GENERAL EMBRYOLOGY

ANA 231
Organogenesis

Auza, M I (BSc, MSc)

Department of Human Anatomy

Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences
Bingham University, Karu
 WISDOM QUOTE
“You don’t use
excitement to
pass exams, you use
facts.”
 Embryonic period or period of
Organogenesis
• The embryonic period or period of organogenesis, occurs
from the third to the eighth weeks of development and is the
time when each of the three germ layers, ectoderm,
mesoderm, and endoderm, gives rise to a number of specific
tissues and organs.
• All major external and internal structures are established during
the fourth to eighth weeks.
• By the end of the embryonic period, the main organ systems
have been established, rendering the major features of the
external body form recognizable by the end of the second
month.
 Embryonic period or period of
Organogenesis
• By the end of this period, the main organ systems have begun to
develop; however, the function of most of them is minimal except for
the cardiovascular system.
• As the tissues and organs form, the shape of the embryo changes,
and by the eighth week, it has a distinctly human appearance.
• Because the tissues and organs are differentiating rapidly during the
fourth to eighth weeks, exposure of embryos to teratogens during
this period may cause major congenital anomalies.
• Teratogens are agents such as drugs and viruses that produce or
increase the incidence of congenital anomalies
 Phases Of Embryonic Development
• Human development may be divided into three phases, which to some
extent are interrelated:
• The first phase is growth, which involves cell division and the elaboration
of cell products.
• The second phase is morphogenesis (development of shape, size, or
other features of a particular organ or part or the whole of the body).
• Morphogenesis is an elaborate process during which many complex
interactions occur in an orderly sequence.
• The movement of cells allows them to interact with each other during the
formation of tissues and organs.
• The third phase is differentiation (maturation of physiologic processes).
Completion of differentiation results in the formation of tissues and organs
that are capable of performing specialized functions.
 Folding Of The Embryo
• The folding of an embryo is a significant event in establishment of the primitive
form of the human body.
• As a result of folding, the flat trilaminar embryonic disc becomes somewhat
cylindrical embryo.
• The folding occurs in both median and horizontal planes due to rapid growth of
the embryo.
• Folding occurs in both the median and horizontal planes and results from rapid
growth of the embryo.
• The growth rate at the sides of the embryonic disc fails to keep pace with the rate
of growth in the long axis as the embryo increases rapidly in length.
• Folding at the cranial and caudal ends and sides of the embryo occurs
simultaneously.
• Concurrently, there is relative constriction at the junction of the embryo and
umbilical vesicle (yolk sac).
Folding Of The Embryo In The Median
Plane
• Folding of the ends of the embryo ventrally
produces head and tail folds that result in
the cranial and caudal regions moving
ventrally as the embryo elongates cranially
and caudally.
Folding Of The Embryo In The Median
Plane
• The folding of embryo in the
median plane occurs as follows:
• There is a progressive increase
in the length of embryo
(embryonic disc), but its head
and tail ends remain relatively
close together.
• Consequently, the embryonic
disc bends producing a
convexity dorsally and bulges
upward into the amniotic cavity.
 Folding Of The Embryo In The Median
Plane
• With further increase in the length
of embryonic disc, the head and
tail ends also get folded on itself to
form head fold and tail fold,
respectively.
• As a result of formation of head
and tail folds, the head and tail
ends of embryo move ventrally.
• Due to the formation of head and
tail folds, the part of yolk sac
becomes enclosed within the
embryo to form a long tubular
structure called primitive gut.
• The primitive gut forms most of the
gastrointestinal tract (GIT).
 Folding Of The Embryo In The Median
Plane
• The primitive gut is divisible into
three parts: foregut, midgut, and
hindgut.
• The midgut is in wide
communication with the yolk sac
through a wide channel—the
primordium of vitellointestinal
duct (yolk stalk).
• A small diverticulum arises from
the caudal part of the yolk sac and
grows into the connecting stalk
attached to the caudal end of the
embryo called allantois (allantoic
diverticulum).
 Folding of Embryo in the Horizontal
Plane
• The folding of sides of the embryo
forms right and left lateral folds.
• The lateral folds move medially and
fuse to each other to form the anterior
abdominal wall.
• However, in the center of the anterior
abdominal wall a somewhat circular
aperture remains, which represents the
future umbilicus.
• With the formation of lateral folds in
embryo, communication between
midgut and yolk sac narrows to form
the vitellointestinal duct
(omphaloenteric duct).
 Folding of Embryo in the Horizontal
Plane
• As the embryo folds on itself, the
amniotic cavity expands
enormously and completely
surrounds the embryo.
• Now the embryo freely floats in
the amniotic fluid within amniotic
cavity, which serves as a
swimming pool for the embryo.
• Due to enormous expansion of
amniotic cavity, the
extraembryonic coelom gets
almost completely obliterated and
the amnion forms the covering of
the umbilical cord.
 Effects of Folding of Embryo
• These are as follows:
1. Due to the formation of folds
on all sides, the flat embryonic
disc becomes cylindrical
leaving an ring.
2. The ectoderm forms the
outer covering of the embryo.
3. The embryo becomes
completely surrounded by the
amniotic cavity.
Embryonic disc before folding
 Effects of Folding of Embryo
4. The part of yolk sac gets
incorporated in the embryo to form the
primitive gut.
 Effects of Folding of Embryo
5. The cranial end of primitive
gut is now separated from
stomodeum by
buccopharyngeal membrane,
and the caudal end of primitive
gut is separated from
proctodeum by the cloacal
membrane.
Effects of Folding of Embryo

6. The connected stalk (future umbilical

cord) now becomes attached to the
ventral aspect of embryo around the
umbilical opening.
 Effects of Folding of Embryo
7. The allantois now gets
connected to the terminal part of
the hindgut.
8. The head containing brain now
forms the cranial most part of the
embryo.
9. The septum transversum and
pericardial cavity now lie on the
ventral aspect of the cranial end
of the embryo, with heart tube
lying dorsal to the pericardial
cavity.
 Effects of Folding of Embryo
10. The septum transversum now lies
caudal to the primitive heart tube and
pericardial cavity.
11. A depression is formed between
head bulge and pericardial bulge.
• It is called stomodeum and is
separated from the cranial end of
foregut by the buccopharyngeal
membrane.
12. Two halves of the peritoneal cavity
now fuse to form a single peritoneal
cavity. Embryo after folding (lateral view)
 Head Fold
• By the beginning of the fourth week, the neural folds in the cranial
region have thickened to form the primordium of the brain.
• Initially, the developing brain projects dorsally into the amniotic
cavity.
• Later, the developing forebrain grows cranially beyond the
oropharyngeal membrane and overhangs the developing heart.
• Concomitantly, the septum transversum (transverse septum),
primordial heart, pericardial coelom, and oropharyngeal membrane
move onto the ventral surface of the embryo.
• During folding, part of the endoderm of the umbilical vesicle is
incorporated into the embryo as the foregut (primordium of pharynx,
esophagus)
 Head Fold
• The foregut lies between the brain and heart, and the
oropharyngeal membrane separates the foregut from the
stomodeum.
• After folding, the septum transversum lies caudal to the heart where
it subsequently develops into the central tendon of the diaphragm.
• The head fold also affects the arrangement of the embryonic coelom
(primordium of body cavities).
• Before folding, the coelom consists of a flattened, horseshoe-shaped
cavity.
• After folding, the pericardial coelom lies ventral to the heart and
cranial to the septum transversum.
• At this stage, the intraembryonic coelom communicates widely on
each side with the extraembryonic coelom.
 Tail Fold
• Folding of the caudal end of the embryo results primarily from growth of
the distal part of the neural tube-the primordium of the spinal cord.
• As the embryo grows, the caudal eminence (tail region) projects over the
cloacal membrane (future site of anus).
• During folding, part of the endodermal germ layer is incorporated into the
embryo as the hindgut (primordium of descending colon).
• The terminal part of the hindgut soon dilates slightly to form the cloaca
(primordium of urinary bladder and rectum.
• Before folding, the primitive streak lies cranial to the cloacal membrane;
after folding, it lies caudal to it.
• The connecting stalk (primordium of umbilical cord) is now attached to
the ventral surface of the embryo, and the allantois-a diverticulum of the
umbilical vesicle-is partially incorporated into the embryo.
 Germ Layer Derivatives
• The three germ layers (ectoderm, mesoderm, and
endoderm) formed during gastrulation give rise to the
primordia of all the tissues and organs.
• The specificity of the germ layers, however, is not rigidly
fixed.
• The cells of each germ layer divide, migrate, aggregate,
and differentiate in rather precise patterns as they form
the various organ systems.
• The main germ layer derivatives are as follows:
CELL LAYER STRUCTURES DERIVED
Gives rise to;
• Epidermis and its appendages (hair and nail)
Embryonic Ectoderm • Central and peripheral nervous systems,
• Mammary gland, subcutaneous gland and Pituitary gland
• Nose, Eye, and Inner ear, and,
• Neural crest cells, to many connective tissues of the head
Give rise to
• Epithelial linings of the respiratory and alimentary (digestive) tracts
• Epithelial linings of the glands opening into the gastrointestinal tract
Embryonic Endoderm • Epithelial lining of the urinary bladder and most of the urethra
• Epithelial lining of the tympanic cavity, tympanic antrum, and
pharyngotympanic (auditory) tube
• Liver, Pancreas, thymus, Thyroid and parathyroid glands
Gives rise to all
• Skeletal muscles, cortex of the cerebral glands, spleen, Heart, kidneys, ovaries,
testes, Blood cells and the lining of blood vessels, Striated and Visceral smooth
Embryonic Mesoderm muscular coats, Cardiovascular system.
• Serosal linings of all body cavities (Pericardial cavity, pleural and peritoneal
cavity)
• Ducts and organs of the reproductive and excretory systems
• In the trunk, it is the source of all connective tissues, including cartilage, bones,
tendons, ligaments, dermis, and stroma of internal organs.
 Derivatives of the Ectodermal Germ
Layer
• At the beginning of the third week of
development, the ectodermal germ
layer has the shape of a disc that is
broader in the cephalic than the
caudal region
• Appearance of the notochord and
prechordal mesoderm induces the
overlying ectoderm to thicken and
form the neural plate
• Cells of the plate make up the
neuroectoderm and their induction
represents the initial event in the
process of neurulation (the process
whereby the neural plate forms
neural tube which becomes the
precursor of brain and spinal cord
 Derivatives of the Ectodermal Germ
Layer
In general terms, the ectodermal germ layer gives rise to organs and
structures that maintain contact with the outside world:
• The central nervous system
• The peripheral nervous system
• The sensory epithelium of the ear, nose, and eye
• The epidermis, including the hair and nails
In addition, it gives rise to the following:
• The subcutaneous glands
• The mammary glands
• The pituitary gland
• Enamel of the teeth
 Germ Layer Derivatives: Neural crest
cells
• Derived from neuroectoderm, give rise to the cells of the
• Spinal Nerves
• Cranial ganglia (cranial nerves V, VII, IX, and X), and Autonomic ganglia, Glial
cells
• Ensheathing cells of the peripheral nervous system;
• Pigment cells of the dermis (melanocytes)
• Muscle, Connective tissues, and Bone of pharyngeal arch origin;
• Meninges (coverings) of the brain and spinal cord.
• Sensory ganglia, Sympathetic and enteric neurons, Schwan cells
• Adrenal medulla
• Craniofacial skeleton
Derivatives of the Mesodermal Germ
Layer