xx ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

University of Louisiana; Mark McKnight, University of North INTRODUCTION

1
Texas; Sanna Pederson, University of Oklahoma; Mark Sam-
ples, Central Washington University; Jeffrey Snedeker,_Cen-
tral Washington University; Scott Warfield, Umvers1ty of
Central Florida; Bret Woods, Troy University.
Finally, we wish to thank our students for teaching us so
much about the challenges of writing in music courses and for
kindly allowing us to include examples from their work in this
book.

Performing musicians are not simply translators of a composer's

instructions but interpreters of music who make critical deci~
Lynne Rogers, Karen M. Bottge, and Sara sions with every beat. In effect, they communicate ideas about
music through music. Engaged listeners-sitting tense with ex-
Haefeli, Writing in Music: A Brief Guide, pectation, swaying to a groove, or triumphantly pumping a
Brief Guides to Writing in the Disciplines fist-often convey their perceptions through physical re-
sponses. In this book, we offer another powerful way to com-
(Oxford, New York: Oxford University municate ideas about music: through words, by writing prose.
Press, 2021), 1–8. Writing about music may not feel as natural as do the other
musical activities in which you participate. Certainly, 'Writing
about music carries its own challenges, including grappling with
specialized terminology and prose conventions. Perhaps most
difficult for budding writers is finding ways to present their per-
ceptions about musical works, which can engage us so powerfully
that it seems nearly impossible to explain what about them mat-
ters to us. Yet writing effectivelyabout music is not only possible;
it is an exciting, fulfilling activity that spurs creative thinking.
In this book we offer both general instruction on writing
about music and more specific instruction on writing in the disw
ciplines of music history and music theory. Furthermore, we pro-
vide guidance on research: how we explore music bycreating and
addressing questions about it. As you will see, writing and re-
search are interdependent activities; each inspires the other.
2 INTRODUCTION Musicians as Researchers 3

Genres of Writing in Music instead one that curious music scholars actively seek because it
"arises when we do not understand something about the world
No matter your specialization in music, writing is a critical skill. as well as we would like." 1
Performing musicians, composers, and conductors often write For music historians) a research problem or research ques-
program notes, biographies, and press releases, and to help build tion is likely to focus on how musical practices and institu-
audiences, they often blog about their activities. Music educators tions are shaped by their location in time and place. As
write pedagogical materials, including textbooks, reports to ad- musicologist Leo Treitler asserts, any work of art should be
ministrative bodies, and letters of recommendation. Writing is viewed not as "a fixed and passive object of study," 2 but as "a
vital to scholarship, which is practiced by music historians, music meaningful item within a wider context of practicesJ conven-
theorists, ethnomusicologists, and other researchers in music who tionsJ assumptions, transmissionsJ [and] receptions-in
write reviews, conference proposals and lectures, and articles and shortJ a musical culture.'' 3 Often, questions arise regarding
books. Moreover, almost all musicians write grant applications. how music exists within this rich context, and it is the curious
We offerinstruction informal genresfor specialistaudiencesand researcher's job to investigate these questions, often by en-
less formal genres for broader, nonspecialist audiences. Figure 1.1 gaging with published scholarship. We typically refer to the
shows the range of genres discussed in this guide and indicates the body of published writings that address a specific research
kind ofargument (the author's chain ofreasoning), evidence, and problem as a "scholarly conversation.''
prose style expected of each genre. Because formal genres are the Treider suggests that "history is a telling of the past in the
most commonly assigned in academic music courses and the most light of present sensibilities." 4 To engage in historical research,
difficult to execute, much of this guide is devoted to them. we must be aware of and responsive to many "presents," from
the moment of music's creation to our own cultural setting and
Genre Expectations
value systems through which we now engage with the past.
Historical or analytical ---------+ Fonnal prose; uses technical tenns; arguments,
research paper '-"~PP_"_te_d_by_,_vid_,_"'-'
-------~
Even the most popular of our historical artworks will continue
to yield new insights as "present sensibilities" change. As an
AbStTact --.. Formal prose; uSes technical terms; no argument
emerging expertJ your distinctive perspective stems from your
Annotated bibliography _____..'-""-'"-''_'d--------~-~
particular time and place in history.
Either formal or lessfonnai prose; arguments refer
Program notes ---+ to evidence or are supported by persOfl(l{opinion or For musictheorists)a research problem or research question is
respon$e
likely to focus on the sounds of musical works in relation to the
Concert and media reviews Less formal prose; few if any /echnieal terms; baied musical systems and ideas that underlie or oppose them. Like
onpersonal opinion or response; no argument or
evidence required
music historians, professional music theorists produce scholarly
Interview
writings on their research. However, professional writing in
FIGURE 1.1. Genres of Writing in Music music theory tends to require knowledge that is unlikely to be
accessible to most undergraduate students and even many mas-
Musicians as Researchers ter's degree students. ThusJ research projects assigned in music
At the heart of research in music is the researchproblem, or-if theory courses at those levels generally do not expect familiarity
phrased as an inquiry-the researchquestion.A research prob- with scholarship in music theory. Instead, such projects require
lem is not the kind of problem that should be avoided but primarily music analysis, the detailed examination of the
4 INTRODUCTION
The ResearchProcessin Music 5

elements of a work and their relationships to each other and to

the norms of that work's genre and compositional environment.
You might wonder ifresearchis what you are already doing in
your regular theory assignments: labeling harmonies, cadences,
row forms, and the like.These activities on their own are not re~
searchj however, they can constitute research in music analysis if
you are doing them to address a specific research problem. For
example, say that something you hear, while listening to a piece
for the first time, prompts you to exclaim, "What just happened?
I didn't expect that!" If, in response, you study the work's harmo-
nies and cadences to try to answer your question, you are
'' ' '
embarking-even ifin an informal way-on analytical research. ' '
When you address a research problem with music analysis, ' '
' '
you will choose or create the analytic tools appropriate to both '' ''
' '
the specific work and the research problem with the aim that ' '
' '
your analysis presents reasons to understand, hear, or perform ' '
'' ''
the work in a new way. What you learn from analytical research ' '
can satisfy your curiosity while leading to more profound and ' '
'' ''
interesting questions, pushing you ever deeper into music. ' '
' '
' '
The Research Process in Music '' ''
''
Identifying a research problem or question is typically the first step ' ',
within a series of related tasks known as the research process,pic- ' '
tured in figure 1.2. You might envision this process as a journey
that begins with a topic and travels through multiple stages to
''
I
'' ''
I
.
~
.. ,
' ,, ,
1
7 e
...
reach an understanding of that topic's significance and implica- ..,,
~

tions. In practice, however, this journey involves more zigzagging g

than is suggested by the diagram's orderly path. Researchers often •
juggle multiple stages simultaneously and, in later stages of the pro- \ / " ~
cess, return frequently to earlier ones. This occurs because as re- -ri'\_
D C:
o
~
searchers discover more about their topic, they rethink where they
have been. When you are the researcher, expect to participate in all / \ CJ
of the stages of the research process. Expect as well that your pre-
cise itinerary will be determined by the demands of your project.
 Ihe ResearchProcessin Music 7
6 INTRODUCTION

on the more general topic tend to be richer 1 more interesting)

Topic _ and more likely to participate in the creation of knowledge.
Any kind of music) musician, or means of musical produc~10n, Students who keep a question at the core of their project will
past or present 1 can serve as th~ top~cof a research ptoJect. write with authority 1 using evidence to support ideas. More-
Broadly speaking, these topics might mclude over, when students address a question that excites them, an
assignment becomes an adventure in the world of research.
figures involved in music's creation, performance, interpre-
tation, and reception (e.g., composers, patrons, performers, Data Collection
and critics); Data collection is what we generally refer to as "research." Most
musical works j historical studies rely heavily on evidence from secondary
venues, locations, or scenes where music making takes placej sources; therefore, the method of data collection involves lo-
musical styles, genres, practices, and traditions; . cating, evaluating, and selecting relevant 1 reliable print and
musical instruments, equipment, and techniques of using digital sources. For music-analytical projects, methods of data
them. collection typically require a deep investigation of the musical
work's elements through listening, performing, and analyz-
Context ing, with emphasis on the elements' relationships to each other
Context is the web of musical and cultural relationships
. • 1
in
and to the musical conventions common to the genre of the
which musical works and practices are situated. ~1stonca re-
work and when it was composed.
search focuses on those areas of this web that involve_~co-
nomic 1 social, political, educational, and religious cond1t10ns Results
settings. Research in musical analysis concentrates on
md d 1 • Tue data collected from research constitute the results. For his-
those regions that comprise technical practices an sty 1stic
torical studies 1 results can include information and quotations
traditions. Tue regions of the web most commonly explored by
from scholarly sources; previously undiscovered documents
these two musical disciplines often intersect and overlap. Be-
or artifacts; and rich descriptions of the relationships between
cause this web is so complex 1 scholars focus their research on
objects, phenomena 1 events, and actions. For music-analytical
how their topic functions within specific areas of it.
studies, results include information concerning a work's com-
Another use of the term "context" refers to the scholarly
ponents, such as melody, motive 1 rhythm) timbre, form, and
environment. Scholars see new research as taking place in the text-music interactions.
context of existing knowledge and research methodologies.
Studies often situate themselves within an established body of Analysis and Interpretation
knowledge or in opposition to it, thus affirming or challengmg
Raw data are not meaningful until interpreted in light of
existing knowledge. the research question. In this sense, analysis means reviewing
the results, omitting those that do not address the question,
Research Question
organizing information according to emerging concepts
A research question is a research problem posed as a question.
and patterns, and uncovering relationships and hierarchies.
Research projects that center on a research question instead of
8 INTRODUCTION

Interpretationinvolves thinking critically and creatively about

the accumulated information, determining its significance,
THEWRITINGPROCESS
and formulating a response to the research question. If the re-
sults of the research fail to address the research question, the
researcher may need to revisit the research method or reframe
the research question.

Findings
Through analysis and interpretation, the researcher reaches
findings:the principal outcomes of the research. At this stage,
researchers identify what they have found that is new and will
serve as their contributions to scholarship. With these points Students write in a variety of genres, ranging from online
in mind 1 researchers prepare sound arguments with clear and ~1scus~10nposts to the capstone thesis. Common assignments
accurate supporting evidence. in music coursesJ for example, include compare/contrast pieces
a~guments on musical issues, response/reaction essaysJopinio~
Significance and Implications p1ec~s'.and short analytical essays. More substantial papers in
This last stage of the process asks the cheeky questions So music involve historical research, extensive analysis of a musical
what? and Who cares?as a way to uncover a project's signifi- work, or a combination ofboth. In other types of assignments-
canceand implications,that is, how a project's findings can go ~uch ~s program notes, concert and media reviews, and
beyond increasing a researcher's knowledge to enrich the mu- mterv1ews-you might be asked to write for the public.
sical world and engage others who care about the topic or .This chapter provides an overview of the steps common to
about music more broadly. The findings of a research project wn_tmg in the ~cad~mic genres in music. For any type of
should inspire claims that expand thinking, enhance under- assignment, begm with this chapter. Then, for research papers
standing, prompt further research, or change how we think m
. music . history, move on to Chapters 3, 4, and 5; £or papers
about or make music in the future. One of the most exciting m music analysis, skip to Chapters 6 and 7. If your assignment
aspects of research happens once the researcher finally gets to asks you to wnte for a general audience, refer to Chapter s.
the end of the processi the outcomes of research often inspire
new questions, which in turn motivate new research. Interpreting Your Assignment
As researchers move through the stages of research, they
employ a variety of writing strategies, from taking notes to For m~nywho un~ack a box containing a new device or piece
freewriting, drafting, outlining, editing, and revising. We dis- of equipmentJ their first move is to toss aside the instructions
cuss these activities in Chapter 2, as well as in later chapters. and begin tinkering. As enjoyable as that freewheeling ap-
pro~ch can be, it does not work well for writing assignments.
To improve your chances of successJ read the instructions
carefully and analyze them by following these steps.
9