BASIC NOTION OF

DIGITAL CIRCUITS
6.1. Laws of Boolean Algebra
Boolean Algebra is the mathematics we use to analyse digital gates and circuits. We can
use these “Laws of Boolean” to both reduce and simplify a complex Boolean expression in an
attempt to reduce the number of logic gates required. Boolean Algebra is therefore a system of
mathematics based on logic that has its own set of rules or laws which are used to define and
reduce Boolean expressions.
The variables used in Boolean Algebra only have one of two possible values, a logic “0”
and a logic “1” but an expression can have an infinite number of variables all labelled individually
to represent inputs to the expression, For example, variables A, B, C etc., giving us a logical
expression of A + B = C, but each variable can ONLY be a 0 or a 1.
Examples of these individual laws of Boolean, rules and theorems for Boolean Algebra are given
in the following table.
Boolean Equivalent Boolean Algebra
Description
Expression Switching Circuit Law or Rule

A in parallel with
A+1=1 Annulment
closed = "CLOSED"

A in parallel with
A+0=A Identity
open = "A"

A in series with
A.1=A Identity
closed = "A"

A in series with
A.0=0 Annulment
open = "OPEN"

A in parallel with
A+A=A Idempotent
A = "A"

A in series with
A.A=A Idempotent
A = "A"

NOT NOT A
NOT A = A Double Negation
(double negative) = "A"

A in parallel with
A+A=1 Complement
NOT A = "CLOSED"
 A in series with
A.A=0 Complement
NOT A = "OPEN"

A in parallel with B =
A+B = B+A Commutative
B in parallel with A

A in series with B =
A.B = B.A Commutative
B in series with A

invert and replace OR with de Morgan’s

A+B = A.B
AND Theorem
invert and replace AND with de Morgan’s
A.B = A+B
OR Theorem

The basic Laws of Boolean Algebra that relate to the Commutative Law allowing a
change in position for addition and multiplication, the Associative Law allowing the removal of
brackets for addition and multiplication, as well as the Distributive Law allowing the factoring of
an expression, are the same as in ordinary algebra.
Each of the Boolean Laws above are given with just a single or two variables, but the
number of variables defined by a single law is not limited to this as there can be an infinite number
of variables as inputs to the expression. These Boolean laws detailed above can be used to prove
any given Boolean expression as well as for simplifying complicated digital circuits.
A brief description of the various Laws of Boolean are given below with A representing a variable
input.

6.2. Description of the Laws of Boolean Algebra

Annulment Law – A term AND with a “0” equals 0 or OR with a “1” will equal 1.
A . 0 = 0 A variable AND with 0 is always equal to 0.
A + 1 = 1 A variable OR with 1 is always equal to 1.
Identity Law – A term OR with a “0” or AND with a “1” will always equal that term.
A + 0 = A A variable OR with 0 is always equal to the variable.
A . 1 = A A variable AND with 1 is always equal to the variable.
Idempotent Law – An input that is AND or OR with itself is equal to that input.
A + A = A A variable OR with itself is always equal to the variable.
A . A = A A variable AND with itself is always equal to the variable.
Complement Law – A term AND with its complement equals “0” and a term OR with its
complement equals “1”.
A . A = 0 A variable AND with its complement is always equal to 0.
A + A = 1 A variable OR with its complement is always equal to 1.
 Commutative Law – The order of application of two separate terms is not important.
A . B = B . A The order in which two variables are AND makes no difference.
A + B = B + A The order in which two variables are OR makes no difference.
Double Negation Law – A term that is inverted twice is equal to the original term.
A =A A double complement of a variable is always equal to the variable.

De Morgan´s Theorem – There are two “de Morgan´s” rules or theorems,

(1) Two separate terms NOR together is the same as the two terms inverted (Complement) and
AND for example, A+B = A. B.
(2) Two separate terms NAND together is the same as the two terms inverted (Complement)
and OR for example, A.B = A +B.

6.3. Other algebraic Laws of Boolean not detailed above include:

Distributive Law – This law permits the multiplying or factoring out of an expression.

A(B + C) = A.B + A.C (OR Distributive Law)

A + (B.C) = (A + B).(A + C) (AND Distributive Law)

Absorptive Law – This law enables a reduction in a complicated expression to a simpler one
by absorbing like terms.

A + (A.B) = A (OR Absorption Law)

A(A + B) = A (AND Absorption Law)

Associative Law – This law allows the removal of brackets from an expression and regrouping
of the variables.

A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C = A + B + C (OR Associate Law)

A(B.C) = (A.B)C = A . B . C (AND Associate Law)

Example 1
Using the above laws, simplify the following expression: (A + B)(A + C)
Q= (A + B).(A + C)
A.A + A.C + A.B + B.C – Distributive law
A + A.C + A.B + B.C – Idempotent AND law (A.A = A)
A(1 + C) + A.B + B.C – Distributive law
A.1 + A.B + B.C – Identity OR law (1 + C = 1)
 A(1 + B) + B.C – Distributive law
A.1 + B.C – Identity OR law (1 + B = 1)
Q= A + (B.C) – Identity AND law (A.1 = A)

Then the expression: (A + B) (A + C) can be simplified to A + (B.C) as in the Distributive law.

Example 2
Using the above laws, simplify the following expression: C+(BC^)
C+(BC^) = C+(B^+C^)
= (C+C^)+B^
= 1=+B^
=1
Example 2
Using the above laws, simplify the following expression: (A^) (A+B) + (B+A) (A+B^)
(A^) (A+B) + (B+A) (A+B^) = (A^)A+(A^)B+(B+A)A+(B+A)(B^)
= (A^)B+(B+A)A+(B+A)(B^)
= (A^)B+BA+AA+B(B^)+A(B^)
= (A^)B+BA+A+A(B)
= (A^)B+A(B+1+B^)
= A^B+A
=A+B
6.4. Boolean Algebra Truth Tables
As well as a standard Boolean Expression, the input and output information of any Logic
Gate or circuit can be plotted into a standard table to give a visual representation of the switching
function of the system.
The table used to represent the Boolean expression of a logic gate function is commonly
called a Truth Table. A logic gate truth table shows each possible input combination to the gate
or circuit with the resultant output depending upon the combination of these input(s).
For example, consider a single 2-input logic circuit with input variables labelled as A and
B. There are “four” possible input combinations or 22 of “OFF” and “ON” for the two inputs.
However, when dealing with Boolean expressions and especially logic gate truth tables, we do not
general use “ON” or “OFF” but instead give them bit values which represent a logic level “1” or
a logic level “0” respectively.
Then the four possible combinations of A and B for a 2-input logic gate is given as:
 Input Combination 1. – “OFF” – “OFF” or ( 0, 0 )
 Input Combination 2. – “OFF” – “ON” or ( 0, 1 )
 Input Combination 3. – “ON” – “OFF” or ( 1, 0 )
 Input Combination 4. – “ON” – “ON” or ( 1, 1 )
 LOGIC GATE:
A logic gate is an elementary building block of a digital circuit. Most logic gates have two
inputs and one output. At any given moment, every terminal is in one of the two binary

Converting from Logic gate to a

Boolean Expression
Let’s begin with a semiconductor gate circuit in need
of simplification. The “A,” “B,” and “C” input
signals are assumed to be provided from switches,
sensors, or perhaps other gate circuits. Where these
signals originate is of no concern in the task of gate
reduction.

Our first step in simplification must be to write a

Boolean expression for this circuit. This task is
easily performed step by step if we start by writing
sub-expressions at the output of each gate,
corresponding to the respective input signals for
each gate. Remember that OR gates are equivalent to Boolean addition, while AND gates are
equivalent to Boolean multiplication. For example, I’ll write sub-expressions at the outputs of the
first three gates:

Then another sub-expression for

the next gate:

Finally, the output (“Q”)

is seen to be equal to the
expression AB + BC(B +
C):YR4w3sa
14.2 Converting from Logic gate to a Truth table
The table used to represent the Boolean expression of a logic gate function is commonly
called a Trutsh Table. A logic gate truth table shows each possible input combination to the
gate or circuit with the resultant output depending upon the combination of these input(s).

Example 1
Construct a Truth Table for the logical functions at points C, D and Q in the following
circuit and identify a single logic gate that can be used to replace the whole circuit.
First observations tell us that the circuit consists of a 2-input NAND gate, a 2-input EX-OR gate
and finally a 2-input EX-
NOR gate at the output.
As there are only 2
inputs to the circuit
labeled A and B, there
can only be 4 possible
combinations of the
input ( 22 ) and these are:
0-0, 0-1, 1-0 and finally
1-1. Plotting the logical
functions from each gate in Inputs Output
tabular form will give us the A B C D Q
following truth table for the
whole of th21e logic circuit 0 0 1 0 0
below. 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 1 1
From the truth table
1 1 0 0 1
above, column C represents the
output function +generated by the NAND gate, while column D represents the output function
from the Ex-OR gate. Both of these two output expressions then become the input condition for
the Ex-NOR gate at the output.

It can be seen from the truth table that an output at Q is present when any of the two inputs A or B
are at logic 1. The only truth table that satisfies this condition is that of an OR Gate. Therefore, the
whole of the above circuit can be replaced by just one single 2-input OR Gate.

Boolean Algebra Example 2

Find the Boolean algebra expression for the following system.

The system consists of an AND Gate, a

NOR Gate and finally an OR Gate. The
expression for the AND gate is A.B,
and the expression for the NOR gate is
A+B. Both these expressions are also
separate inputs to the OR gate which is defined as A+B. Thus the final output expression is given
as:

The output of the system is given as Q = (A.B) + (A+B), but the notation A+B is the same
as the De Morgan´s notation A.B, Then substituting A.B
into the output expression gives us a final output notation
of Q = (A.B)+(A.B), which is the Boolean notation for
an Exclusive-NOR Gate as seen in the previous section.

Then, the whole circuit above can be replaced by just one

single Exclusive-NOR Gate and indeed an Exclusive-
NOR Gate is made up of these individual gate functions.

Boolean Algebra Example 3

Find the Boolean algebra expression for the following system.
This system may look
more complicated than the Inputs Intermediates Output
other two to analyse but again, B A A.B A+B Q
the logic circuit just consists of
0 0 0 1 1
simple AND, OR and NOT
gates connected together. 0 1 0 0 0
As with the previous 1 0 0 0 0
Boolean examples, we can 1 1 1 0 1
simplify the circuit by writing
down the Boolean notation for each
logic gate function in turn in order to give
us a final expression for the output at Q.
The output from the 3- input
AND gate is only at logic “1” when
ALL the gates inputs are HIGH at logic
level “1” (A.B.C). The output from the
lower OR gate is only a “1” when one or
both inputs B or C are at logic level “0”. The output from the 2-input AND gate is a “1” when
input A is a “1” and inputs B or C are at “0”. Then the output at Q is only a “1” when inputs A.B.C
equal “1” or A is equal to “1” and
both inputs B or C equal “0”,
A.(B+C).
By using “de Morgan’s
theorem” inputs B and input C
cancel out as to produce an
output at Q they can be either at
logic “1” or at logic “0”. Then
this just leaves input A as the
only input needed to give an
output at Q as shown in the table
below.

Then we can see that the entire logic circuit above can be replaced by just one single input
labeled A thereby reducing a circuit of six individual logic gates to just one single piece of wire,
(or Buffer). This type of circuit analysis using Boolean Algebra can be very powerful and quickly
identify any unnecessary logic gates within a digital logic design thereby reducing the number of
gates required, the power consumption of the circuit and of course the cost.

Inputs Intermediates Output

C B A A.B.C B C B+C A.(B+C) Q
0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0
0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1
0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0
0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1
Example 4:
In this example two different types of problems are considered i.e.
- Drawing the truth table from a given logic circuit
- Designing a logic circuit from a given problem and testing it by also drawing a
truth table.
Produce a truth table from the following logic circuit
With this logic circuit we see that
there are 3 input and we have 23 (i.e. 8) possible Input Input Input Output Output
combination of 1s and 0s. A B C P Q
To find the values at point P and Q, it is necessary to
0 0 0 1 0
consider the truth tables for the NOR gate (P) and the
AND gate (Q) i.e. P=A NOR B 0 0 1 1 0
Q=B AND C
0 1 0 0 0

0 1 1 0 1

1 0 0 0 0

We thus get the truth table 1 0 1 0 0

To get the output X we have to note that there are 8
1 1 0 0 0
values from P and Q which form the inputs to the last
OR gate. Hence we get X = P OR Q which gives the 1 1 1 0 1
following truth table.
Input Input Output
P Q X

1 0 1

1 0 1

0 0 0

0 1 1

0 0 0

0 0 0

0 0 0

0 1 1
Example 5
Consider the following problem.
A system use 3 switches A, B, C and a combination of switches determines whether an
alarm, X, sounds:
If switch A or B are in the ON position and if switch C is in the OFF position then a signal
to sound an alarm, X is produced. (Remember that ON = 1 and OFF = 0. Also remember that we
write 0 as NOT 1.)
It is possible to convert this problem into a logic statement
So we get:

If (A = 1 OR B = 1) -- the first part is two inputs ( A and B) joined by an OR gate.

If (C = NOT 1)  the second part is one input (C) which is put through as NOT gate
Then X = 1  the out from the first part and the second part are joined by an AND gate
So we get the following logic circuit

This give the following truth table

Input Input Input Output

A B C X

0 0 0 0

0 0 1 0

0 1 0 1

0 1 1 0

1 0 0 1

1 0 1 0

1 1 0 1

1 1 1 0
CHAPTER SUMMARY
1. A truth table is a means for describing how a logic circuit's output depends on the logic levels
present at the circuit's inputs.
2. A logic gate is an elementary building block of a digital circuit.
3. There are seven basic logic gates: AND, OR, XOR, NOT, NAND, NOR, and XNOR.
4. The AND gate is an electronic circuit that gives a high output (1) only if all its inputs are
high.
5. The OR gate is an electronic circuit that gives a high output (1) if one or more of its inputs
are high.
6. The NOT gate is an electronic circuit that produces an inverted version of the input at its
output.
7. NAND gate is equal to an AND gate followed by a NOT gate. The outputs of all NAND gates
are high if any of the inputs are low.
8. NOR gate is equal to an OR gate followed by a NOT gate. The outputs of all NOR gates are
low if any of the inputs are high.
9. EXOR gate is a circuit which will give a high output if either, but not both, of its two inputs
are high.
10.EXNOR gate does the opposite to the EOR gate. It will give a low output if either, but not
both, of its two inputs are high.
11. The NAND and NOR gates are called universal functions since with either one the AND and
OR functions and NOT can be generated.