CHAPTER IX

AIRPORT GROUND ACCESS AND CIRCULATION SYSTEMS

GENERAL. Ground access systems serve passengers, employees, and other airport users

traveling to and from the airport. Circulation systems within the airport boundaries should

minimize congestion and support efficient access to the passenger terminal. Ground access

systems extend beyond the airport boundaries and must function within the context of regional

transportation systems and the policies of government agencies typically unrelated to the

airport’s operation. A thorough analysis of motor vehicle traffic flows associated with current and

projected future air passenger demand is essential to assure that ground congestion does not

become an unanticipated constraint on a passenger terminal’s performance.

PLANNING STUDIES. The

illustration outlines the process

typically followed in ground access

systems planning and design. This

process may be followed in parallel

with planning and design of other

elements of the passenger terminal, or

as an independent activity when

ground access problcms.arc faced at an

otherwise adequate airport facility. The

inventory phase collects data on

projected air transport demand, airline

schedules, airport operating policies,

and ground transport facilities and services. Demand forecasting uses these data to develop

projections of motor vehicle traffic, passenger demand, and parking demand on annual, seasonal,

monthly, daily, hourly, and peak hour bases. Demand-capacity analyses determine the facilities

required to accommodate these demand forecasts and identify alternate facilities feasible for

application at the, airport. Evaluation of the service quality of facility alternatives and their

comparison to performance and cost standards leads to the selection of the optimum alternative.
CIRCULATION SYSTEM CONFIGURATIONS. The layout and types of terminal concepts

at an airport determine the integration of the components to form the airport circulation system.

a. Centralized Layout. When the

terminal complex consists of a single

building or a contiguous series of

buildings, the ground transportation

system usually consists of sequentially

and centrally located components.

Except for vertical or horizontal

separation, which may exist for

originating and terminating passenger

vehicles, all passenger-related vehicles

normally pass through the same series of roadways. Also, public parking and car

rental facilities are centrally located.

b. Segmented Layout. Division of

the terminal building into

originating and terminating

passenger sides or grouping of

airlines on either side of the

building achieves flow separation

on a horizontal basis. Originating

passengers use one set of terminal

frontage roads. and terminating

passengers the other; or specific airlines may group themselves on either side of the

terminal unit. This layout also permits expansion through terminal unit extension with

retention of the same ground access system concept.

c. Decentralized Layout. When the

terminal complex consists of unit

terminal buildings, vehicle flow

separation on terminal access and

frontage roads is possible. Airport

access and terminal. access roads

funnel traffic to and from separate

terminal facilities. Parking and car

rental facilities are grouped on a

terminal unit basis. Expansion of the

system is by addition of terminal units

around the terminal access road with separate terminal frontage roads.

d. Unitized Layout. In some cases, the

terminal system’ may consist of a series of

terminal building located in linear

fashion. Access is from a centrally

‘located roadway. System expansion is

usually accomplished by adding

terminal units between terminal area

access roads.

AIRPORT ROADS. The four types of airport roads are primary airport access roads,

terminal area access roads, terminal frontage roads, and service roads.

A. Primary airport access roads provide access to the airport from the neighboring

community road system. A capacity per lane of 700 to 800 vehicles per- hour

should be provided for at-grade interrupted flow conditions. This value

approximates the flow relationship for urban arterial highways with signalized
 intersections; average speed range of 20 to 25 miles per hour (30 to 35 km/h);

and, a demand volume to capacity ratio of approximately 0.80. For limited access

highways with grade separations under uninterrupted flow conditions, the

recommended design is one lane for each 1,200 to 1,600 vehicles per hour. This

value approximates the flow relationship for urban freeways; average speeds from

40 to 50 miles per hour (60 to 80 km/h); and a demand volume to capacity ratio

approximating 0.60. A lane width of 12 feet (3.6 m), with a minimum of two

lanes in each direction, is recommended.

B. Terminal area access roads service airport passengers, visitors, and employees

and connect primary airport access roads with terminal buildings and parking

facilities.

1. These roads should be sufficiently long to permit smooth channeling of traffic

into appropriate lanes for safe access to terminal curbs, parking lots, and other

public facilities. To avoid driver confusion, ample separation should be

provided at locations where drivers must make directional choices. Not more

than two choices should be required of a driver at any location. Traffic

circulation in front of the terminal should, normally, be one-way and counter-

clockwise for convenience of right-side loading and unloading of vehicles.

Recirculation of vehicles to the passenger terminal should be permitted by

providing road sections to link the ingress and egress lanes of the access road.

When several buildings exist, it may be advisable to provide more than one

terminal road.

2. Traffic streams should be separated at an early stage with appropriate signing

to avoid congestion and assure lower traffic volumes on each of the terminal

frontage roads. Terminal area access roads should be planned to

accommodate 900 to 1,000 vehicles per lane per hour. A minimum of two

12-foot (3.6 m) lanes should be provided. For recirculation roads, each lane

should serve 600 vehicles per hour. If only one recirculation lane is

provided, its width should be 20 feet (6 m) to accommodate stalled vehicles.

 For multiple recirculation lanes, the standard lane width is 12 feet (3.6

m).

C. Terminal Frontage Roads distribute vehicles directly to terminal buildings.

Since considerable merging from through lanes and from the curb front occurs on

these roadways, at least two lanes should be provided adjacent to the curb. The

inside lane, sized at 8 feet (2.4 m), provides terminal curbfrontage and the 12

foot (3.6 m) outside lane serves through traffic and maneuvering to the

terminal curbfrontage. While planned capacity for the outside lane should be

300 vehicles per hour, the inside lane is considered to have no throughput

capacity. Additional 12 foot (3.6 m) through lanes should be provided at a rate

of 600 vehicles per lane per hour. The terminal frontage is a critical element in

the performance of the airport ground access system. Accordingly, to avoid the

congestion caused by the inevitable double parking, a minimum of four lanes

 adjacent to the terminal curb is recommended. Four lanes are also recommended

when terminal arrivals and departures are on the same level.

Vehicular Island Curb

D. Service roads are divided into two user categories. General and restricted.

1. General-use service roads are used for the delivery of goods, services, air

cargo, flight kitchen supplies, and the like. At very large airports, to relieve

congestion on airport terminal access roads, it is desirable to provide’ service

road entrances and interchanges either before or shortly after entering the

airport site. At low activity airports, the service and primary airport access

roads may be coincidental.

Terminal Curb Areas

 2. Restricted-use service roads and traffic lanes are limited to such traffic as

maintenance, tire and rescue, fuel, baggage, freight, and aircraft service

vehicles. Those roads or sections of roads providing access to aircraft

operating and parking areas require control points for adequate area security.

3. The recommended hourly lane capacity is 600 to 1,200 vehicles. Since a

major portion of the road traffic is from trucks, the lower value should be used

in preliminary design. The typical vehicle speed is 15 to 20 miles (25 to 33’

km) per hour and frequent curb cuts are required for access to airport service

facilities. Usually, these roads are two-way in nature with 12-foot (3.6 m) lane

widths.

TERMINAL CURB AREAS. Curb areas are required at terminals for loading and unloading of

passengers and their baggage.

A. Curbfrontage. The length of curb to be provided is related to the mix of vehicle types

and expected curb dwell time. The illustration below shows typical curb dwell times and

required vehicle slot lengths for different types of vehicles. It should be noted that, in the

case of deplaning passengers, larger volumes of passengers, baggage, and ground

transportation requirements peak over shorter periods of time. Strict policing is highly

effective in optimizing the vehicle curb slot occupancy rate.

B. Sidewalk Platforms. Sidewalk platforms are located immediately adjacent to

curb/maneuvering lanes and terminal building entrances and exits to provide passenger

walkways and safety areas for loading and unloading of vehicles.

 1. At high activity airports, traffic curb islands are often provided to increase the curb

area and, in some cases, to segregate different types of ground transportation vehicles.

Airports with relatively low passenger levels may be able to accommodate both

enplaning and deplaning passengers from one curb face.

2. Generally, the curb area is divided functionally into enplaning and deplaning curbs. It

is separated physically, either horizontally at each end of the terminal building or

vertically by means of structural vehicular ramps.

3. With a one level operation, the deplaning curb is located at the far end of the terminal

with respect to approaching vehicular traffic. In the case of vertical separation,

deplaning is on the lower level. Such separation minimizes the congestion which will

result if opposing flows and volumes of persons, bag gage, and ground vehicles are

concentrated in the same curb area.

4. At most terminals, specific curb areas are designated for buses, limousines, courtesy

cars, and taxi queues. These designated areas should be located at reasonable

distances from terminal exits to reduce congestion. Overhead coverings are desirable

to protect disembarking passengers from inclement weather.

C. Curbside Baggage Check-in. Curbside baggage check-in permits baggage to be checked

directly to the appropriate airline flight. The area which accommodates this service

normally requires space for a bag gage check-in desk (usually portable), baggage hand

trucks, and a baggage conveyor or belt. Baggage may be either taken by hand truck to the

ticket counter or transported directly by an adjacent conveyor belt to the outbound

baggage room. The system used is economically related to passenger activity volumes,

man power, and installation cost. Terminal plans should consider design provisions to

facilitate both present and future conveyor installations.

D. Terminal Entryways. Terminal entrances should be located at enplaning curb areas and

open directly into airline ticket counter lobbies. Similarly, terminal exits should be

located in close proximity to baggage claim facilities and open to deplaning curbs.

Automatic doors are highly recommended for: passenger baggage carrying convenience;
 as a weather buffer; and to increase the efficiency of passenger movement in energy

conservation measures.

E. Pedestrian Crossings and Walkways. Pedestrian crossings and walkways from terminal

curbs to island platforms and parking facilities should be well marked. At high activity

locations, consideration should be given to traffic-controlled crosswalks or, preferably, to

grade separation by means of overpasses and tunnels.

PUBLIC PARKING FACILITIES. Surveys at some major airports in the United States

indicate that from 40 to 85 percent of the originating passengers arrive in private automobiles.

Consequently, adequate public parking facilities are essential to good terminal design.

A. Locations. Public parking lots should be located to limit walking distances from parked

automobiles to terminals to no more than 1,000 feet (300 m). At larger airports, large

volume parking needs may require provision of remote parking facilities served by

shuttle bus or people mover systems.

B. Sizing. The number of public parking spaces available per million originating passengers

varies between airports, particularly at airports with over 1.5 million originations. The

range at existing airports may vary from under 1,000 to as high as 3,300 parking spaces

per million originations. Another methodology provides parking spaces for 1.5 times the

number of peak hours passengers. A better way for estimating parking needs is through a

simulation based on existing parking characteristics and forecasted future needs. While

simulation is expensive and time consuming, it can be justified where expansion space is

severely limited or the cost of additional spaces is very high. A rule-of-thumb suggests an

increase of 15 percent in the number of estimated parking spaces to minimize the amount

of time required to find a parking space. In developing a parking lot plan, approximately

350 to 400 sq. ft. (31.5 to 36.0 m), including lanes, should be allowed for each parked

automobile. This is the equivalent of 109 to 124 parked cars per acre (269 to 306 per

hectare) for on-grade parking.

C. Short-Term Versus Long-Term Parking. The generally accepted definition for short-

term parking is anything less than three hours. Approximately 70 to 85 percent of all

parking lot users are short-term parkers, mainly greeters and well-wishers. However, this

amounts to full time use of only 20 to 30 percent of the total parking requirements. Long-

term parkers, the remaining 15 to 30 percent of parking lot users, are almost all travelers

and occupy 70 to 80 percent of the available parking spaces. Short-term parking is

usually provided nearest the terminal, since its turnover rate is often at least three times

that of long-term lots. Short-term rates are high to discourage long-term parkers from

clogging close in lots. A rule-of-thumb suggests that separate short and long-term parking

should be provided when the total annual passenger volume exceeds the 150,000 to

200,000 range.

D. Parking Lot Entrances and Exits. Parking lot entrances and exits can easily become

points of congestion. This congestion can be minimized by providing appropriate ticket

dispensing and fee collection facilities and queuing lanes to reduce vehicle interference

with access roads and parking lot circulation. Entrance and exit points should be clearly

identified and sufficiently separated to avoid confusion. The total in and out airport

parking lot flow can approach 25 percent of capacity in peak periods. While automatic

ticket dispensers can process up to 400 vehicles per hour, a design capacity of 240 is

recommended. At least two tickets dispensing machines per entrance should be provided

to permit equipment maintenance without severely restricting parking operations.

Attendant parking fee collection booths can process 120 to 150 vehicles hourly with

variable fee parking and about 250 vehicles per hour with a flat fee. One collection

position should be provided per 105 vehicles hourly in manual mode and one position per

185 vehicles per hour in a computerized operation.

E. Circulation. Counter-clockwise circulation within the parking lot is usually preferable

and one-way traffic control is recommcnded to minimize congestion and hazards. Aisle

widths should be generous and parking stalls clearly marked. The layout should be

designed to minimize the number of turns and both vehicular and pedestrian travel

distances. Parking lot aisles should be laid out in the direction of-pedestrian-parker

destination. Perpendicular parking is frequently used, since it permits parking from each
 side of the aisle and maximizes the number of stalls in a given area. However, parking

stall layout mainly depends on the area’s shape and, to a lesser extent, on local parking

habits.

F. Parking Structures. Multilevel parking structures arc used at high activity airports,

albeit with higher construction costs, to increase the number of parking slots in a given

area and to reduce walking distances. This parking arrangement also furnishes users with

protection from inclement weather.

EMPLOYEE AND TENANT PARKING. Surveys show that approximately 90 percent of

airport employees travel to work in private automobiles. Due to the variation among airports for

aircraft maintenance, air cargo, and other servicing activities, a consistent relationship between

numbers or employees and passengers has not been established. The number of employee/tenant

parking spaces should be obtained by surveying airport management and terminal tenants.

Employee and tenant parking should be provided near working areas which are not in or near

terminal buildings, Otherwise, remote parking with a shuttle service to work areas is required.

PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION AND RENTAL CAR AREAS. Parking facilities are also

required for the short-term parking of taxis, vans, limousines, busts, and for rental car ready and

storage lots. Discussions should be held with the various service operators to establish parking

requirements. Approximately 750 originating passengers arc accommodated per rental car ready

stall. The space per vehicle required for taxi. parking and rental car storage facilities is less than

for public parking or rental car ready lots, since these vehicles are driven by professional drivers.

Space for 160 vehicles per acre (395 per hectare) is recommended. Land in the immediate

terminal arca is at a premium. Accordingly, a trend is that on-airport rental car agencies are

basing vehicles at remote locations and using vans to shuttle customers to and from these areas.

Usually, short-term parking areas or buses, taxis, vans, and limousines arc located away from the

terminal curbfront to increase curbside operational efficiency. These vehicles can be called to the

curb in a demand responsive mode and curbfront dwell time considerably reduced. Similarly,

provisions can be made for exclusive lanes or dedicated auxiliary curbs for high occupancy

vehicles such as vans, limousines, and buses.

ACCESS SYSTEM SIGNS. Directional and identification signs are extremely important in

designing an efficient airport access system. Clearly visible signs should be positioned on roads

and in terminal curb areas well in advance of desired destinations to permit vehicle operations

without a need for abrupt movements. Signs should be properly lighted for night use and painted

with lettering and background colors which enhance clarity and visibility. Messages should be

concise, quickly identifiable, and easily understood. Color coding for unit terminals, airlines,

parking facilities, etc., is recommended, particularly for complex terminal areas.

TRANSIT SYSTEM LINKS AND AUTOMATED PEOPLE MOVER (APM) SYSTEMS

A. Public transit system service ground access to the airport, preferably the airport

terminal area, should be considered. High quality public transit service, as provided

by rail systems or express bus operations, can attract significant ridership and help

alleviate vehicular traffic congestion in the terminal area., Easy direct access to

terminal buildings, as well as baggage transport and security, are essential to

encourage substantial passenger use.

B. Automated people mover (APM) systems (automated, driverless vehicles operating

on fixed guideways along an exclusive right-of-way) have demonstrated the potential

to be an important element in the airport circulation system. They can serve to

provide convenient and efficient interface for public transit ground access to the

airport, as well as means of linking passenger terminals with each other and parking

and car rental facilities, hotels, and other airport activity centers. At airports with

landside constraints limiting expansion due to high levels of pollution, or a lack of

available construction sites, or a lack of adequate transit and highway capacity, APMs

can, in some cases, diminish these constraints by skillful arrangement of facilities and

reduction of airport vehicular traffic.