time
2. Brake reaction time
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134
Perception time:

• 5it1is the time from the instant the object comes on the line of sight of the driver
to the instant he realizes that the vehicle needs to be stopped.

Brake reaction time:

• The brake reaction also depends on several factor including the skill of the
driver, the type of the problems and various other environment factor.

• Total reaction time of driver can be calculated by “PIEV” theory

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52 PIEV THEORY

I-E
• P-perception
• I-intellection P V
• E-Emotion
• V-Volition

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136 PIEV THEORY
• Perception : It is the time required for the sensation received by the eyes or ears to
be transmitted to the brain through the nervous system and spinal chord.
• Intellection: It is the time required for understanding the situation.
• Emotion: It is the time elapsed during emotional sensation and
disturbance such as fear, anger or any other emotional feeling such as
superstition etc, with reference to the situation.
• Volition: It is the time taken for the final action
• Total reaction time of driver may be vary from 0.5 sec to 4 sec

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137
Analysis of SSD
The stopping sight distance is the sum of lag distance and the braking distance.

Lag distance:
• It is the distance, the vehicle traveled during the reaction time
• If ‘V’ is the design speed in m/sec and ‘t’ is the total reaction time of the driver
in seconds,
lag distance = v * t meters. Lag distance= 0.278 V * t meters
Where “v” in m/sec t=2.5 Where “v” in Kmph, T=
sec
time in sec=2.5 sec

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138 55
Breaking Distance : It is the distance traveled by the vehicle after the
 application of brake. For a level road this is obtained by equating the
work done in stopping the vehicle and the kinetic energy of the vehicle.
• work done against friction force in stopping the vehicle is F x l = f W l,
where W is the total weight of the vehicle.
• The kinetic energy at the design speed of v m/sec will be ½ m. v²

Braking distance= v² / 2gf

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 SSD on Level Road
139
SSD= v.t + v²/2gf When V is in m/sec

SSD= 0.278V.t + V²/254f When V is in kmph

Table 2.6: Coefficient of longitudinal friction

Speed, kmph 30 40 50 60 ˃80
Longitudinal
coefficient of 0.40 0.38 0.37 0.36 0.35
friction

• Two-way traffic single lane road: SSD=2*SSD

• In one-way traffic with single or more lane or two- way traffic with more than
single lane: Minimum SSD= SSD

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140 SSD at Slopes
SSD= v.t + v² / 2g ( f ± n% ) When V is in m/sec

SSD= 0.278 V.t + V² / 254( f ± 0.01n) When V is in kmph

Where , +n = Ascending Gradient %

-n = Descending Gradient %

IRC Recommended SSD values for different speeds

Design 20 25 30 40 50 60 65 80 100
Speed, kmph
SSD , m 20 25 30 45 60 80 90 120 180

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 Example-1
141 Calculate the safe stopping sight distance for design speed of 50kmph
for(a) two-way traffic on two lane road (b)two-way traffic on single
lane road
Example-2

• Calculate the minimum sight distance required to avoid a head on

collision of two cars approaching from opposite direction at 90 and
60kmph.coefficient friction of 0.7 and a brake efficiency of 50%, in
either case
Example-3
• Calculate the stopping sight distance on a highway at a descending
gradient of 2% for design speed of 80 kmph, assume other data as per
.IRC specification

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142 2. OVER TAKING SIGHT DISTANCE
 The minimum distance open to the vision of the driver of a vehicle intending to
overtake slow vehicle ahead with safety against the traffic of opposite direction is
known as the minimum overtaking sight distance (OSD) or the safe passing
sight distance.

 The overtaking sight distance or OSD is the distance measured along the centre
of the road which a driver with his eye level 1.2 m above the road surface can
see the top of an object 1.2 m above the road surface.

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 Factors affecting the OSD
143

Speed of

 overtaking vehicle

 overtaken vehicle

 the vehicle coming from opposite direction, if any.

• Distance between the overtaking and overtaken vehicles.

• Skill and reaction time of the driver

• Rate of acceleration of overtaking vehicle

• Gradient of the road

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 ANALYSIS OF OSD
144

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 ANALYSIS OF OSD
145

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 ANALYSIS OF OSD
146

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 ANALYSIS OF OSD
147

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 ANALYSIS OF OSD
148

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149

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150
ANALYSIS OF OSD

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151
IRC RECOMMENDED VALUES FOR OSD

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 EXAMPLES ON OSD
152
1. The speed of the overtaking and overtaken vehicle are 70 and 40 kmph,
respectively on a two way traffic road. If the acceleration of overtaking
vehicle is 0.99 m/sec²,
i. Calculate safe overtaking sight distance
ii. Calculate the minimum and desirable length of overtaking zone
iii. Draw the neat-sketch of the overtaking zone and show the position of the sign
post.

2. Calculate the safe overtaking sight distance for a design speed of 96 kmph,
assume all other data suitable

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153

DESIGN OF HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

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 Horizontal Curves
154
 A horizontal highway curve is a curve in plan to provide change in
direction to the central line of a road. When a vehicle traverses a horizontal
curve, the centrifugal force acts horizontally outwards through the centre
of gravity of the vehicle.

• P = W V²∕gR

• Where,
• P = centrifuge force, kg
• W = weight of the vehicle, kg
• R = radius of the circular curve, m
• v = speed of vehicle, m/sec
• g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.8 m/sec
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155
Superelevation
 In order to counteract the effect of centrifugal force and to reduce the tendency
of the vehicle to overturn or skid, the outer edge of the pavement is raised
with respect to the inner edge, thus providing a transverse slope throughout
the length of the horizontal curve, this transverse inclination to the pavement
surface is known as Superelevation or cant or banking.
 The Superelevation ‘e’ is expressed as the ratio of the height of outer edge
with respect to the horizontal width.

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157

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158

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 Attainment of Superelevation
159

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 Examples on Superelevation :
160
1. The radius of horizontal circular curve is 100m. The design speed is 50kmph and the design
coefficient of lateral friction is 0.15.
i. Calculate the superelevation required if full lateral friction is assumed to develop
ii. Calculate the coefficient of friction needed if no superelevation is provided.
iii. Calculate the equilibrium superelevation if the pressure on inner and outer wheels
should be equal.

2. A two lane road with design speed 80kmph has horizontal curve of radius 480m. Design the rate of
superelevation for mixed traffic. By how much should the outer edges of the pavement be raised with
respect to the centre line , if the pavement is rotated with respect to the centre line.

3. Design the super elevation for a horizontal highway curve of radius 500m and speed 100kmph
4. The design speed of highway is 80kmph. There is horizontal curve of radius 200m on a certain locality.
Calculate the superelevation needed to maintain this speed.

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161

1. Calculate the values of ruling minimum and absolute minimum radius of

horizontal curve of a national highway in plane terrain. Assume ruling design
speed and minimum design speed values as 100 and 80 kmph respectively.
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 Widening of Pavement on Horizontal Curves
162
• On horizontal curves especially when they are not of very large radii, it is
common to widen the pavement slightly more than the normal width,
• Widening is needed for the following reasons :
 The driver experience difficulties in steering around the curve.
 The vehicle occupies a greater width as the rear wheel don’t track
the front wheel. known as ‘Off tracking’
 For greater visibility at curve, the driver have tendency not to follow
the central path of the lane, but to use the outer side at the beginning of
the curve.
 While two vehicle cross or overtake at horizontal curve there is
psychological tendency to maintain a greater clearance the vehicle for
safety.

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164
Analysis of extra widening on curves
• It is divided into two parts;

 Mechanical widening (Wm): The widening required to account for the off
tracking due to the rigidity of wheel base is called mechanical widening

 Psychological widening (Wps): Extra width of the pavement is also

provided for psychological reasons such as , to provide for greater
maneuverability of steering at high speed, to allow for the extra space for
overhangs of vehicles and to provide greater clearance for crossing
and overturning vehicles on curve.

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 Total Widening = Wm + Wps 08-05-2024
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166

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167

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 Method of introducing extra widening
168
 With Transition Curves : increase the width at an approximately uniform
rate along the transition curve - the extra width should be continued over the
full length of circular curve

 Without transition curves: provide two-third widening on tangent and the

remaining one-third on the circular curve beyond the tangent point

 With transition curve: Widening is generally applied equally on

both sides of the carriageway

 Without transition curve: the entire widening should be done on inner

side
 On sharp curves of hill roads the extra widening should be done on inner
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 Method of introducing extra widening
169

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170 Examples
1. Calculate the extra widening required for a pavement of width 7m on a
horizontal curve of radius 250m if the longest wheel base of vehicle
expected on the road is 7.0 m. design speed is 70 kmph.

2. Find the total width of two lane road on a horizontal curve for a new
National highway to be aligned along a rolling terrain with a ruling
minimum radius having ruling design speed of 80 kmph. Assume
necessary data as per IRC

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 Horizontal transition curves
171
 When a non circular curve is introduce between a straight and a circular
curve has a varying radius which decreases from infinity at the straight
end (tangent point) to the desired radius of the circular curve at the other
end (curve point) for the gradual introduction of centrifugal force is
known as transition curve.

Circular curve

Straight curve

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173

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 Objectives for providing transition curve
174

1. To introduce gradually the centrifugal force between the tangent point

and the beginning of the circular curve, avoiding sudden jerk on the
vehicle. This increases the comfort of passengers.
2. To enable the driver turn the steering gradually for his own comfort and
security

3. To provide gradual introduction of super elevation.

4. To provide gradual introduction of extra widening.

5. To enhance the aesthetic appearance of the road.

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 10 Length of transition curve
• Case-1: Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration
176
3
LS  0.0215V
CR
80
C  0.5 < C < 0.8
( 75  V )
• Where,
Ls= length of transition curve in ‘m’
C= allowable rate of change of centrifugal acceleration, m/sec²
R= Radius of the circular curve in ‘m’
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 case-2:
10 Rate of introduction of super-elevation
177
• If the pavement is rotated about the center line.

Ls=EN/2=eN/2(W+We)

• If the pavement is rotated about the inner edge

Ls= EN= eN(W+We)

• Where W is the width of pavement

• We is the extra widening
• Rate of change of superelevation of 1 in N
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 case-3: By empirical formula
178
• According to IRC standards:
 For plane and rolling terrain:
2.7V 2
LS 
R
 For mountainous and steep terrain:
2
V
LS 
R
The design length of transition curve(Ls) will be the highest value of case 1,2 & 3
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179

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 Examples
180
1. Calculate the length of the transition curve and shift using the following data;
• Design speed= 65 kmph
• Radius of circular curve= 220 m
• Allowable rate of superelevation= 1 in 150
• Pavement rotated about the centre line of the pavment
• Pavement width including extra widening= 7.5 m

2. A national highway passing through rolling terrain in heavy rain fall area has a
horizontal curve of radius 500 m. Design the length of transition curve using the
fallowing data.
• Design speed of vehicle= 80 kmph
• Allowable rate of superelevation= 1 in 150
• Pavement rotated about the inner edge of the pavement.
• Pavement width excluding extra widening= 7 m.
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 Grade Compensation on Horizontal Curve
181
 When sharp horizontal curve is to be introduced on a road which has
already the maximum permissible gradient, then the gradient should be
decreased to compensate for the loss of tractive effort due to curve. This
reduction in gradient at the horizontal curve is called Grade compensation
or compensation in gradient at the horizontal curve, which is intended to
off- set the extra tractive effort involved at the curve.

 This is calculated from the below equation

Grade Compensation, % = ( 30 + R ) / R

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 Grade Compensation on Horizontal Curve
182
 The max value of grade compensation is limited to 75/R, where R is the
radius of the circular curve in m. As per IRC the grade compensation is not
necessary for gradients flatter than 4.0%, and therefore when applying grade
compensation correction, the gradients need not be eased beyond 4 %.

 The compensated gradient = Ruling Gradient – Grade Compensation

1. Example : While aligning a hilly road with a ruling gradient of 6%, a

horizontal curve of radius 60 m is encountered. Fond the compensated
gradient at the curve.

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183
DESIGN OF VERTICAL ALIGNMENT

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 Vertical Alignment
184
 The vertical alignment is the
elevation or profile of the centre
line of the road.
 The vertical alignment of a
highway influences
 Vehicle Speed
 Acceleration and Deceleration
 Stopping Distance
 Sight Distance
 Comfort While Travelling at High
Speeds
 Vehicle Operation Cost.
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 Gradient
185
 Gradient is the rate of rise or fall along the length of the road with respect to
the horizontal.

 It is expressed as a ratio of 1 in x (1 vertical unit to x horizontal units).

 The gradient is also expressed as percentages such as n%, the slope being n
vertical units to 100 horizontal units.
+n % + 1 in X (+ve or Ascending)
or -n% - 1 in X (-ve or descending) valley

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summit 08-05-2024
 Types of Gradient
186 1. Ruling Gradient
2. Limiting Gradient
3. Exceptional Gradient
4. Minimum Gradient
Ruling Gradient Limiting Gradient Exceptional Gradient Minimum Gradient

The ruling gradient or Where topography of a In some extra ordinary This is important only
the design gradient is place compels situations, it may be at locations where
the maximum gradient adopting steeper unavoidable to provide surface drainage is
with which the gradient than the still steeper gradients important.
designer attempts to ruling gradient, than limiting gradient Camber will take care
design the vertical 'limiting gradient' is at least for short of the lateral drainage.
profile of the road. used in view of stretches and in such
enormous increase in cases the steeper
cost in constructing gradient up to
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roads with gentler 'exceptional gradient' 08-05-2024
gradients. may be provided
 11
187
Value of gradient as per IRC
9

Terrain Ruling Limiting Exceptional

gradient gradient gradient
Plain and Rolling 3.3% 5% 6.70%
(1 in 30)
Mountainous terrain 5% 6% 7%
(1 in 20)
Steep terrain up to 5% 6% 7%
3000m (MSL) (1 in 20)

6% 7% 8%
(1 in 16.7)
Steep terrain ( >3000m)
above MSL 30/03/202
0

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 VERTICAL CURVES
188

 Due to changes in grade in the vertical alignment of highway, it is

necessary to introduce vertical curve at the intersections of different
grades to smoothen out the vertical profile and thus ease off the changes
in gradients for the fast moving vehicles.

 The vertical curves used in highway may be classified into two

categories:

1. Summit curves or crest curves with convexity upwards

2. Valley curves or sag curves with concavity upwards

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 1. Summit curves or crest curves with convexity upwards
189  Summit curves with convexity upwards are formed in any one of the cases as given below
a) When a positive gradient meets another positive gradient
b) When positive gradient meets a at gradient
c) When an ascending gradient meets a descending gradient
d) When a descending gradient meets another descending gradient

The deviation angle, N between the two

intersecting gradients is equal to the algebraic
difference between them. Among all the cases,
the deviation angle will be maximum when an
ascending gradient, (+ n1) meets with a
descending gradient, (- n2). Therefore,
Deviation angle, N= n1 - (- n2) = (n1 + n2)

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 Length of the Summit Curve
190

 The important design aspect of the summit curve is the determination of the length
of the curve which is parabolic. As noted earlier, the length of the curve is guided
by the sight distance consideration.
Length of the summit curve for SSD
CASE 01 : When L > SSD
CASE 02 : When L < SSD
Length of the summit curve for OSD / ISD
CASE 01 : When L > OSD
CASE 02 : When L < OSD

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 12
SUMMIT CURVE
0
Length of summit curve(L) for SSD
• Case-1(L > SSD)
NS2 NS 2

L
 
or L
2H  2h
2
4.4
• Case-2(L < SSD)

L2S
 2H  2h
2
or L  2S  4.4
N N30/03/202
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0
length of summit curve for OSD
12
1
• C ase-1(L > OSD)
NS 2
L
2
NS
L  or
8H 9.6
• Case-2(L < OSD)

8H L2S  9.6
L  2S  or
N N
S = sight distance i.e. SSD, OSD or ISD
N = deviation angle i.e. algebraic difference between two grade
H = height of driver eye above the carriageway i.e. 1.2 m ( As per IRC )
H = height of driver eye above the carriageway i.e. 0.15 m ( As per IRC )
 2. Valley curves or sag curves with concavity upwards
193  They are formed when two gradients meet as illustrated in figure below in any of the following
four ways:
a) When a descending gradient meets another descending gradient
b) When a descending gradient meets a at gradient
c) When a descending gradient meets an ascending gradient
d) When an ascending gradient meets another ascending gradient
• The deviation angle, N between the
two intersecting gradients is equal to
the algebraic difference between them.
Among all the cases, the deviation
angle will be maximum when a
descending gradient, (- n1) meets with
an ascending gradient, (+ n2).
Therefore, deviation angle,
N= - n1 - (+ n2) = - (n1 + n2)

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194 Length of the valley curve
 The length of the valley transition curve is designed to fulfill two criteria
a) Allowable rate change of centrifugal acceleration (Comfort Condition)
b) The required HSD for night driving
CASE 01 : When L > OSD
CASE 02 : When L < OSD
CASE 03 : Lowest point of valley curve

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 12
VALLEY CURVE
Len2gth of valley curve for comfort condition:
1

  V  3  2

 N    OR

L  2   3.6  

 
 C  1




L  0.38 NV 3 2

N= deviation angle i.e. algebraic difference between two grade

C= rate of change of centrifugal acceleration may be taken as 0.6 m/sec³
V= speed of vehicle in kmph
30/03/202
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0
12
3 Length of valley curve for head light sight distance

• Case-1(L >OSD)
NS 2
L
1.5 0.035S 

• Case-2(L <OSD)
1.50.035S
N
Where,
L – Total length of valley curve, m
S – OSD or ISD, m
N - Deviation angle = (n1 + n2), with slopes – n1 and + n2
 Examples
197 1. A vertical summit curve is formed at the intersection of tw4o gradient, +3% and -5%. Design the
length of summit curve to provide a SSD for a design speed of 80 kmph. Assume any other
data as per IRC.
2. A vertical summit curve is to be designed when two grades, +1/50 and -1/80 meet on a
highway. The SSD and OSD required are 180 and 640 m respectively. But due to the site
conditions the length of the vertical curve has to be restricted to a maximum value of 500 m if
possible. Calculate the length of the summit curve needed to fulfil the requirements of SSD ,
OSD or at least ISD.
3. A valley curve is formed by a descending grade of 1 in 25 meeting an ascending grade of 1 in
30. design the length of valley curve to fulfil both comfort condition and head light distance
requirements for a design speed of 80 kmph. Assume allowable rate of change of centrifugal
acceleration is 0.6 m/sec³
4. An ascending gradient of 1 in 100 meets a descending gradient of 1 in 120. a summit curve is
to be designed for a speed of 80 kmph so as to have an OSD of 470 m.

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 Bibliography
198
I. S K Khanna and C E G Justo, “Highway Engineering”, Nem Chand Bros,
Roorkee.
II. L R Kadiyali, “Highway Engineering”, Khanna Publishers, New Delhi.
III. Relevant IRC Codes.
IV.Specifications for Roads and Bridges-MoR T&H, IRC, New Delhi.

ANY QUESTIONS……..????
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