Chapter Content Page No

Set Mathematics
 Set Introduction 03
 Set Definition 04
1 05
 Properties of Sets
05
 Different types of Sets
09
 Set theory

Countable & Connected Sets

 Countable Sets 10
 Uncountable Sets 11
2  Theorem 12
 Connected Sets 16
 Types of Connected Sets 16
 Theorem 18

Bounded & Totally Bounded Sets

 Bounded Sets 21
 Totally Bounded Sets 22
3
 Examples 23
 Dense Sets 23
 Theorem 24

Complete & Compact Sets

 Complete Sets 27
 Theorem 27
4  Contraction Mapping 28
 Theorem 28
 Compact Sets 29
 Theorem 30

1
Chapter Content Page No
Application of sets

 Introduction 33
5
 History of set theory 34
 Application 34
 Conclusion 37
Reference 38

2
 SET MATHEMATICS

Chapter-1
Set Introduction

Mathematics is the study of numbers, shapes, patterns, and structures. It provides a

systematic framework for understanding quantities, relationships, and the logic behind
them. From counting and basic arithmetic to more advanced topics like calculus, algebra,
and geometry, mathematics plays a fundamental role in virtually every aspect of our lives.

As a discipline, mathematics is characterized by its precision, rigor, and universal

applicability. It serves as a language for expressing scientific laws, engineering principles,
economic theories, and much more. Moreover, mathematics is a creative endeavor, where
problem-solving and discovery are central to its practice.

Beyond its practical applications, mathematics is also pursued for its intrinsic beauty
and elegance. Mathematicians explore abstract concepts and construct logical arguments to
unveil new truths and deepen our understanding of the world.

In summary, mathematics is not only a powerful tool for solving problems and making
sense of the universe but also a source of intellectual challenge, creativity and wonder.

3
Set Definition

In mathematics, a set is defined as a collection of distinct, well-defined objects

forming a group. There can be any number of items, be it a collection of whole numbers,
months of a year, types of birds, and so on. Each item in the set is known as an element of
the set. We use curly brackets while writing a set.

Example:
Consider an example of a set.
A={1,3,5,7,9}.
It has five elements. It is a set of odd numbers less from 1 to 10

Theorem:
If A and B are subsets of X, then
i. (A B)ꞌ=Aꞌ∩Bꞌ ii. (A∩B)ꞌ=Aꞌ Bꞌ
Proof:

i. Let x (A B)ꞌ. Then x A Hence x is neither in A nor in B so that x

ꞌ and x Bꞌ
Hence x Aꞌ Bꞌ. Thus we have (A ꞌ) ⸦ Aꞌ Bꞌ.
Conversely, if y Aꞌ ꞌ, then y Aꞌ and y Bꞌ so that y A and y B. Thus y
A B so y B)ꞌ.
Hence we have Aꞌ Bꞌ ⸦ (A (A B)ꞌ. This proves (i).

(i) Can be proved in a similar way.

The following theorem gives the set theoretic identities for union and
intersection.

4
Properties of sets:

Property of Set Example

Commutative AUB=BUAA∩B=B∩A
Property
Associative Property (A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C) (A U B) U C = A U (B U C)
Distributive Property A U (B ∩ C) = (A U B) ∩ (A U C) A ∩ (B U C) = (A ∩ B) U (A
∩ C)
Identity Property AU∅=A A∩U=A

Different types of sets

 Empty set
A set that has no element is said to be as an Empty set. We can also say it as Null
set and Void set. The number of element in set A is represented as n(A). The empty set is
symbolized as Φ. Thus, n(Φ) = 0. The cardinality of an empty sets zero since it has no
element.

For example:
The set of all integers whose square is 7.

 Singleton set
A set that has 1 and only 1 element is said to be as Singleton set. We can also name
it as unit set. The cardinality of singleton is 1. If Z is a singleton, then we can express it as
Z = {x : x = Z}

5
For example:
1. A={2}
2. B={x:4<x<6 and x is an integer}

 Finite and Infinite set

A set that has predetermined number of elements or finite number of elements
are called Finite set. Like {11 ,12, 13, 14, 15, 16} is finite set whose cardinality is 16, since
it has 16 elements. Else, it is called as infinite set. It may be uncountable or countable. The
union of some infinite sets are infinite and the power set of any infinite set is infinite.

For example:
1. The set of days in a week.
2. The set of students in the class.
3. N={1,2,3,4,5…….} the set of natural numbers.

 Union of sets
Union of 2 or else most numbers of sets could be the set of all elements that belongs
to every element of all sets. In the union set of 2 sets, each element is written only once
even if they belong to both the sets. This is represented as„ ‟. If we have sets Y and
Z, then the union of these two is Y U Z and called as Y union Z.
Mathematically, we can denote it as
YUZ={x:x "role="presentation" id="MathJax-Element-1-Frame"> Yor
x "role="presentation" id="MathJax-Element-2-Frame"> Z} The union of two sets is
always commutative i.e. Y U Z = Z U Y.
For example:
Y = {1,2,3} Z = {1,4,5}
Y " role="presentation" id="MathJax-Element-3-Frame"> Z = {1,2,3,4,5}

6
  Intersection of sets
A set of elements that are common in both the sets. Intersection is similar to
grouping up the common elements. The symbol should be symbolized as „∩‟. If X and Y
are two sets, then the intersection is represented as X∩"role="presentation" id="MathJax-
Element-4-Frame">∩Y and called as X intersection Y and mathematically, we can write it
asA∩B={x:x A ∧x B}"role="presentation"id="MathJax-Element-5-
Frame">X ∩Y ={x :x X ∧x Y }

For example:
X = {1,2,3,4,5} Y = {2,3,7}
X∩" role="presentation" id="MathJax-Element-6-Frame">∩Y = {2,3}

 Difference of sets
The difference of set X to Y should be denoted as X - Y. That is, the set of element
that are in set X not in set Y is
X - Y = {x: x " role="presentation" id="MathJax-Element-7-Frame"> X and x Y} And,
Y - X is the set of all elements of the set B which are in B but not in A
i.e. Y - X = {x: x " role="presentation" id="MathJax-Element-8-Frame"> Y and x X}.

For example:
If A = {1,2,3,4,5} and B = {2,4,6,7,8}, then A - B = {1,3,5} and
B - A = {6,7,8}

7
  Subset of a set
In set theory, a set X is the subset of any set Y, if the set X is contained in set Y.
It means, all the elements of the set X also belong to the set Y. It is denoted as '⊆‟ or X⊆"
role="presentation" id="MathJax-Element-9-Frame">⊆Y.

For example:
X = {1,2,3,4,5} Y = {1,2,3,4,5,7,8}
Here, X is said to be the subset of Y.

 Disjoint sets
If two sets X and Y should not have common elements or if the intersection of any
2 sets X and Y is the empty set, then these sets are called disjoint sets i.e. X∩"
role="presentation" id="MathJax-Element-10-Frame">∩Y =ϕ"role="presentation"
id="MathJax-Element-11-Frame">ϕ . That means, when this condition n (X ∩ Y) = 0 is
true, then the sets are disjoint sets.

For example:
X = {1,2,3} Y = {4,5}
n (A ∩ B) = 0.
Therefore, these sets X and Y are disjoint sets.

 Equality of two sets

Two sets are called equal or identical to each other, if they contain the same
elements. When the sets X and Y is said to be equal, if X⊆Y and Y⊆ X, then we will write
as X = Y.

8
For example:
1. If X = {1,2,3} and Y = {1,2,3}, then X = Y.
2. Let P = {a, e, i, o, u} and Q = {a, e, i, o, u, v}, then P ≠ Q, since set Q has element v
as the additional element.

Set theory

The branch of mathematical logic that studies sets, which informally are collections
of objects. Although any type of object can be collected into a set, set theory is applied
most often to objects that are relevant to mathematics. The language of set theory can be
used in the definitions of nearly all mathematical objects. The modern study of set theory
was initiated by Georg Cantor and Richard Dedekind in the 1870s. After the discovery
of paradoxes in naive set theory, such as Russell's paradox, numerous axiom systems were
proposed in the early twentieth century, of which the Zermelo-Fraenkel axioms, with or
without the axiom of choice, are the best-known. Set theory is commonly employed as
a foundational system for mathematics, particularly in the form of Zermelo-Fraenkel set
theory with the axiom of choice. Beyond its foundational role, set theory is a branch
of mathematics in its own right, with an active research community. Contemporary
research into set theory includes a diverse collection of topics, ranging from the structure
of the real number line to the study of the consistency of large cardinals.

9
 Chapter-2
COUNTABLE AND CONNECTED SETS
Countable sets

A set A is said to be countable or denumerable if A is equivalent to the set of all

positive integers N.
Thus A is countable if there exists a one-to-one function f from N onto A. The
elements of A are them the images of the positive integers which we can write as
A={f(1),f(2),f(3),…..}
There are two main types of countable sets:
1. Finite sets:
These are sets with a finite number of elements. For example, the set of all planets
in the solar system or the set of all primary colors are finite sets.
2. Infinite countable sets:
These are sets with infinitely many elements, but those elements can still be listed
in a sequence. The classic example is the set of all natural numbers (1,2,3,4,….) which is
countably infinite. Other examples include the set of all integers, the set of all rational
numbers, and many others.
It‟s important to note that not all infinite sets are countable. For instance, the set of
real numbers (including irrational numbers) is uncountably, infinite, meaning its elements
cannot be put into a one-to-one correspondence with the natural numbers. This was
famously proven by Georg cantor in the 19th century.

10
Example:
An example of a countable set is the set of all integers, (positive, negative, and
zero). This set can be listed as follows:
{0,1,-1,2,-2,3,-3,4,-4,…..}
Even though this set has infinitely many elements, you can establish a one-to-one
correspondence between its elements and the natural numbers. For example, you can pair
the natural number n with the integer n if n is even, and with –n if n is odd. This
demonstrates that the set of integers is countably infinite.

Uncountable sets
A set which is not countable is called uncountable.
All the sets which we have considered in the previous section are countable sets. We
shall now give some examples of uncountable sets. We shall discuss in detail the cantor‟s
uncountable set.

Example:
Prove that the set {1,4,9,16,25,…..} is countable.
Proof:

Let A={1,4,9,16,25,…}. A is a set of perfect squares of{1,2,3,4,5,….}. Hence A can

be written as {12,22,32,42,…}. Define f : N→A as f(n)=n2.
This example shows that there are as many perfect squares among the positive
integers as there are positive integers.

11
Example:
Prove that the set Z of all integers is countable.
Proof:

If N is the set of natural numbers, then let (-N)={-1,-2,-3,-4,…}.

Hence we have Z=(-N) {0} N. Since –N is countable. Z is the union of countable sets.
Hence Z is countable.

Example:
Prove that any set containing an uncountable set is uncountable.
Proof:

Let B⸦A and B is uncountable. If A is not countable, let it be countable. Then B is a

subset of a countable set and so it is countable, contradicting the hypothesis that B is
uncountable. So A cannot be countable.

Theorem :
A subset of a countable set is countable.
Proof:
The set of all ordered pairs of natural numbers (the Cartesian product of two sets
of natural numbers,

N x N is countably infinite, as can be seen by following a path like the one in the
picture:

12
 The Cantor pairing function assigns one natural number to each pair of natural
numbers

The resulting mapping proceeds as follows:

0↔(0,0),1↔(1,0),2↔(0,1),3↔(2,0),4↔(1,1)……..
This mapping covers all such ordered pairs.

This form of triangular mapping recursively generalizes to n-tuples of natural

numbers, i.e., (a1,a2,a3,….an)

where ai and n are natural numbers, by repeatedly mapping the first two elements of
an n-tuple to a natural number. For example, (0,2,3)can be written as ((0,2),3) . Then
(0,2) maps to 5 so ((0,2),3) maps to (5,3), then (5,3) maps to 39. Since a different 2-tuple,
that is a pair such as (a,b), maps to a different natural number, a difference between two n-
tuples by a single element is enough to ensure the n-tuples being mapped to different
natural numbers. So, an injection from the set of n-tuples to the set of natural numbers N is
proved. For the set of n-tuples made by the Cartesian product of finitely many different
sets, each element in each tuple has the correspondence to a natural number, so every tuple
can be written in natural numbers then the same logic is applied to prove the theorem.

13
Theorem:
The Cartesian product of finitely many countable sets is countable.
Proof:

The set of all integers Z and the set of all rational numbers Q may intuitively seem
much bigger than N. But looks can be deceiving. If a pair is treated as
the numerator and denominator of a vulgar fraction (a fraction in the form of a/b where
a and b≠0 are integers), then for every positive fraction, we can come up with a distinct
natural number corresponding to it. This representation also includes the natural numbers,
since every natural number n is also a fraction n/1. So we can conclude that there are
exactly as many positive rational numbers as there are positive integers. This is also true
for all rational numbers, as can be seen below

Theorem :
Let S and T be sets.

1. If the function f:S→T is injective and T is countable then S is countable.

2. If the function g:S→T is surjective and S is countable then T is countable.

Proof :

These follow from the definitions of countable set as injective / surjective functions.

Cantor's theorem asserts that if A is a set and P(A) is its power set, i.e. the set of all
subsets of A, then there is no surjective function from A to P(A) . A proof is given in the
article Cantor's theorem. As an immediate consequence of this and the Basic Theorem
above we have:

14
Theorem:
The set of all rational numbers in [0,1] is countable.
Proof:

We know that the set of all rational numbers is countable. Since the set of all rational
[0,1] is an infinite subset of rational, by theorem 6 it follows that the set of rational in[0,1]
is countable.
We shall assume that every real number x can be written in decimal expansion.
X=b.a1 a2 a3…..
=b+ + +…….

Where a1 are integers such that 0 a1 a.

This expansion is unique except for cases such as x= which can expanded in two

different forms.
=0.5000…… and =4.999

Every number x (0,1) can be expanded

X=0.a1 a2 a3….
Conversely we assume that every decimal is of the form b.a 1,a2,a3,… is the decimal
expansion for same real number.

Proposition :
The set P(N) is not countable; i.e. it is uncountable.

 For an elaboration of this result see Cantor's diagonal argument.

 The set of real numbers is uncountable, and so is the set of all infinite sequences of
natural numbers.

15
Connected set

Definition:
A set in A in Rn is connected if it is not a subset of the disjoint union of two
open sets, both of which it intersects.

Alternative Definition:
A set X is called disconnected if there exists a continuous, surjective
function f: X→{0,1}, such a function is called a disconnection. If no such function
exists then we say X is connected.
Example:
The set [0,2] cannot be covered by two open, disjoint intervals; for example, the
open sets (-1,1) and (1,2) do not cover [0,2] because the point x=1 is not in their union.
Thus [0,2] is connected.
However, the set {0,2} can be covered by the union of
(-1,1) and (1,3), so {0,2} is not connected

Types of connected set

There are several types of connected sets in mathematics, each with its own properties and
characteristics. Here are some common types:
1. Path –connected sets:
A set A is path-connected if, for any two points x and y in A, there exists a
continuous function f : [0,1] → A such that f(0)=x and f(1)=y. In other words, any two
points in the set can be joined by a continuous path lying entirely within the set. Paths need
not be straight lines; they can curve and wind through the set.

16
 2. Simply connected sets:
A set A is simply connected if it is path-connected and every loop in A can be
continuously shrunk to a single point within A. Intuitively, this means that the set has
no holesʺ or ʺvoidsʺ within it, and any closed loop can be continuously deformed into a
single points without leaving the set.
3. Locally connected sets:
A set A is locally connected if, intuitively, it looks connected ʺnear each
pointsʺ. More formally, for every point x in A and for every open neighborhood U of x,
there exists a connected subset C of A such that x is contained in C and C is contained
in U. local connectedness allows us to understand the connectivity of a set on a small
scale around each point.
4. Connected manifolds:
In differential geometry, a connected manifold is a topological manifold that is
connected. Manifolds are spaces that locally resemble Euclidean space, and being
connected means that the manifold cannot be split into two disjoint open sets.
5. Arc-wise connected sets:
A set A is arc-wise connected if, for any two points x and y in A, there exists a
simple arc (a homomorphic image of a closed interval) in A with endpoints x and y. Arc-
wise connectedness is a weaker notion than path-connectedness because arcs need not be
continuous functions.

17
Theorem:
Let f be a continuous function from a metric space M1 into a metric space M2. If M1
(domain of f) is connected, then the range of f is also connected.
Proof:
Let A=f(M1) so that f:M1⇒A(i.e, f is onto A)
Suppose A is not connected then there exists a non empty proper subset B of A such
that B is both open and closed in A.
Since f is continuous this implies f-1(B) would be a non-empty proper subset of M,
which is both open and closed. This is a contradiction as M1 is connected.
Hence A is connected. This completes the proof.

Theorem:
If A1 and A2 are connected subsets of a metric space M and is A1∩A2≠ɸ, then
A1UA2 is also connected.
Proof :

Let Ψ be a continuous characteristic function on A1UA2. If xoϵ A1∩A2 then by a

theorem
Ψ(x)=Ψ(xo)(xϵA1) since A1 is connected and Ψ(x)=Ψ(xo)(xϵA2) since A1 is connected.
Hence Ψ is identically equal to Ψ(xo) and thus us a constant.
 By a theorem A1UA2 is connected.

18
Example:
Prove that it f is a non-constant real-valued continuous function on R1, then the
range of f is not countable.
Proof:

We know that continuous image of a connected space is connected

f(R1)=I⸦R1 is connected. Hence by a theorem (the subset A of R1 is connected if
whenever aϵA1bϵA with a<b then cϵA such that a<ϵ<b,cϵI.
Hence I is an interval in R1. Every interval in R1 is uncountable
i.e, the range of f is not countable.

Example:
Prove that the real interval [0,1] is not a connected subset of Rd.
Proof:

Rd is the real number R1 with discrete metric d:

Defined as d(x,y)=0 for x=y
=1 for x≠y
We know that
B[x,i]={x} in Rd and is open in Rd.
We also know that {x} is closed in Rd. Hence every singleton subset of[0,1] is both open
and closed and hence by theorem [0,1] is not connected in Rd.

19
Example:
Show that the set of rational numbers is not connected.
Proof:

Let r be an irrational number in R1.

Let A1={x:x is rational and x<r} and B1={x:x is rational and x<r}
hence we have
A1⸦(- ,r) and B1⸦(r, )
Also A1UB1=Q set of rational numbers.
̅1⸦[ and ̅1⸦[r,
̅1∩B1=ɸ, A1∩ ̅ 1=ɸ
⇒Q is not connected.

20
 Chapter-3
BOUNDED AND TOTALLY BOUNDED
Bounded sets

Let (M, ) be a metric space. A subset A of M is said to be bounded is there exists a

positive number L such that
(x,y) L (x,y A)
If A is bounded we define the diameter of A denoted by diamA as
diamA = (x,y)
If A is not bounded we write diamA=

NOTE:
1) A subset of R1 is bounded if and only if A is contained in some interval of
finite length.
2) The interval (0, ) is a bounded subset of Rd, since (x,y) 1 for any x,y Rd.
Indeed the diameter of any subset A of Rd is provided that A contains at
least two points.
3) For each K I let ek denote the sequence all of whose terms are equal to 0
except the Kth term which is 1.
Thus e4 for example is the sequence 0,0,0,1,0,0………

21
Totally bounded set

Let (M, ) be a metric space. The subset A of M is said to be totally bounded if given
ϵ>0 there exists a finite number of subsets A1,A2,……An of M such that diamAk<ϵ
(K=1,2,3,…..n) and such ⸦⋃ k.

NOTE:
If a set A is contained in the union of the sets A1,A2,……An...... say that the Ak cover
A.
Thus a subset A of M is totally bounded if and only if for every ϵ>0, A can be
covered by a finite number of subsets of M whose diameters are less than .

Theorem:
If the subset A of the metric space(M, ) is totally bounded then A is bounded.
Proof:

Let A be totally bounded then there exist non empty subsets A1,A2,…..An of M such
that diamAk<1 (K=1,2,3,….n) and A⸦⋃ k . For each K=1,2,…n let ak be any point in
Ak.
Let D= (a1,a2)+ (a2,a3)+……+ (an-1,an)
For any x,yϵA we have xϵAi, yϵAj for some i and j (Ak cover A)
We may assume that i j
Then (x,y) (x,ai)+[ (ai,ai+1)+……+ (aj-1,aj)]+ (aj,y)
Since diamAi<1 we obtain (x,a1)<1 and (aj,y)<1
Hence (x,y)<1+D+1=D+2(x,yϵA) which implies that A is bounded.

22
Example:
Any finite subset in a metric space is bounded.
Proof:

Since A has finite number of points, we have

d(A)=max {d(a,aꞌ) | a,aꞌ A}. is well-defined and so it is bounded.

Example:
Show that every finite subset of a metric space is totally bounded.
Proof:

Let E={x1,x2,x3,….xn} be a finite set of points in the metric space (X,d).

Given >0, consider the open spheres S(xk; ꞌ) for k=1,2,…. With .
Then E ⸦ ⋃ (xk ; ꞌ).
So E is totally bounded.

Dense sets:

Let A be a subset of the metric space M. A subset B of A is said ti be ϵ-dense in A

if for every xϵA there exists yϵB such that (x,y)<ϵ. That is, B is ϵ-dense in A if each point
of A is within distance ϵ from some point of B.

23
Theorem:
The subset A of the metric space (M, ) is totally bounded if and only if for every
ϵ>0. A contains a finite subset{x1,x2,……xn} which is ϵ-dence in A.
Proof:

Let ϵ>0 be given if A is totally bounded, then A=⋃ i,

Where diam Ai<ϵ. We may assume that Ai≠ɸ if aiϵAi (i=1,2,…n) then {a1,a2,….an} is ϵ-
dense in A.
(xϵA⇒xϵAi for some i⇒(x,ai)<ϵ)
Hence if A is totally bounded, then A has a finite ϵ-dense subset.
Conversely, if {x1,x2,…..xn} is dense in A then xϵA⇒d(x,xi)< for some i⇒xϵB(xi, )
for some i.
 B(xi, ……B(xn, ) form covering of A by sets of diameter<ϵ. Hence A is totally

bounded we shall prove the most important property of totally bounded sets.

Corollary:
Any bounded subset of R is totally bounded in the usual metric.
Proof:

Let A be a bounded subset of R. Let (xn) be an infinite sequence of A. Since A is

bounded, (xn) is a bouned sequence because any subset of a bounded set is bounded. Since
(xn) is bounded , it contains a convergent subsequence (xn). Since any convergent sequence
is a Cauchy sequence, (xn) is a Cauchy sequence. So every sequence (xn) in A have is
Cauchy subsequence. Hence A is totally bounded.

Note1: Since a totally bounded set in any metric space is bounded, the above corollary
shows that boundedness and total boundedness are equivalent in R.

24
Note2: The above arguments can be extended to Rn and in particular to R2 with the
metrics already given.

Theorem:
Every Cauchy sequence in a metric space (X,d) is bounded. That is the different
terms of a Cauchy sequence form a bounded set.
Proof:

If (xn) is a Cauchy sequence in a metric space (X,d) taking =1, there exists no such
that
d(xn, ) 1 for all n no.
For other values of n from 1 to no, let us take
M=

Hence from the above step, we have d(xn, ) M+1 for all n. So for all m and n, we
have

d(xn,xm) d(xn, )+d(xm, ) 2(M+1).

Hence the d(Xn,xm)<2(M+1)< ,

Therefore, every Cauchy sequence in a metric space is bounded.

25
Theorem:
If the subset A of the metric space (X,d) is totally bounded, them A is bounded.
Proof:

To prove the theorem, we have to show that for any x,y A,d(x,y) is finite. Choosing
=1 , there exists non-empty subsets A1,A2,…..An of X such that each Ak has diameter less
than 1 and A ⸦ ⋃ k.

Choose a point ak arbitrarily in Ak for k=1,2,3,…n. Let

M=d(a1,a2)+d(a2,a3)….+d(an+1,an). since Ak‟s cover A,x,y A implies x Ai and y Aj for
some i and j. Without loss of generality, let us assume i<j.
Now d(x,y) d(x,ai)+d(ai,ai+1)+…..+d(aj-1,aj)+d(aj,y).
Since d(Ai)<1, d(x,ai)<1 and d(aj,y)<1.
Hence, we have from the above inequalities,
d(x,y) 1+M+1=M+2 for all x,y A.
This proves that A is bounded.

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 Chapter-4
Complete and Compact set
Complete set
Let (X,d) be a metric space and (xn) be a sequence in X. We say that (xn) is a
Cauchy sequence if for every ε > 0, there exists N N such that d(xn,xm) < ε ∀n,m ≥ N
A metric space X is said to be a complete metric space if every Cauchy
sequence in X converges to some point in X.

Example:
Any set X with the discrete metric forms a complete metric space.
Proof:

For let (xn) be a Cauchy sequence in XD. Then, d(xm,xn)=0 if xm,=xn and
d(xn,xm)=1 if xm≠xn. Now taking = in the definition of Cauchy sequence, we have

d(xn,xm)< for all m,n no and hence by the definition of the discrete metric, we get

d(xn, )=0 for such n. From this we see that xn→ as n→ . Thus every Cauchy
sequence converges to a point of X which is actually a member of the sequence. So X with
the discrete metric is complete.

Theorem:
If (X,d) is a complete metric space and A is a closed subset of X, then (A,d) is
complete. That is a closed subset of a complete metric space is complete.
Proof:

Let (xn be a Cauchy sequence of points in (A,d). We have to show that (xn)
converges to a point in A. Since A⸦X, (xn) is a Cauchy sequence in X.

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 Thus, since X is complete, (xn) must converge to a point x in X. So there is a
sequence (xn) in A converging to x in X.
Hence x is a limit of A. Since A is closed, we get x A. So every Cauchy sequence
in A converges to a point x of A.
Hence , A is complete.

Contraction mapping:
Let (X,d) be a metric space. A mapping T:X→X is called a contraction on X, if
there exists a real number , independent of x and y in X, with
0 1 such that
d(Tx,Ty) d(x,y) for all x,y in X.
The mapping T is contraction mapping in the sense that the distance between the
images of any two points is less than the distance between their pre-images.

Theorem:
If T is a contraction on X, then T is continuous on X.
Proof:

We show that T is continuous at each point xo X. let >0.

Hence if d(x,xo) < , then from the definition of contraction,

d(Tx, )< < .

This proves that T is continuous on X.

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Example:

If T:X→X is defined as Tx=x2 where X=[0, ], then T is a contraction on [0, ]

d(Tx,Ty)= | x2-y2| = |x-y| |x+y|

Since x,y [0, ], we get d(Tx,Ty) < d(x,y)

Choosing = , T is a contration on [0, ]

Compact set
The metric space (X,d) is said to be compact if (X,d) is both complete and totally
bounded.

Example:
The metric space [0,1] with absolute value metric is bounded and hence it is totally
bounded. Since it is a closed subspace of the complete space R, it is complete. So [0,1] is
compact.

Example:
The metric space (0,1) with the absolute value metric is totally bounded but not
complete. Hence, it is not compact.

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Theorem:
Let A be a subset of a metric space (X,d). If (A,d) is compact, then is a closed subset
of (X,d).
Proof:

Let x X be any limit point of A. Then there is a sequence (xn) in A converging to

x. We have to show that x A. Since (xn) is a convergent sequence in A, it is a Cauchy
sequence in A.
Since A is compact, it is complete. So the sequence (x n) converges to a point in
A and this point must be x.
Hence, the point x belongs to A. thus A contains all its limit points. So A is closed.
This proves the theorem

Corollary:
If A is a closed subset of a compact metric space (X,d) then the metric space (A,d)
is compact.
Proof:

To prove A is compact we shall show that any sequence (xn) in A has a convergent
subsequence converging to a points of A.
Any sequence (xn) of points of A is a sequence of points of X also. Since X is
compact, (xn) has a convergent subsequence convering to a point x in X.
Then x is a limit point of A. since A is closed, x A. thus any sequence of points in A
has a subsequence converging to a point in A. Hence, by the theorem A is compact.

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Corollary:
Let f be a continuous function from the compact metric space X into a metric space Y.
Then the image f(X) is a bounded and closed subset of Y.
Proof:

f(X) is compact by the theorem. Since a compact subset of a metric space is closed,
f(X) is closed.
Since f(X) is compact, it is totally bounded. Since a totally bounded set is bounded,
f(X) is bounded. So f(X) is a closed and bounded subset of Y.

Theorem:
If f is a continuous real-valued function on a compact metric space X, then f is
bounded and attains its bounds. That is the range of f is bounded and f attains its
maximum value and a minimum at some points of X.
Proof:

By the f(X) is a compact subset of R. So f(X) is a closed and bounded subset of R.

This implies that f is a bounded function.
Since f(X) is closed, the lub M and glb m of f(X) must belong to f(X).
So for some points x and y of X, f(x)=M and f(y)=m.
Therefore, f attains its maximum M at x X and attains its minimum m at y X.

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Theorem:
If f is a one-to-one continuous function from the compact metric space X onto a
metric space y, them f-1 is continuous on y and hence f is a homeomorphism of X onto Y.
Proof:

Since f:X→Y is one-to-one and onto, its inverse g=f-1 is well-defined from Y onto
X. Hence, to show that f-1 is continuous , we have to show that for any closed set F in X, g -
1
(F)=f(F) is closed in Y.
If F is closed in X, then F is itself compact in X by the theorem. Since f is
continuous on X onto Y, f(F) is compact in Y.
But by f(F) is closed in Y.
Hence ,f-1 is continuous from Y onto X. therefore, f is a homomorphism of X onto
Y.

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 Chapter-5
APPLICATIONS OF SETS
Abstract

The objective of this paper is comprehensive study related to Set and its applications.
The generality of set theory leads to few direct practical applications. Instead, precisely
because of its generality, portions of the theory are used in developing the algebra of
groups, rings, and fields, as well as, in developing a logical basis for calculus, geometry,
and topology. These branches of mathematics are all applied extensively in the fields of
physics, chemistry, biology, and electrical and computer engineering. Developed at the end
of the 19th century, set theory is now a ubiquitous part of mathematics, and can be used as
a foundation from which nearly all of mathematics can be derived.
Index Terms- algebra; geometry; calculus; topology.

I. INTRODUCTION

While studying any subject or topic, the first question arises in a student mind that
why we are studying this topic? Is it applicable or relevant in our real life or daily life
situations also? Yes, “SET” theory is applicable in our real life situation also. As we know
that “Set is a collection of distinct objects of same type or class of objects”. The Objects of
a set are called element or members of the set. Objects can be numbers, alphabets etc.
E.g., A = { 1,2,3,4,5},
here “A” is a set of numbers containing elements (1,2,3,4 and 5). While talking
about anything to make it short and prescribed we human being often speaks collection of
things as a single entity life Indians, Solar system, Birds, Animals etc. We often classify
objects, people and ideas according o some common properties. This makes it easier to talk
things in general without repeating individual examples again and again.

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 II. HISTORY OF SET THEORY

Before starting with the applications of set theory, it is very important to know
about its history. For knowing about application of any, topic, history of that topic is as
much important as the knowledge of the boundaries of a farm to be cultivated. The History
of set theory is little bit different from the of most other areas of mathematics. For most
areas along process can usually e traces in which ideas evolve until an ultimate flash of
inspiration, often by a number of mathematicians almost simultaneously, produces a
discovery of major importance. Set Theory is the creation of only e person named “Georg
Cantor”. It was with Cantor‟s work however that set theory came to be put on a proper
mathematical basis. Cantor‟s early work was in number theory and he published a no. of
articles on this topic between 1867 and 1871. These, although of high quality, give no
indication that they were written by a man about to change the whole course of
mathematics. The modern study of set theory was initiated by Georg Cantor and Richard
Dedekind in the 1870s.

III. APPLICATIONS

Set theory is applicable not only in one field or area. Because of its very general or
abstract nature, set theory has many applications in other branches of mathematics e.g.
Discrete structure, Data structure etc. In the branch called analysis of which differential
and integral calculus are important parts, an understanding of limit points and what is
meant by continuity of a function are based on set theory. The algebraic treatment of set
operations leads to boolean algebra, in which the operations of intersection, union and
difference are interpreted as corresponding to the logical operations “and”, “or” and “not”
respectively. Boolean algebra is used extensively in the design of digital electronic

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circuitry, such as that found in calculators and personal computers. Set theory provides the
basis of topology, the study of sets together with the properties of various collections of
subsets.

A. Real Life Applications

It is very interesting for you to know that if you are a non-mathematician and you
are reading up on set theory, then also you can understand its applications very well and
not only its applications, you can easily understand the idea or concept behind the creation
of set theory by taking real life examples. Set theory starts very simple; it only examines
one thing i.e. whether an object belongs, or does not belong to a set of objects whish has
been described in some non-ambiguous way. Now coming back to real life examples of
set, we have seen that in kitchen, Utensils are arranged in such a manner that plates are
kept separately from the spoons. Another example is when we visit mobile showrooms; we
observe that smart phones like Galaxy duos, Lumia etc. Are separated from the simple
mobiles. So there can be infinite examples of set in our day to day life.

B. Applicable in Other field

Nowadays even computer scientists describe their basic concept in the language
of set theory. This is useful because when you specify an object set theoretically, there is
no question what you are talking about you can unambiguously answer any question you
might have about. Without precise definitions it is very difficult to do any serious
mathematics. Set theory is seen as the foundation from which virtually all of mathematics
can be derived. For examples, structures in abstract algebra, such as groups, fields and
rings are sets closed under one or more operations. Set theory is also a promising
foundation system for much of mathematics. Since the publications of the first volume of

35
Principia Mathematics, it has been claimed that most or even all mathematical theorems
can be derived using an aptly designed set of axioms for set theory, augmented with many
definitions, using first or second order logic. For e.g. properties of the natural and real
umbers can derived within set theory, as each number system can be identified with a set of
equivalence classes under a suitable equivalence relation whose field is some infinite set.

C. Practical Applications of Set Theory

Not only in the fields of Data Structure, Topology, Mathematics etc, Set theories
are relevant to real life situations also. The obvious relevance has to do with our natural
ability of abstraction. We often speak of collection of things as a single entity, “the Detroit
Lions”, “the House of representatives”, the army, the Rotary club, the Solar system. That is
we often classify objects/people/ideas according to common shared properties this make it
easier to talk about things “in general” without having to repeat individual instances over
and over. But the other important relevance has to do with the fact that set membership
also models a certain kind of way of thinking, that of logic dependence, to say “this implies
that” is to say the set of the things for which “this” is true, is smaller (or contained in) the
set of things for which “that” is true. Only because of its applications, set theory exists. A
major reason for set theory is that it makes the terminology of other forms of mathematics
easier aside from that of course everyone “uses” set theory every-day, even if they don‟t
know it or have never learned set theory. Humans can‟t help but categorize things and put
them into „Sets‟ – that‟s how we thing and that‟s what set theory is about.

36
CONCLUSION

From formulating logical foundation for geometry, calculus and topology to

creating algebra revolving around field, rings and groups, applications of set theory are
most commonly utilized in science and mathematics fields like biology, chemistry and
physics as well as in computer and electrical engineering. So basically for gaining
knowledge about any area or field of Discrete structure and mathematics, data structure,
topology etc. it is very important to know about set theory because the concept of set
theory cannot be neglected.

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Reference:
 The set theory was initiated ⇒ 1870 by George cantor and Richard Dedekind.
 Father of set ⇒ George cantor
 Naive set theory [1960] ⇒ Paul R. Halmos
 Axioms of set theory [1908] ⇒ Zermelo
Next edition [1922] ⇒ Fraenkel and skolem
Full version [1930] ⇒ Zermelo

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