7 1 t .

1 0 97 0 3

CARDON, Hugh Frederick, 1932-

A SURVEY OF TWENTIETH-CENTURY MEXICAN ART
SONG.

University of Oregon, D.M.A., 1970

Music

! University Microfilms, A XEROXCompany, Ann Arbor, Michigan

THIS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN MICROFILMED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
 VITA

NAME OF AUTHOR: Hugh F rederick Cardon

PLACE OF BIRTH: Cuauhtemoc, Chihuahua, Mexico
DATE OF BIRTH: March 4 . 1952

UNDERGRADUATE AND GRADUATE SCHOOLS ATTENDED:

U n iv e r s it y o f Arizona
U n iv e r s ity o f Texas-El Paso
U n iv e r s it y o f Oregon

DEGREES AWARDED:
Bachelor o f M usic, 1955, U n iv e r s it y o f T cxas-E l Paso
Master o f A r t s , 195?, U n iv e r s it y o f T cxas-E l Paso

AREAS OF SPECIAL INTEREST:

Vocal Pedagogy and R e p e r t o i r e
C h o ral C o n du c ting
O p e r a t i c and R e c i t a l Perfo rm ance
Music E d u c a ti o n

PROFESSIONAL experience,

Music T e a c h e r , El p#s& p u b l i c S c h o o l s ,

Chore! Con du cto r and Vocal i n s t r u c t o r . U n i v e r s i t y

a? l e x a s ^ E l P a s o , i'£*d

ALARMS AND HONORS:

Mien s , M m e s , w a i v e r s i t y #? 5 e * s s r Ei P a s o , U S !

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n of t h e co p y rig h t o w n e r. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n prohibited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .

 A SURVEY OF TWENTIETH-CENTURY MEXICAN ART SONG

by
Hugh F red erick Cardon

A DISSERTATION
P re se n ted to the School o f Music
and the Graduate School o f th e U n iv e r s i t y o f Oregon
in p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t
o f the requirem ents f o r th e degree o f
Doctor o f M usical A rts
September 1970

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n of t h e co p y rig h t o w n e r. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n prohibited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .

 APPROVED: l u S J i Z U J d U ~ \
N e i l E. Wilson

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n of t h e co p y rig h t o w n e r. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n prohibited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .

 iv

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

In g r a t i t u d e t o Dr. James A. M i l l e r who s u g g e s t e d

t h e t o p i c f o r t h i s s u r v e y , and a p p r e c i a t i o n t o Dr. N e i l
E. Wilson f o r h i s c o o p e r a t i o n on t h e f i n i s h e d p r o d u c t .

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n of t h e co p y rig h t o w n er. F u r th e r re p r o d u c tio n prohibited w ithout p e r m is s io n .

 V

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PREFACE VI

CHAPTER I . MEXICAN MUSIC BEFORE THE TWENTIETH CENTURY. 1

P r e - C o n q u e s t Era
C olonial Period
I n dependence To 1900
CHAPTER I I . TWENTIETH-CENTURY CONSERVATIVES 20

J o s ^ Ro l<4n
A l f o n s o de E l i a s
JesijTs Bal y Gay
A r n ^ Fuchs
M a ria T e r e s a P r i e t o
CHAPTER I I I . NATIONALISTIC COMPOSERS 31

Manuel Police
C a r lo s Chavez
S i l v e s t r e R evueltas
L uis Sandi
D a n i e l A y a la
B ias Galindo
CHAPTER IV. FORWARD-LOOKING COMPOSERS......................................65
Rodolfo H a ^ f f t e r
Lan Adomian,
C a r l o s Jim enez-Mabarak
Mario K u ri-A ld an a
Mario L a v i s t a
SUMMARY.......................................................................................................... 86
BIBLIOGRAPHY................................................................................................. 89
ANNOTATED APPENDIX OF COMPOSITIONS............................................... 95
KEY TO ABBREVIATIONS IN APPENDIX................................................. 105

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n of t h e co p y rig h t o w n er. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n prohibited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .

 PREFACE

Most American m u s i c i a n s have v i r t u a l l y no

knowledge o f th e a r t songs o f t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y Mexico.
This n e g l e c t o f t h e r e p e r t o i r e may stem from an u n ­
f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h t h e g e n r e , o r doubts c o n c e r n i n g th e
q u a l i t y o f th e c o m p o s i t i o n s t h e m s e l v e s . A r t song s have
been o v e r l o o k e d i n t h e g e n e r a l scope o f Mexican m u sic, and
t h e r e i s no complete l i s t i n g o r d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e s e
s o n g s e i t h e r S p a n ish o r E n g l i s h . Recent w r i t i n g s have
f o c u s e d on th e l a r g e r i n s t r u m e n t a l form s.
I n A H i s t o r y o f Song, p u b l i s h e d i n 1960, t h e
c h a p t e r on L a t i n Am erica by G i l b e r t Chase p r e s e n t s th e
l a t e s t d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e s u b j e c t i n E n g l i s h , _ y e t only
two o r t h r e e pa ges a r e d e v o te d to M e x i c o 's c o n t r i b u t i o n s .
The m u s i c a l l i s t i n g s f o r each o f th e composers a r e f a r
from c o m p l e t e , and o n ly a few o f t h e b e t t e r - k n o w n
composers a r e m e n tio n e d . A s u b s t a n t i a l amount o f music
has b e en p u b l i s h e d s i n c e t h i s t im e , b u t l i t t l e inform ation
i s a v a i l a b l e r e g a r d i n g t h e s e more r e c e n t a d d i t i o n s .
Robert Stevenson deals w ith the o v e r - a l l s t y l e
o f Mexican composers i n Music i n Mexico; a H i s t o r i c a l
S u r v e y ,, ( 1 9 52 ), b u t t h e a r t songs a r e h a r d l y d i s c u s s e d .

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n of t h e co p y rig h t o w n e r. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n prohibited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .

 v ii

Music o f L a t i n America (1945) by N i c o la s Slonim sky i s

now d a t e d , and a g a i n th e a r t song o f Mexico i s t r e a t e d
only b r i e f l y .
For t h i s s u r v e y a l l o f t h e p u b l i s h e d Mexican
a r t songs a v a i l a b l e i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s and Mexico
have been c o l l e c t e d , i n a d d i t i o n t o m a n u s c r i p t c o p i e s
and h e l i o g r a p h i c r e p r o d u c t i o n s o f r e p r e s e n t a t i v e works.
P u b l i s h e d songs now out o f p r i n t were found i n t h e
l i b r a r i e s and a r c h i v e s o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f Mexico and
t h e N a t i o n a l C o n s e r v a t o r y o f Music i n Mexico C i t y .
C orresp o nd en ce w i t h p r o m in e n t Mexican com posers, h i s ­
t o r i a n s , and p u b l i s h e r s was o f g r e a t a s s i s t a n c e i n
c o m p i l i n g and o r g a n i z i n g t h i s m a t e r i a l .
The f i r s t c h a p t e r o f t h i s s t u d y p r e s e n t s a b r i e f
r d s u m / o f m u s i c a l p r a c t i c e s i n Mexico p r i o r t o t h e p r e ­
se n t century. T h is i n c l u d e s a d i s c u s s i o n o f p r i m i t i v e
m u s i c , i n s t r u m e n t s , and c er e m o n ie s b e f o r e t h e S pa n ish
Conquest; i t f u r t h e r d i s c u s s e s t h e European dominance
o f Mexican music d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d s o f c o l o n i z a t i o n and

independence.
I n C h a p te r s I I , I I I , and IV t h e b a ck g r o u n d s o f
t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y composers a r e rev ie w ed a l o n g w i t h a
summary o f t h e i r m u s i c a l s t y l e s . D escriptions of t h e i r
a r t songs a r e g i v e n w i t h examples t o d e m o n s t r a t e s a l i e n t
features. For t h e p urp ose o f t h i s p a p e r , m u s i c i a n s a re

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n o f t h e co p y rig h t o w n e r. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n proh ibited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .

 c l a s s i f i e d according to the n a t i o n a l i s t i c tendencies
shown i n t h e i r w ork s. Composers a r e a r r a n g e d c h r o n o ­
l o g i c a l l y by b i r t h d a t e i n each c h a p t e r , and t h e a r t
songs a r e d i s c u s s e d by d a t e o f c o m p o s i t i o n . (When t h i s
d a t e i s unknown, t h e p u b l i c a t i o n d a t e i s u s e d . )
C h a p te r I I i n c l u d e s t h e e a r l y t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y
composers who were s t i l l i n f l u e n c e d by European m o dels,
and t h e y o u n g e r f o r e i g n - b o r n composers who were u n a f f e c t e d
by Mexican n a t i o n a l i s m o r c o n te m po ra ry t e c h n i q u e s .
N a t i o n a l i s m ha s been t h e d r i v i n g f o r c e b e h i n d
Mexican music o f t h e 1900f s . Chapter I I I d e als w ith
Mexican n a t i o n a l i s t s d e v o te d to m u s i c a l in d e p e n d e n c e

from European c u l t u r e .
The composers i n C h a p te r IV have u t i l i z e d a v a n t -
ga rde t e c h n i q u e s . They have w r i t t e n a r t songs u s i n g
a t o n a l o r s e r i a l m eth o d s, and have e x p e r i m e n t e d w i t h
e l e c t r o n i c m u sic . These composers d i f f e r i n age and
b a c k g r o u n d , b u t a l l a r e employing new forms w i t h i d e a s
of t h e u n i v e r s a l s c h o o l o f t h o u g h t .
Composers o f most c o u n t r i e s have b een moving
tow a rd ,!u n i v e r s a l i s m " i n r e c e n t y e a r s . Mexican composers
a r e no e x c e p t i o n . So f a r , e l e c t r o n i c music has p ro d u c e d

a l i m i t e d amount o f song m a t e r i a l .

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n of t h e co p y rig h t o w n er. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n prohibited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .

 1

CHAPTER I

MEXICAN MUSIC BEFORE THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

Music i n Mexico b e f o r e t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y can

be d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e main c a t e g o r i e s : (1) t h e p r e - C o n q u e s t
a b o r i g i n a l c u l t u r e to 1521; (23 t h e c o l o n i a l p e r i o d o f
mixed I n d i a n and S p a n i s h c u l t u r e s ( m e s t i z o ) and (3) t h e
y e a r s o f in dependence from 1821 t o 1900.

P r e - C o n q u e s t Era

I t i s n e c e s s a r y t o know so m e th in g o f t h e e a r l y
a b o r i g i n a l music i f one i s t o u n d e r s t a n d f u l l y t h e
t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y Mexican composer and h i s q u e s t f o r i n ­
d i v i d u a l i t y as an a r t i s t and c r e a t o r . I t i s e q u a l l y im­
p o r t a n t t o r e a l i z e t h a t t h e Mexican p e o p l e have h a d t o
r e a c h b a ck i n t o th e p a s t i n o r d e r t o r e c r e a t e t h e i r own
Mexican c u l t u r e s e p a r a t e from S p a n i s h , E u ro p ean , and even

N orth American dominance.

P r i o r t o th e Qonquest by C o r t e s , two m a jo r a b o r i g i n a l
c u l t u r e s developed. Between 1000 and 1200 t h e n o r t h e r n
Maya c u l t u r e r e a c h e d i t s f u l l e s t development i n t h e s o u t h e r n
p o r t i o n o f Mexico, whi ch i s now Y u c ata n. To t h e n o r t h t h e

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n of t h e co p y rig h t o w n er. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n prohibited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .

 2

A z t e c s were b u i l d i n g t h e i r c i v i l i z a t i o n , and i n 1325 t h e y

founded t h e p r i n c i p a l c i t y o f T e n o c h t i t l d n , which was to
become Mexico C i t y two hu nd red y e a r s l a t e r . During t h e s e
two c e n t u r i e s t h e A z t e c empire c o n t i n u e d t o grow s t e a d i l y
in to a g re a t Indian n a tio n . During t h e tim e o f Monte­
zuma's r e i g n , Conte's a r r i v e d i n t h e "New World" (1519),
and. i n a l i t t l e more t h a n two y e a r s h ad c on q uered a l l o f
Mexico. Cuauhtemoc', t h e l a s t A z t e c e m p e r o r , was e x e c u t e d
i n 1523 b e c a u s e o f h i s a l l e g e d p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n a
conspiracy.
We know: .something a b ou t p r e - C o n q u e s t music be ca u se
o f a somewhat b e l a t e d a t t e m p t t o r e c o v e r and p r e s e r v e
rem nants o f t h e m u s i c a l i n s t r u m e n t s u s e d a t t h e t im e .
D a n i e l C a s t a n e d a and V i c e n t e Mendoza, i n t h e i r book
I n s t r u m e n t a l P r e c o r t e s i a n o x , have c o n t r i b u t e d a g r e a t
d e a l t o t h e a c q u i s i t i o n and s t u d y o f a n c i e n t m u s i c a l i n ­
s t r u m e n t s i n Mexico. The w r i t i n g s o f Ste v en s o n ^ and
S lo nim sk y ^ , b a s e d on C a s t a n e d a ' s and Mend oza's f i n d i n g s
and o t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n s on e a r l y Mexican i n s t r u m e n t s ,

^ D a n i e l Castafieda and V i c e n t e Mendoza, I n s t r u ­

m e n t a l P r e c o r t e s i a n o (Mexico C i t y : Museo N a c i o n a l , 1933).
^R o bert S t e v e n s o n , Music In Mexico, A H i s t o r i c a l
Survey (New York: Thomas Y. C row e ll Company, 1952]
pp. 8-14.
^ N ic h o la s Slon im sky , Music o f L a t i n America (New
York: Thomas Y. Crowell Company, 1945)^ pp. 214-217.

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n of t h e co pyright o w n e r. F u r th e r re p ro d u c tio n p rohib ited w itho ut p e r m is s io n .

 3

r e v e a l some i n t e r e s t i n g i n f o r m a t i o n .
Although t h e r e were many d i f f e r e n t names f o r t h e
i n s t r u m e n t s i n t h e l a n g u a g e s o f t h e Mayans, T o l t e c s and
t h e A z t e c s , t h e y were a l l o f s i m i l a r t y p e s . The h a n d i ­
c r a f t s and p l a s t i c a r t s o f t h e v a r i o u s groups can be
d i f f e r e n t i a t e d from each o t h e r , b u t th e m u s i c a l i n ­
s t r u m e n t s a r e e s s e n t i a l l y t h e same t h r o u g h o u t t h e l a n d .
The music o f t h e s e c u l t u r e s rem ain ed s t a t i c f o r c e n t u r i e s ,
a c c o r d i n g t o p a i n t i n g s p r e s e r v e d on th e w a l l s o f an
a n c i e n t tem ple d a t i n g from t h e e i g h t h c e n t u r y , i n which
i n s t r u m e n t s were i l l u s t r a t e d . I'he same i n s t r u m e n t s were
\.
i n u se when Cor t e s a r r i v e d i n th e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y .
P r e - C o n q u e s t i n s t r u m e n t s w i l l be d e s c r i b e d h e r e ,
in o rd e r to give a b e t t e r id e a of the t y p i c a l m usical
sounds o f t h e e r a . The names a re i n N a h u a t l , t h e lan g u a g e
o f t h e A z t e c s , w h ic h , as can be s e e n , has i t s own p e c u l i a r
characteristics.
The t e p o n a z t l i was an i n s t r u m e n t r e s e m b l i n g a two-
keyed x y lo p h o n e , sh a p e d l i k e a wooden b a r r e l e n c l o s e d
a t b o t h e n d s. A d e s i g n (|------1) was c u t i n t o t h e top o f t h e
instrum ent. The sounds c r e a t e d on e i t h e r s i d e o f t h e
v e r t i c a l h o l e were d i s t i n c t l y d i f f e r e n t , w i t h th e r e ­
s p e c t i v e p i t c h e s so u n d in g anywhere from a m ajor se co n d to
a f i f t h apart. On t h e b o tto m s i d e a r e c t a n g u l a r i n c i s i o n

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n of t h e co p y rig h t o w n er. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n prohibited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .

 4

was made, and t h e wood i n t h e c e n t e r c o u l d be r e g u l a t e d

so t h a t i t opened to i n c r e a s e t h e volume. The p l a y e r
s t o o d up t o s t r i k e t h e i n s t r u m e n t and u s e d a p a i r o f
m allets tip p ed with a r e s i l i e n t substance. There i s
e v id e n c e t h a t t h e s e i n s t r u m e n t s were a l s o made w i t h more
t h a n one o f t h e s e ---- sha ped i n c i s i o n s on t h e t o p , which
meant t h a t a v a r i e t y o f p i t c h e s c o u ld be p l a y e d , p o s s i b l y
by two o r more p e o p l e a t one tim e ..
The h u e h u e t l was a v e r t i c a l drum, made o f a
h o llo w e d s e c t i o n o f a t r e e , and c o v e r e d w i t h an an im al
hide. There were t h r e e s i z e s o f t h e s e drums, each h a v in g
a d i f f e r e n t p r e f i x i n t h e name, b u t a l l e n d in g i n h u e t l .
Sin c e t h e p i t c h c o u l d be r e g u l a t e d , t h e s e i n s t r u m e n t s
might be c o n s i d e r e d f o r e r u n n e r s o f our p r e s e n t - d a y tympani
drums. Both t h e t e p o n a z t l i and t h e h u e h u e t l were c o n ­
s i d e r e d s a c r e d and were p l a y e d o n l y on solemn o c c a s i o n s .
The o m i t z i c a h u a s t l i and t z i c a h u a z t l i were r a s p -
l i k e i n s t r u m e n t s made from n o t c h e d human o r an im al bone.
E v i d e n t l y t h e p i t c h c o u l d be r a i s e d o r lo w e re d by s t r o k i n g
a cross the notches a t a f a s t e r or slower speed. I t is
s a i d t h a t t h e S p a n i a r d s found t h e sound t o be q u i t e sa d
and m o u r n f u l.
The a y a c a c h t l i was a c l a y o r g o u rd r a t t l e f i l l e d
with p eb b les. Throughout L a t i n America t od ay i n s t r u ­
ments s i m i l a r t o t h i s s t i l l s u r v i v e and a r e i n common

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n of t h e co pyright o w n er. F u r th e r re p ro d u c tio n p rohibited w ithout p e r m is s io n .

 5

use. They a r e c a l l e d s o n a j a s i n Mexico, and maracas i n

B r a z i l and Cuba.
F l u t e - l i k e i n s t r u m e n t s w i t h f o u r h o l e s were c a l l e d
c h i l i l i h t l i o r t l a p i t z a l i and were made o f c l a y , r e e d , o r
bone. They were c a p a b l e o f p r o d u c i n g f i v e d i f f e r e n t
tones. I t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t th e I n d i a n s o v e r - b l e w o r h a l f ­
s t o p p e d when p l a y i n g , t o sound more t h a n f i v e n o t e s .
These p i t c h e s were o n l y a p p ro x im a te and d i d n o t always
f o l l o w t h e same i n t e r v a l i c s e q u e n c e , n o r d i d th e y f i t
i n t o o u r e q u a l tem peram ent s y s te m . The A z te c s were e v i ­
d e n t l y f a m i l i a r w i t h i n t e r v a l s t h a t l a y betw een o ur
h alf-step s.
A n oth e r wind i n s t r u m e n t , t h e t e p u z q u i q u i z t l i ,
was a c o n c h - s h e l l t r u m p e t , on which t h e harm onic s e r i e s
from t h r e e t o e i g h t c o u l d be p l a y e d a f t e r some s k i l l
was d e v e lo p e d . A se c o n d ty p e o f t r u m p e t was t u b u l a r i n
s h a p e , sometimes two f e e t o r more i n l e n g t h , and u s u a l l y

made o f c l a y o r wood.
There were no s t r i n g e d i n s t r u m e n t s i n a n c i e n t Mexico.
C onsidering a l l the f a c t s , t h i s i s not s u r p r i s i n g to

Stevenson because:
. . . none o f t h e a b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e s o f e i t h e r
N o r th o r South Am erica p o s s e s s e d s t r i n g e d i n ­
s t r u m e n t s a t t h e time o f Columbus's d i s c o v e r y .
Some i n v e s t i g a t o r s who have g i v e n c o n s i d e r a b l e
a t t e n t i o n t o A z t e c and Maya a c h i e v e m e n t s i n
m a t h e m a t i c s , a s t r o n o m y , p i c t u r e - w r i t i n g , and t h e

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n of t h e co p y rig h t o w n er. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n prohibited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .

 6

v a r i o u s p l a s t i c a r t s , have t h o u g h t i t s t r a n g e
t h a t t h e A z t e c s and Mayas n e v e r s t u m b l e d upon
so s i m p le an i d e a as t h e use o f t h e h u n t e r ' s
bow f o r a m u s i c a l i n s t r u m e n t . But f o r one
r e a s o n o r a n o t h e r , o r f o r no r e a s o n a t a l l ,
t h e y d i d n o t . J u s t as t h e N a h u a t l language
may s u r p r i s e a b e g i n n i n g s t u d e n t b e c a u s e i t com­
p l e t e l y l a c k e d su ch c o n s o n a n t s as b , d, f , g,
r , and v , so N a h u a t l music may s u r p r i s e a b e g i n ­
ning s tu d e n t because i t com pletely lack ed s t r i n g
t o n e .4
I t h a s b e en c o n c l u d e d from many d i f f e r e n t s o u r c e s
t h a t t h e music o f t h e A z te c s was b a s e d p r i m a r i l y upon
the p e n t a t o n i c s c a l e , u sing b a s i c a l l y the i n t e r v a l s of
t h e m in or t h i r d , p e r f e c t f o u r t h , and p e r f e c t f i f t h . T his
h a s b e en deduced from t h e e x t a n t m e l o d i c i n s t r u m e n t s
t h a t have b een found i n a l l p a r t s o f Mexico and C e n t r a l
America. The m e l o d i e s w i t h o u t t h e s e m i - t o n e , r e l i e d
upon t h e f i v e m e l o d i c modes o f t h e p e n t a t o n i c s e r i e s ,
t h u s e s t a b l i s h i n g a minor f e e l i n g much o f t h e t im e .
T his t h e o r y h a s b e en s u p p o r t e d through, t h e c o l ­
l e c t i o n o f m e l o d i e s from c e r t a i n remote I n d i a n g roups
which s t i l l p r e s e r v e some o f t h e a b o r i g i n a l m u s i c a l
e le m e n t s o f c e n t u r i e s ago. I t i s q u i t e i m p o s s i b l e .t o
know, h ow ever, i f t h e y have been t r a n s m i t t e d t h r o u g h th e
c e n t u r i e s u n t o u c h e d by th e i n f l u e n c e s o f modern c i v i l i ­
zation. S e v e r a l p r o m i n e n t h i s t o r i a n s have t r a n s c r i b e d

4 S t e v e n s o n , p . 12.

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n of t h e co p y rig h t o w n er. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n prohibited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .

 7

some o f them i n t o modern n o t a t i o n , a l t h o u g h i t i s u n d e r ­

stood t h a t a t r u l y a u th e n tic reprod uction i s im possible.
An example o f a " H i k u l i Dance Song", t r a n s c r i b e d by Lum-
h o l t z , i l l u s t r a t e s an e l a b o r a t e scheme o f s h i f t i n g rhythms.
I t was sung i n ho n or o f t h e mescal b u t t o n Ca s p e c i e s o f
n a r c o t i c c a c t u s p l a n t ) , from which a h i g h l y i n t o x i c a t i n g
l i q u o r was made. E a t i n g t h e p l a n t in d u c e d h a l l u c i n a t i o n s ,
as do o t h e r m e s c a l i n e d e r i v a t i v e s . The i n t r i c a t e r h y t h m i c
s t r u c t u r e o f t h i s p r i m i t i v e s o n g , w i t h i t s c h an g in g m e t e r
i n each m e a s u r e , i s t y p i c a l o f l a t e r Mexican f o l k m u sic ,
e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e well-known m a r i a c h i g r o u p s . These f o l k
ensembles a r e t h e most p o p u l a r p e r f o r m e r s i n Mexico t o d a y .
Example 1. H i k u l i Dance S o n g ,5

f- -■ 1 ^ A- A
1n V j =t= f f - 4 t' f A 0 * - ---- f-ft
— |
—

n:o'f *- "W
F " 4
yj
-

+
- W ...... - f - & ■■

bM— 4=
« •

r r -T - i

m 4 -----
u = 4=
w W ....... 0 "
— P— .e -A -*-j ---------

5 I b i d . p. 40.

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n of t h e co p y rig h t o w n er. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n prohibited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .

 8

A n o t h e r t r a n s c r i p t i o n i s an " A n c i e n t Mexican
D a n ce ." C a r l o s Chavez c o l l e c t e d i t and u s e d i t i n the
l a s t movement o f h i s symphonic poem, C u a tr o S o le s
(Four S u n s ) .
Example 2. Los X t o l e s ^

=£=F p —

ap±= —
' i ‘L-i# 1 -------- 4-.0 —
—
0L
4 Li j ■-J- J-0 A
\

iJ —A - -H-
-i i t=+
—
-
—
Z.
m —
------------ w
—

------ 0 0 0,-0
-0 - — €4 -4
—

=&=

From documents o f e a r l y S p a n i s h o b s e r v e r s , i t i s
p o s s i b l e t o d e s c r i b e t h e m u s i c a l l i f e o f t h e t im e . The
r e l i g i o u s and s e c u l a r p r a c t i c e s o f t h e A z t e c s were f u l l
o f e l a b o r a t e r i t u a l s i n which m usic p l a y e d an i n d i s p e n ­
sable ro le . None o f t h e music was n o t a t e d ; i t was p e r ­
formed by a p r o f e s s i o n a l l y e l i t e g u i l d o f m u s i c i a n s who
enjoyed c o n s id e ra b le s o c i a l p r e s t i g e . E x tre m e ly r i g i d
t r a i n i n g was p r e r e q u i s i t e t o a c a r e e r i n m u sic, and o n ly
p e r f e c t p e r f o r m a n c e s were t o l e r a t e d . Any m i s t a k e by th e
p l a y e r s o r s i n g e r s d u r i n g a ceremony was p u n i s h a b l e by

^ S lo n im s k y , p. 215.

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n of t h e co p y rig h t o w n e r. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n prohibited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .

 9

death. I n s t r u m e n t a l and v o c a l groups were always combin­

ed, and t h e m u sic was r e g a r d e d as a means o f communal
r a t h e r than i n d iv id u a l expression.
Every p i e c e o f music was composed f o r a p a r t i c u l a r
t i m e , p l a c e , and o c c a s i o n ; t h e r e f o r e a m u s i c i a n n e ed e d
a l a r g e r e p e r t o i r e and a p r o d i g i o u s memory f o r t h e 260-
day c a l e n d a r o f t h e A ztec r e l i g i o u s c y c l e .
From t h e w r i t i n g s o f s i x t e e n t h - c e n t u r y S p a n i s h
s o l d i e r s and p r i e s t s , we may come t o some c o n c l u s i o n s
r e g a r d i n g t h e use o f t h e v o i c e and t h e t y p e o f sound
p r e f e r r e d , as w e l l as o t h e r v o c a l p r a c t i c e s . Slonimsky
q u o t e s J u a n de Torquemada, a S p a n is h m i s s i o n a r y , who
w r o te t h e f o l l o w i n g d e s c r i p t i o n o f an A z t e c ceremony:
When t h e d a n c e r s a r r i v e a t t h e p l a c e , they., .t a k e
t h e i r p l a c e s to p l a y t h e i n s t r u m e n t s . The two”
b e s t s i n g e r s t h e n b e g i n t h e song. A l a r g e drum,
p l a y e d w i t h t h e hands i s c a l l e d a H u e h u e t l .
The o t h e r , p l a y e d w i t h s t i c k s l i k e t h e i n s t r u m e n t s
o f S p a i n , i s c a l l e d t h e T e p o n a x tl e . . . Wishing
to begin the dance, th re e or fo u r Indians r a i s e
very s h r i l l w h i s t l e s . The i n s t r u m e n t s sound i n
a low t o n e , and l i t t l e by l i t t l e i n c r e a s e i n
volume. When t h e d a n c e r s h e a r t h e i n s t r u m e n t s
t h e y b e g i n t o s i n g and dance. The f i r s t songs
go s l o w l y and i n a deep t o n e . When one song i s
f i n i s h e d (and i t seems lo n g b e c a u s e i t goes v e r y
s l o w l y , though none l a s t s o v e r an h o u r ) , t h e
i n s t r u m e n t changes t o n e , and t h e l e a d e r s b e g i n
a n o t h e r c h a n t , a l i t t l e h i g h e r and more l i v e l y .

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m is s io n of t h e cop y rig h t o w n e r. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n prohibited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .

 10

I n t h i s way, t h e songs keep r i s i n g as though someone

changed from a b a s s t o a t e n o r v o i c e . ?
I t may be c o n c l u d e d from v a r i o u s s o u r c e s t h a t
e x p r e s s i o n , as t h e w e s t e r n e a r knows i t , did e x is t in
t h e m usic o f a n c i e n t Mexico. C h r o n i c l e r s o f t h e time
m e n t i o n e d ' t h e f a c t t h a t a c e r t a i n drum sound was mourn­
f u l , o r t h a t a p a r t i c u l a r song was l i v e l y and happy.
The s i n g e r s were w e l l p r e p a r e d by many h o u r s o f p r a c t i c e
b e fo re a performance i n the r i t u a l , e s p e c i a l l y i f a
new song was t o be sung. The A z te c s demanded good
s i n g i n g a c c o r d i n g t o t h i s e x c e r p t from B e r n a r d i n o de
S a h a g u n 's book H i s t o r i a G e n e r a l de l a s Cosas de Nueva
Espana.
The wor thy s i n g e r h a s a c l e a r mind and a s t r o n g
memory. He composes songs h i m s e l f and l e a r n s
t h o s e o f o t h e r s , and i s always r e a d y t o i m p a r t
(what he knows) t o t h e f e l l o w s o f h i s c r a f t .
He s i n g s w i t h a w e l l - t r a i n e d v o i c e , and i s
c a r e f u l to p r a c t i c e i n p r i v a t e b e f o r e he ap­
pears in p u b lic . The unworthy s i n g e r , on t h e
o t h e r h a n d , i s i g n o r a n t and i n d o l e n t . . .
What he l e a r n s he w i l l n o t communicate t o
o t h e r s . His v o i c e i s h o a r s e and u n t r a i n e d ,
and he i s a t once e n v io u s and b o a s t f u l . 8
S e v e r a l a c c o u n t s b r i n g o u t t h e f a c t t h a t deep
b a s s v o i c e s were p r e f e r r e d b e c a u s e i t was c u sto m a ry t o
p i t c h the songs e x t r e m e l y low a t th e f r e q u e n t p r i v a t e
r i t u a l observances h e ld i n s i d e the houses o f the n o b i l i t y .

^ I b i d . p. 217.
8S t e v e n s o n , p . 25.

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n of t h e co p y rig h t o w n er. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n prohibited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .

 11

S i n c e t h e songs i n t h e communal c e r e m o n i e s were begun

by two o r t h r e e o f t h e b e s t s i n g e r s on a low p i t c h ,
t h e y were t h e ones who were h e a r d more s i n g u l a r l y t h a n
t h e o t h e r s , and had t o be b e t t e r .
I t i s n o t a b l e t h a t no m e n t i o n o f women s i n g e r s
o r d a n c e rs i s made i n t h e a c c o u n t s o f t h e I n d i a n c e r e ­
m o n ie s. F r a n c i s c o L<4pez de Gomara, who was a C h a p l a i n
f o r C o r t e s , d e s c r i b e s a huge f e s t i v a l o f t h e A z t e c s and

o n l y m en tio ns men as t h e p e r f o r m e r s :
When i t was tim e t o b e g i n , e i g h t o r t e n men
would blow t h e i r w h i s t l e s l u s t i l y . . . . The
d a n c e r s were n o t long i n a p p e a r i n g i n r i c h
w h i t e , r e d , g r e e n and y e l l o w garm ents i n te r w o v e n
w i t h v e r y many d i f f e r e n t c o l o r s . . . . Many tim e s
a th o u s a n d d a n c e r s would a sse m b le f o r t h i s dance
and a t t h e l e a s t f o u r h u n d r e d . They were a l l
l e a d i n g men, n o b l e s and even l o r d s . The h i g h e r
t h e m an 's q u a l i t y th e c l o s e r was h i s p o s i t i o n w i t h
r e s p e c t t o t h e drums. . . .

C olonial P eriod

The Conquest o f Mexico by Corte^s i n 1521 f o r c e d

E uropean i d e a l s upon t h e c o u n t r y , and s t i f l e d th e
developm ent o f i n d i g e n o u s I n d i a n m u s i c a l e x p r e s s i o n .
The Roman C a t h o l i c Church, as w e l l as t h e S pa n ish r u l e r s ,
was m i l i t a n t l y oppose d to t h e a b o r i g i n a l music and
dances.

9I b i d .

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n o f t h e co p y rig h t o w n e r. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n prohibited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .

 12

F i n e s were imposed on communities where th e cerem onies

were p e r f o r m e d , b e c a u s e t h e y were t h o u g h t t o be e v i l and
p a g an . I n d i a n music was d r i v e n from t h e f u t u r e c e n t e r s
o f c i v i l i z a t i o n , on ly t o s u r v i v e i n frag m e n ts to t h e
p r e s e n t day. The S p a n ish c o n q u e r o r imposed on t h e p e o p l e
b o t h h i s s a c r e d and p o p u l a r m u s i c , as w e l l as h i s d a n c e s ,
c u s t o m s , and la n g u a g e . The f u s i o n o f i n d i g e n o u s and
f o r e i g n c u l t u r e s i s c a l l e d m e s t i z o and has i n f l u e n c e d
music i n Mexico i n e v e r y ph a se o f i t s dev elopment.
The S p a n i a r d s i m m e d ia te l y began to t e a c h European
m u s i c a l t r a d i t i o n s to t h e n a t i v e s , m ain ly f o r t h e p u r ­
pose o f c o n v e r t i n g them t o C h r i s t i a n i t y . The f i r s t
European s c h o o l o f music i n t h e new w o r l d was founded
during the f i r s t s i x y e ars o f Spanish r u l e . There i s
some c o n f u s i o n as to th e e x a c t d a t e and t h e f o u n d e r o f
t h e s c h o o l ; Slonimsky b e l i e v e s t h a t Pedro de Gante
s t a r t e d te a c h in g the n a ti v e s i n 1 5 2 3 , ^ w hile Stevenson
s t a t e s t h a t t h e music s c h o o l was begun i n 1527 by Fray
Ju an C a r o . " ^ The I n d i a n s were t a u g h t the e le m e n ts o f
p l a i n - c n a n t , l e a r n e d t o p l a y and c o n s t r u c t v a r i o u s
European i n s t r u m e n t s , and c o p i e d t h e m u sic t h e m s e l v e s .

■ ^Slonim sky, p. 219.

■ ^ S t e v e n s o n , p. 53.

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n of t h e co p y rig h t o w n er. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n prohibited w ithout p e r m is s io n .

 13

I t i s r e c o g n i z e d t h a t Pe dro de Gante was t h e most

o u t s t a n d i n g m usi c e d u c a t o r o f t h e tim e . He was f a m i l i a r
w i t h t h e b e s t o f t h e F le m ish m u s i c a l t r a d i t i o n , and w e l l
q u a l i f i e d t o t e a c h i t b e c a u s e he ''had l i v e d i n th e
a tm osphere ( a t Ghent) which p r o d u c e d m a s t e r s such as
Des P r e s , de l a Rue, Mouton, and G om bert."-^
C h r o n i c l e r s o f t h e tim e n o t e d t h a t t h e I n d i a n s
were e a g e r t o l e a r n new m usic and p r o g r e s s e d r a p i d l y i n
m a s t e r i n g t h e most c o m p l i c a t e d syste m s o f European music,
even t o t h e p o i n t o f r i v a l i n g t h e q u a l i t y o f perf orm anc e
by t h e c h o i r s i n t h e m o th e r c o u n t r y .
C o m po sitio n s o f s i x t e e n t h - c e n t u r y S p a n i s h p o l y p h o n i c
m a s t e r s were p e r f o r m e d w i t h r e g u l a r i t y i n Mexico. Works
by C r i s t o b a l de Morales and F r a n c i s c o G u e r r e r o were
e s p e c i a l l y w ell.k n o w n b e c a u s e o f t h e i r a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h
the S e v ille C athedral. S t e v e n s o n e x p l a i n s why Tomas Luis
de V i c t o r i a was n o t b e t t e r known i n Mexico:
. . . he was n o t c o n n e c t e d a t any tim e d u r i n g
h is c a r e e r w ith e i t h e r the p a re n t c a th e d r a l of
Mexico C i t y - S e v i l l e , o r t h e p a r e n t c a t h e d r a l o f
P u e b l a - T o l e d o . Morales and G u e r r e r o , on t h e o t h e r
h an d, were b o t h n a t i v e s o f S e v i l l e , upon the m u s i ­
c a l a r c h i v e s o f whose c a t h e d r a l Mexico C i t y d e ­
pended f o r m a n u s c r i p t c o p i e s . 13

12 I b i d . p . 52.
^ I b i d . p . 82.

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n of t h e cop y rig h t o w n e r. F u r th e r r e p ro d u c tio n prohibited w ith o u t p e rm is s io n .

 14

Sever -1 Mexicans began composing m usic d u r i n g t h e

s i x t e e n t h and s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s , f o l l o w i n g t h e S p a n ish
polyphonic t r a d i t i o n . The b e t t e r known among t h e s e were
Hernando F r a n c o , J u a n de L i e n a s , F r a n c i s c o Lopez y C a p i l l a ,
and Ju an de P a d i l l a . They w r o t e s e t t i n g s f o r a l l t h e

l i t u r g i c a l t e x t s o f t h e Church.
The f i r s t book i n t h e W estern Hemisphere which
c o n t a i n e d m usic was p r i n t e d i n Mexico i n 1 5 5 6 - -an O r d i n a r y
o f t h e Mass. At l e a s t 220 books were known t o have b e e n
p u b l i s h e d i n Mexico d u r i n g t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y i n n i n e
d i f f e r e n t Nahuatl d i a l e c t s . Twelve o f t h e s e were l i t u r g i ­
c a l t e x t s c o n t a i n i n g m u sic. In a l l o f t h e S panish
c o l o n i e s , t h e y were t h e o n l y p u b l i c a t i o n s w i t h music.
I t i s now a c c e p t e d t h a t two d a n c e s , t h e s a r a b a n d e
and c h ac on n e, came from Mexico. They were i n t r o d u c e d
to S p a in i n t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y by I n d i a n p e r f o r m e r s
b r o u g h t back by t h e i r c o n q u e r o r s . They were s a i d to be
h i g h l y e r o t i c and l a s c i v i o u s lo v e dance s which were n o t
r e a d i l y a ccepted in th e Spanish c o u r t s . In the ensuing
two h u n d r e d y e a r s o r s o , t h e music and dances were m o d i f i e d
and r e f i n e d . t o comply w i t h t h e European c u l t u r e o f t h e

tim e.
During t h e s e v e n t e e n t h and e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n of t h e co p y rig h t o w n e r. F u r th e r r e p ro d u c tio n prohibited w ith o u t p e rm is s io n .

 15

a c o n s i d e r a b l e number o f v i l l a n c i c o s were w r i t t e n i n
Mexico. The v i l l a n c i c o o r i g i n a t e d i n S p a in d u r i n g t h e
l a t t e r p a r t o f t h e f i f t e e n t h c e n t u r y , and was a typ e o f
p o p u l a r S p a n i s h p o e t r y s e t t o m u sic b e g i n n i n g w i t h a
refrain (e s t r i b i l l o ) which i s r e p e a t e d betw een each two-
p a r t sta n z a (co p la ) . However, most o f t h e v i l l a n c i c o s
w r i t t e n i n Mexico were f o r c h u rc h u s e ; t h e y u s u a l l y e x ­
t o l l e d t h e v i r t u e s o f some h e r o o r s a i n t , and sometimes
were u s e d as t r o p e s i n t h e Mass.
Sor J u a n a I n e s de l a Cruz (1651-1695) was t h e

f o r e m o s t w r i t e r o f v i l l a n c i c o s i n c o l o n i a l Mexico.
Her poems were s e t t o m usic by many N e o - H i s p a n ic composers,
o f which Jo s e p h de A g u rto y L oaysa and A nto n io de S a l a z a r

a r e t h e b e s t known.
During t h e f i r s t p a r t o f t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y
t h e v i l l a n c i c o s i n L a t i n America e v o l v e d i n t o a ty p e
o f c a n t a t a f o r s o l i and ch oru s w i t h i n s t r u m e n t a l a c ­
companiment, p e r f o r m e d f r e q u e n t l y a t C h r i s t m a s t im e . In
c o n te m p o r a r y S p a n i s h - s p e a k i n g c o u n t r i e s t h e y a r e now
known as C h r istm a s c a r o l s .
The most famous Mexican composer who w r o t e c a n t a t a ­
l i k e v i l l a n c i c o s was Manuel Zumaya. He i s b e s t known
as t h e c r e a t o r o f t h e f i r s t o p e r a p r o d u c e d i n t h e new
w o r l d - - La P a r t e n o p e , i n 1711, The o p e r a had t e x t s i n

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n of t h e co p y rig h t o w n er. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n prohibited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .

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b o t h S p a n is h and I t a l i a n , b u t was p e rf o r m e d i n I t a l i a n .
T h is marked t h e b e g i n n i n g o f a l m o s t two h u n d r e d y e a r s o f

I t a l i a n dominance o f Mexican m u s ic .
N e o - H i s p a n ic music g r a d u a l l y d e c l i n e d d u r i n g th e
e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y , due to t h e l a c k o f im p e tu s from t h e
m o th e r c o u n t r y . A high le v e l of i n s t r u c t i o n i n th e schools
was n e g l e c t e d b e c a u s e o f th e s c a r c i t y o f good t e a c h e r s
from t h e music c e n t e r s o f S p a i n .
Mexican f o l k m usic was d e v e l o p i n g t h r o u g h o u t t h e
e a r l y c o l o n i a l p e r i o d , p r i m a r i l y from S p a n i s h p r o t o t y p e s .
The romance t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o what i s known t o d a y as
the c o rrid o . The Mexican j a r a b e i s a d e s c e n d e n t o f t h e
S p a n i s h z a p a t e a d o , whose rhythm r e s e m b l e s t h a t o f t h e
mazurka. During t h e f i g h t f o r in d e p e n d e n c e t h e j a r a b e
was o u t la w e d by t h e S p a n is h I n q u i s i t i o n b e c a u s e i t was
c o n s i d e r e d t o be c o n n e c te d w i t h t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s .
The huapango can be t r a c e d t o t h e S p a n ish s o n , w i t h an
a l t e r e d r h y thmi c s t r u c t u r e , which may be due t o t h e
Negro i n f l u e n c e i n t h e new w o r l d .

Ind ep en dence t o 1900

A f t e r Mexico g a i n e d i t s i n d e p e n d e n c e from S p a in
i n 1821, t h e r e be gan n a t i o n a l i s t i c murmurings i n a l l t h e
arts. However, t h e r e s t o f t h e c e n t u r y was w r o u g h t w i t h

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m is s io n o f t h e cop y rig h t o w n e r. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n p rohib ited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .

 17

p o l i t i c a l s t r i f e b r o u g h t on by a m b i t i o u s e m p e ro rs,
p r e s i d e n t s , and d i c t a t o r s . Their in flu e n c e d e te rre d
t h e grow th o f n a t i o n a l i s m u n t i l t h e p r e s e n t c e n t u r y .
The Mexican war w i t h t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s (1846 t o 1848)
o v e r t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f T e x a s , was an added d e t e r r e n t .
A lth o u g h p i a n o m u sic i m i t a t i n g Chopin and Schumann
was p o p u l a r d u r i n g t h e 18 0 0 ' s , I t a l i a n o p e r a was t h e
consuming p a s s i o n i n Mexico. E a r l y Mexican o p e r a t i c
composers b egan by i m i t a t i n g S p a n i s h b u f f o p r o t o t y p e s
su ch as z a r z u e l a s , t o n a d i l l a s , s a i n e t e s , l o a s , and
entrem eses. The f i r s t I t a l i a n o p e r a s t o be p e rfo rm ed
i n Mexico were by C im arosa and P a i s i e l l o . The l a t e r
n in e te e n th -c e n tu ry o p e ra tic com posers--including
R o s s i n i , B e l l i n i , D o n i z e t t i , and V e r d i - - w e r e e x t r e m e l y
p o p u l a r and were u s e d as models by Mexican composers.
There were t e n Mexican composers who had a t o t a l o f
f i f t e e n o p e r a s p r o d u c e d i n th e I t a l i a n style.-*-4 The
most i m p o r t a n t were Cenobia P a n i a g u a , M e le s io M o r a l e s ,
and A n i c e t o O r t e g a .
The most i n f l u e n t i a l f i g u r e i n music e d u c a t i o n
o f t h e e a r l y 18 0 0 ' s was J o s e M. E l i z a g a , who founded
t h e f i r s t music c o n s e r v a t o r y o f t h e new r e p u b l i c . Be­
s i d e s composing music f o r t h e c h u r c h , he w r o t e music

14I b i d . p . 205.

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n of t h e c o pyright ow n er. F u r th e r re p r o d u c tio n proh ibited w ithout p e r m is s io n .

 18

t e x t b o ok s: Elementos de Musica ( 1 8 2 3 ) , and P r i n c i p i o s

de l a Armonia y de l a Melodia ( 1 8 3 5 ) .
The C o n s e r v a t o r i o N a c i o n a l de Musica was founded
i n Mexico C i t y on J a n u a r y 13, 1877 and i s th e o l d e s t
m usic s c h o o l now e x i s t i n g i n Mexico. M e les io Morales
was t h e h e a d o f t h e C o n s e r v a t o r y d u r i n g i t s f o r m a t i v e
y e a r s , i m p l a n t i n g t h e I t a l i a n s t y l e o f c o m p o s it i o n .
Toward t h e c l o s e o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , two
young composers b ro k e away from t h i s I t a l i a n i n f l u e n c e .
R i c a r d o C a s t r o e s t a b l i s h e d h i m s e l f as a p iano v i r t u o s o
i n E u ro p e, and r e t u r n e d to become t h e head o f t h e Con­
s e r v a t o r y , r e p l a c i n g I t a l i a n p r a c t i c e s w i t h German
rom anticism . Gustavo Campa fo u n d ed a r i v a l m usic s c h o o l
which p r o m u l g a t e d t h e French o p e r a t i c s t y l e o f composi­
tio n .
Mexican m u s i c a l h i s t o r y b e f o r e t h e t w e n t i e t h
c e n t u r y shows no e v id e n c e o f t r u e c l a s s i c a l a r t s o n g s , as
we r e f e r t o them t o d a y . The songs sung d u r i n g t h e f o u r
c e n t u r i e s p r e c e d i n g the 1900’ s d e v e l o p e d from a b o r i g i n a l
s o u r c e s , Spanish -M exican f o l k s o n g s , and I t a l i a n o p e r a t i c
arias. (These i n f l u e n c e s a r e s t i l l s t r o n g l y f e l t i n
more r e c e n t m u s i c ) . I t was n o t u n t i l t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n ­

t u r y t h a t t h e " a r t song" came i n t o e x i s t e n c e . This may be

due t o t h e f a c t t h a t Mexican m u s i c i a n s were n o t ex posed t o

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n of t h e co p y rig h t o w n er. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n prohibited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .

 19

o r i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e v o c a l music o f Germany o r F r a n c e ,
even though t h e s e c o u n t r i e s ha d r e a c h e d a h i g h p o i n t o f

c r e a t i v i t y in the genre.

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m is s io n of t h e cop y rig h t o w n e r. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n prohibited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .

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CHAPTER I I

TWENTIETH-CENTURY CONSERVATIVES

J o s / Rolon

J o s e Roldn (1883-1945] was b o r n i n Ciudad Guzman,

Mexico, o f French p a r e n t s whose name was o r i g i n a l l y
Rollon.'*' He r e c e i v e d h i s r u d i m e n t a r y t r a i n i n g from h i s
f a t h e r and t h e l o c a l m usic s c h o o l i n J a l i s c o . He went
t o P a r i s i n 1903, where he began h i s c o m p o s i t i o n s t u d i e s
w i t h M o r i t z Moskowsky. Rolon was p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p r e s s e d
w i t h Debussy and d e v e l o p e d a p r e d e l i c t i o n f o r t h e Fre n ch
i m p r e s s i o n i s t t e c h n i q u e which i s a p p a r e n t i n most o f h i s
works. He r e t u r n e d t o Mexico a f t e r f o u r y e a r s and f o u n d e d
a m usic s c h o o l i n G u a d a l a j a r a . I n 1927, when he was
f o r t y - f o u r y e a r s o l d , he r e t u r n e d t o P a r i s t o s t u d y
harmony and c o u n t e r p o i n t w i t h N a d ia B o u l a n g e r , and fu gue
and o r c h e s t r a t i o n u n d e r Pa ul Dukas. Rolon r e t u r n e d to
Mexico t h r e e y e a r s l a t e r , t e a c h i n g c o m p o s i t i o n a t t h e
N a t i o n a l C o n s e r v a t o r y o f Music. He was t h e d i r e c t o r o f

* Hugo de G r i a l , Musicos Mexicanos (Mexico, D. F . ,

E d i t o r i a l D ia n a, 1 9 6 5 ) , p . 119.

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n of t h e co p y rig h t o w n er. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n prohibited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .

 21

t h i s c o n s e r v a t o r y f o r a b o u t t e n months i n 1938. His

work t h e r e was c u t s h o r t when he became i l l .
The song c y c l e D ib u jo s Sobre un P u e r t o ( S k e t c h e s
o f a P o r t ) , was p u b l i s h e d i n 1968, t w e n t y - t h r e e y e a r s
a f t e r R o l d n ’s d e a t h , b u t no d a t e o f c o m p o s it i o n can be
established. The s e v e n songs o f t h e s e t a r e h i s o n l y
p u b lish ed vocal com positions. El Se m b rad o r, w r i t t e n

f o r v o i c e , f l u t e , oboe, c l a r i n e t h o r n , and b a s s o o n , i s i n
m a n u s c r i p t a t t h e C o n s e r v a t o r y o f Mexico.
A l l o f t h e s h o r t songs i n D ibu jos u se some form
o f r e p e a t e d f i g u r e i n t h e accompaniment, and have no
key s i g n a t u r e s . Modes a r e u se d i n e a c h , and Bb and C#
a r e t h e o n l y b l a c k n o t e s p l a y e d o r sung. Each o f t h e s e
a c c id e n ta l s i s used c o n s i s t e n t l y throughout the p ie c e in
which i t o c c u r s . ' Rolon shows a f o n d n e s s f o r p a r a l l e l
f i f t h s i n most o f t h e s e v e n so n g s . The t e x t u r e i s im­
p r e s s i o n i s t i c , and q u i t e eco n o m ic al i n s o n o r i t y .
The f i f t h s o n g , " C a n t a r c i l l o " (L ittle S inging), is
a t w o - p a r t canon a t t h e o c t a v e , between t h e v o i c e and
t h e r i g h t hand o f t h e p i a n o , su p e r i m p o s e d o v e r a f o u r -
n o t e o s t i n a t o f o r t h e l e f t h a nd , on t h e o r d e r o f an
A l b e r t i Bass.

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n of t h e co p y rig h t o w n er. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n prohibited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .

 22

Example 3. R olo n, C a n t a r c i l l o , No, 5 o f Dibujos Sobre

un P u e r t o .

Piano: L.H.

V o i c e , Meas. 4 - 9 .

Piano: R.H.

"El F a r o M (The L i g h t h o u s e ) i s o n l y se ven m easures

long. The . u l t i m a t e i n s i m p l i c i t y i s a c h i e v e d by a s o l i ­
t a r y s u s t a i n e d A i n t h e accompaniment, b e n e a t h th e two

vocal phrases.
Roldn u s e s a s h i f t i n g b i m o d a l i t y by o v e r l a p p i n g t h e
M i x o l y d ia n and D orian modes i n t h e l a s t so ng, " O r a c io n "
(Prayer). T h e - s e t t i n g reminds one o f B a r b e r ' s "The

D aisies".

A l f o n s o de E l i a s

A lf o n so de E l i a s , b o r n i n 1902, i s one o f t h e
m ost c o n s e r v a t i v e t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y Mexican composers
who w r o t e i n t h e c l a s s i c a l id io m . He s t u d i e d p i a n o and

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n o f t h e co p y rig h t o w n er. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n prohib ited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .

 23

c o m p o s i t i o n w i t h Gustavo Campa, who had e s t a b l i s h e d

h i s " p r o t e s t " F re n ch m u sic s c h o o l ' b e f o r e t h e t u r n o f t h e .
century. He a l s o worked un de r R a f a e l T e l l o , a composer
who w r o t e f o u r o p e r a s and was i n t e r e s t e d i n f u r t h e r i n g

t h e c a u s e o f Mexican n a t i o n a l o p e r a .
E l i a s i s s e t a p a r t from t h e o t h e r Mexican composers

i n t h a t h i s c o m p o s i t i o n s seem t o be u n a f f e c t e d by c o n ­
te m p o r a r y i n f l u e n c e s . Slonimsky e l a b o r a t e s :
A v e r y p r o l i f i c composer, A lfon so de E l i a s has
a d o p t e d a r o m a n t i c s t y l e r e m i n i s c e n t o f Brahms and
T c h a ik o v s k y , w i t h o u t a t r a c e o f c o n te m po ra ry
i n f l u e n c e . Among h i s works a r e two sym phonies,
s e v e r a l symphonic poems, s t r i n g q u a r t e t s , p i e c e s
f o r p i a n o , v i o l i n , and v i o l o n c e l l o , as w e l l as
v o c a l c o m p o s i t i o n s .2

The o n l y s u r v i v i n g work f o r s o l o v o i c e and p i a n o

i s Dos M a d r i g a l e s , w i t h s e n t i m e n t a l l y r i c s by F r a n c i s c o
de E l i a s and Gustavo A. B / c q u e r . " M a d r ig a l I " (192 7)
a p p r o x i m a t e s a s i m p l i f i e d v e r s i o n o f an e a r l y Brahms1
son g. The melody i s s i m i l a r t o t h e l i e d "So s t e h n w i r ,
i c h und meine Weide" from Opus T h irty -T w o by Brahms. The
S c h u b e r t - l i k e t u n e o f " M a d r ig a l I I " (1961) i s o v e r s i m p l i ­
f i e d to t h e p o i n t o f b e i n g a s e m i - p o p u l a r f o l k song.
E l i a s d i d n o t seem to v e e r from h i s s t e a d f a s t compliance
to n i n e t e e n t h - c e n tu r y techniques during the t h i r t y - f o u r
y e a r s e p a r a t i n g t h e s e two c o m p o s i t i o n s . On t h e c o n t r a r y ,

^ S lo n im s k y , p . 236

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n o f t h e co p y rig h t o w n e r. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n prohibited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .

 24

he r e a c h e d i n t o t h e p o p u l a r v e i n even more i n h i s se cond

"M adrigal". There a r e l i t e r a l l y t h o u s a n d s o f t h i s ty p e
o f song b e i n g p e r f o r m e d on r a d i o and t e l e v i s i o n i n Mexico

today.

J e s u s Bal y Gay

Jesifs Bal y Gay (b. 1905) i s a S p a n i s h composer,

m u s i c o l o g i s t , and c r i t i c who, l i k e Rodolfo H a l f f t e r and
o t h e r s , im m ig r a te d t o Mexico a f t e r t h e S p a n ish C i v i l
War. However, he t a u g h t S p a n i s h i n Cambridge, E n g la n d ,
from 1935 t o 1938, b e f o r e moving t o Mexico. His m u s i c a l
t r a i n i n g was a t t h e Madrid C o n s e r v a t o r y , where he became
i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f o l d S p a n i s h m usic.
S i n c e t h a t time he has made t r a n s c r i p t i o n s o f o l d S p a n i s h
romances and e d i t e d c o l l e c t i o n s o f S p a n i s h l u t e m u sic .
I n 1947 he was named c h i e f o f t h e s e c t i o n o f m u s i c a l r e ­
s e a r c h a t t h e I n s t i t u t o N a c i o n a l de B e l l a s A r t e s i n
Mexico C i t y . Bal y Gay was t h e e d i t o r o f C a n cio nero de
U p s a la and was on t h e e d i t o r i a l b o a r d o f N u e s t r a M u s i c a ,
M e x i c o 's l e a d i n g p e r i o d i c a l d e a l i n g w i t h music and
m usicians.
Bal y G a y 's o n ly p u b l i s h e d c o n t r i b u t i o n t o a r t
song i n Mexico i s t h e s e t Cuatro P i e z a s (Four P i e c e s , )
which was w r i t t e n i n 1941 s h o r t l y a f t e r h i s a r r i v a l i n h i s

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n of t h e co p y rig h t o w n e r. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n prohibited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .

 25

new home. The m e l o d i c l i n e s o f th e f o u r songs a r e w e l l

c o n t r i v e d and move sm o o th ly i n i n t e r e s t i n g r h y t h m i c
patterns. The "Cancion" (Song) b e g i n s w i t h t h e to p
n o t e s o f t h e p i a n o p a r t f o l l o w i n g t h e v o i c e i n canon a
measure l a t e r . The se c o n d p a r t i s a r e p e a t o f t h e f i r s t ,
b u t t h i s tim e t h e p i a n o s t a r t s th e canon. The t h i r d
s e c t i o n i s a r e c i t a t i v e , w i t h th e t e x t b e i n g i n t e r r u p t e d
by r e s t s . A new m e l o d i c l i n e i s i n t r o d u c e d by t h e v o i c e
i n t h e f i n a l s e c t i o n , a g a i n i n canon w i t h t h e p i a n o .
I n number two o f t h e s e t , "La P l e n t i t u a " (Abun­
dance) t h e t o n a l i t y i s ambiguous i n many p l a c e s .
Bal y Gay i n j e c t s f u g a l s e c t i o n s i n t h e accompaniment

between t h e v o c a l p h r a s e s , o f t e n u s i n g t h e w h o l e - t o n e
scale. Even th ough t h e p o e t r y i s e x p r e s s i o n i s t i c ,
Bal y Gay does n o t s e t i t t o music i n wha t we would c a l l
an e x p r e s s i o n i s t i c s t y l e .
The l a s t two s o n g s , "Nana d e l Nino Malo" ( L u l l a b y
f o r a Naughty C h i l d ) , and "La Luna F e l i z " (Joyous Moon),
a r e composed i n a more c o n v e n t i o n a l form. The l u l l a b y
says t h a t i f t h e c h i l d does n o t s l e e p he w i l l be blown
away t o t h e m ounta in where t h e a n im als o f t h e f o r e s t
a re w a i t i n g ; b u t i f he goes t o s l e e p , he w i l l go where
th e s t a r s a r e made o f s u g a r . Bal y Gay r e c a l l s o t h e r
n u r s e r y t u n e s by i n c l u d i n g m o t i f s from Au C l a i r e de l a

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n of t h e co p y rig h t o w n e r. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n prohibited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .

 26

Lune and London B r i d g e .

"La Luna F e l i z " c o n s i s t s o f a t y p i c a l Mexican
f o l k s o n g melody o v e r a b a r c a r o l e rhythm i n t h e p i a n o .
I n s e v e r a l p l a c e s t h e a c c e n t o f t h e music does n o t c o n ­
form t o t h e spoken a c c e n t s , i . e . , t h e music p u t s t h e

s t r e s s on t h e wrong s y l l a b l e .

Arno Fuchs

Arno Fuchs was b o r n i n D re sd e n , Germany, i n 1909.

When he was a c h i l d he sang i n t h e famous r e s i d e n t i a l
c h o i r o f Saxony and s t u d i e d v i o l i n , o r g a n , and p i a n o .
He was t h e d i r e c t o r and o r g a n i s t i n v a r i o u s c h u rc h e s i n
Dre sde n f o r s e v e r a l y e a r s . L a t e r he s t u d i e d p h i l o s o p h y ,
m u s i c , and f i n e a r t s i n D r e s d e n , E r l a n g e n , and L e i p z i g ,
where he r e c e i v e d a s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l t e a c h i n g c e r t i f i ­
cate. From L e i p z i g he a l s o was awarded a D o c t o r a t e i n

M usical S cien ces.

I n 1936 he moved t o Mexico C i t y , where he became
a p r o f e s s o r o f m u sic a t t h e C oleg io Aleman, d i r e c t i n g
t h e c h o i r and o r c h e s t r a . He resumed h i s s t u d i e s o f
c o m p o s i t i o n , harmony, c o u n t e r p o i n t , and fugu e w i t h
E m i l i a n a de Z u b e l d i a , who i s now p r o f e s s o r o f music a t
t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f So n ora i n H e r m o s i l l o . Fuchs m a r r i e d
M a r i a de l a Luz R e v u e l t a s , a s i s t e r o f t h e famous Mexican

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n o f t h e co p y rig h t o w n e r. F u r th e r re p r o d u c tio n proh ibited w ithout p e r m is s io n .

 V

27

co m po ser, S i l v e s t r e R e v u e l t a s , and was t h e r e b y d e f i n i t e l y

i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e L a t i n American c u l t u r a l l i f e . As
a c r i t i c and w r i t e r he has w r i t t e n a r t i c l e s f o r s e v e r a l
m aga zin es i n c l u d i n g C u l t u r a M u s i c a l , R e v i s t a M u sic a l
M e x i c a n a , S c h o l a Cantorum, and O r i e n t a c i o n M u s i c a l .^
Arno Fuchs w r o t e T res C ancion es (Thre e Songs)
b e tw ee n A p r i l and O c to ber o f 1944, a f t e r e i g h t y e a r s o f
r e s i d e n c e i n Mexico C i t y . He shows t h e i n f l u e n c e o f
F re n ch i m p r e s s i o n i s m i n t h e f i r s t s o n g , " C a l l e s " ( S t r e e t s ) ,
by t h e u se o f e l e v e n t h and t h i r t e e n t h c h o r d s , a r p e g g i o s ,
c h r o m a t i c s c a l e p a s s a g e s , and p e n t a t o n i c s c a l e s . A
r e p e a t e d r h y t h m i c f i g u r e i n t h e b a s s , e n d in g on F each
tim e, c re a te s a ped al-to n e e f f e c t .
Example 4. F u c h s, C a l l e s , No. 1 o f T res C a n c i o n e s ,
meas. 1-3.

fffT PT~
"Me G usta s Cuando C a l l a s " (I Li ce I t When You Are
O u i e t ) , number two, i s more i n d i c a t i v e o f t h e n e o ­
c l a s s i c a l s c h o o l , shown by t h e e x t e n s i v e u se o f

4 T h is i n f o r m a t i o n was t a k e n from t h e n o t e s g i v e n
i n t h e m u s i c , p u b l i s h e d by E d i t o r i a l C o o p e r a t i v a
I n t e r a m e r i c a n a de C o m p o sitore s o f M on tev id eo , Uruguay.
The t r a n s l a t i o n from t h e S p a n i s h i s by t h i s w r i t e r .

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n of t h e co p y rig h t o w n er. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n prohibited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .

 28

w e l l - d e f i n e d c o u n t e r p o i n t i n t h e accompaniment. The
melody remains q u i t e s i m p le and moves d i a t o n i c a l l y most
o f t h e tim e . The m id d le s e c t i o n o f th e A B A f o r m ,
s u g g e s t s a Bach c h o r a l e i n modern d r e s s .
The t h i r d s o ng , "La Decima" (The T e n t h ) , i s some­

what r e p e t i t i o u s m e l o d i c a l l y and h a r m o n i c a l l y . The rhythm

p a t t e r n s a r e Brahmsian, w i t h a t w o - a g a i n s t - t h r e e c o n s t r u c ­
ti o n co n tin u in g through th e p ie c e . The t i t l e "La Decima"
means t h a t i t i s t h e t e n t h poem o f t h e s e t . The t e x t s
o f t h e l a s t two song s a r e from V e i n t e Poemas de Amor
(Twenty Poems o f Love) by Pa blo Neruda.

Maria T eresa P r i e t o

M a ria T e r e s a P r i e t o i s a n o t h e r f o r e i g n - b o r n
composer who to o k up r e s i d e n c e i n Mexico. She s t u d i e d
p i a n o f o r t e i n t h e Academia de B e l l a s A r t e s o f Oviedo
u n d e r S a t u r n i n o d e l F r e s n o , and i n Ma drid she s t u d i e d
c o m p o s i t i o n w i t h B e n i t o G a r c i a de l a P a r r a . Toward t h e

end o f 1936 she a r r i v e d i n Mexico, where sh e c o n t i n u e d

h e r s t u d y o f c o m p o s i t i o n w i t h Manuel Ponce and o r c h e s t r a ­
t i o n w i t h C a r lo s Chavez. B e ginn ing i n 1939 sh e composed
a number o f symphonic w o r k s , a l l o f which have be en
p e r f o r m e d by t h e Symphonic O r c h e s t r a o f Mexico un d e r

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n of t h e co p y rig h t o w n er. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n prohibited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .

 29

Chavez. Her m usic has been i n f l u e n c e d by t h e t r a d i t i o n s

o f A s t u r i a s , a r e g i o n i n n o r t h w e s t S p a in on t h e Bay o f
Biscay. Her b i r t h p l a c e , Oviedo, was t h e o l d c a p i t a l o f

t h i s a n cien t province.
Mari a P r i e t o employs many o f t h e e a r l y t w e n t i e t h -
c e n t u r y European t e c h n i q u e s i n h e r c o m p o s i t i o n s . Her
a r t song s have key s i g n a t u r e s , b u t s e v e r a l b o r d e r on a t o n -
ality . They do n o t c o n t a i n t h e a s y m m e tr i c a l rhythms
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f L a t i n composers.
Odas C e l e s t e s , a s e t o f f i v e s o n g s , was p u b l i s h e d
i n 1952. The f i r s t s o n g , "Oda C e l e s t e " ( C e l e s t i a l Ode),
h a s t h e same t i t l e as a symphonic poem f o r o r c h e s t r a
and so p r a n o s o l o , w r i t t e n i n 1947. I t may be t h a t t h e
composer t r a n s c r i b e d a l l o r p a r t o f t h e symphonic poem
f o r v o i c e and p i a n o . This song a lo n g w i t h t h e se con d
o f t h e s e t , " C a n ta d , P a j a r o s " (Sing, Birds) i n d ic a t e s
P r i e t o 's e c le c tic post-im pressionistic, s ty le . There i s
an abundance o f d i s s o n a n t c o u n t e r p o i n t i n t e r m i n g l e d

w i t h c h r o m a t i c i s m , and w h o l e - t o n e s c a l e p a s s a g e s . The
m e l o d i e s a r e s e p a r a t e from t h e accompaniments e x c e p t
fo r occasional p o ints of im ita tio n .
"Mirando Las A l t a s Cumbres" (Watching t h e High
Summits) i s i n A B A form. The co m p o s er's C e l t i c b a c k ­
gro und i s r e v e a l e d i n i t s u n s o p h i s t i c a t e d melody which

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n of t h e co p y rig h t o w n er. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n prohibited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .

 30

r e s e m b l e s t h e ’’S i c i l i a n a " from M a s c a g n i ’s C a v a l l e r i a

R usticana.
Example 5. P r i e t o , Mirando Las A l t a s Cumbres, No. 3 o f
Odas C e l e s t e s , m e a s . 2 -6.

Again t h e accompaniment i s s e t o f f from t h e v o i c e

l i n e by c h r o m a t i c c o u n t e r p o i n t . The r i g h t ha nd c o n s i s t s
a lm o s t e n t i r e l y o f e i g h t h n o t e s .
The l a s t two songs have French t e x t s by Georges
B o u t e l l e a u and C h a r l e s l e G o f f i c . They a r e i n t h e same
s t y l e as t h e f i r s t two s o n g s , d e m o n s t r a t i n g a h i g h l y d e ­
v e l o p e d knoweldge o f c o u n t e r p o i n t .
Each o f t h e s i x songs o f Canciones Modales (Modal
Songs) i s s e t i n a d i f f e r e n t mode c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e
Church modes. P r i e t o s t a y s m ain ly w i t h i n t h e m e l o d i c
and h a rm on ic framework o f t h e modes, u s i n g a c c i d e n t a l s
sparingly. T heir melodic s i m p l i c i t y su g g ests a f o l k ­
song o r i g i n , p o s s i b l y from S p a i n . The c o u n t e r p o i n t
has been s i m p l i f i e d a c c o r d i n g l y , and t h e t e x t u r e i s
l i g h t e r than t h a t of previous com positions. The Can­
c i o n e s Modales l o o k and sound as i f t h e y may h a v e b een
w r i t t e n as an example o f modal c o m p o s i t i o n .

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n of t h e co p y rig h t o w n e r. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n prohibited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .

 31

CHAPTER I I I

NATIONALISTIC COMPOSERS

Manuel Ponce

Manuel Ponce (1882-1948) h o l d s an i m p o r t a n t p l a c e

i n m usic h i s t o r y , f o r he i s c o n s i d e r e d to the th e i n i t i a t o r
o f n a t i o n a l i s m i n t h e m usic o f Mexico. I t was t h i s
n a t i o n a l i s m t h a t p r o d u c e d t h e f i r s t modern "Mexican"
music.
As a c h i l d , Ponce s t u d i e d p i a n o w i t h h i s s i s t e r .
In 1905 he went t o Europe where he s t u d i e d c o m p o s i t i o n
i n B o lo g n a , and p i a n o i n B e r l i n w i t h M a r t i n K r a u se . It
was p r e v i o u s l y b e l i e v e d t h a t Ponce s t u d i e d w i t h E n r ic o
B o s s i i n B olo g n a, b u t l a t e r e v i d e n c e r e v e a l e d by R o b e r t
Stevenson c o n t r a d i c t s t h i s . Stevenson q u o t e s Dr. J e s u s
Romero (from Volume Two o f N u e s t r a M iisica, 1950) :
When i n I t a l y he a p p l i e d t o Marco E n r ic o B o s s i
f o r t u i t i o n , b u t B o s s i r e f u s e d him, s a y i n g : "Your
s t y l e i s too o l d - f a s h i o n e d ; y o u r music would have
b e en u p - t o - d a t e i n 1830 b u t n o t i n 1905. You have
t a l e n t b u t have b een i m p r o p e r l y t r a i n e d . " Ponce
t h e n s t u d i e d w i t h L u i g i T o r c h i i n t h e Liceo M u s ic a le
a t Bologna. A f t e r a y e a r i n I t a l y he went t o Germany.1

■'"Stevenson, pp . 232-233.

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n of t h e co p y rig h t o w n er. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n prohibited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .

 32

Upon h i s r e t u r n t o Mexico he t a u g h t p i a n o and music

h i s t o r y a t t h e N a t i o n a l C o n s e r v a t o r y , and i n 1912 h i s
p u p i l s p r e s e n t e d t h e f i r s t a l l - D e b u s s y program i n Mexico.
During t h i s same y e a r Ponce began composing Mexican songs
(Canciones M e x i c a n a s ) , a r r a n g i n g f o l k s o n g s , and w r i t i n g
e s s a y s t o f u r t h e r t h e de velopm ent of t h e f o l k idiom. Be
tween 1915 and 1917 he l i v e d i n Havana, Cuba, and i n 1916
t r a v e l e d t o New York, where he p e rf o r m e d a somewhat

u n s u c c e s s f u l r e c i t a l o f h i s own works.
I n 1925 Ponce went t o P a r i s and s t u d i e d c o u n t e r p o i n t
and o r c h e s t r a t i o n w i t h P a u l Dukas. He r e m a in e d t h e r e f o r
se ven y e a r s . A f t e r h i s P a r i s t r i p , Ponce began t o a l t e r
h i s s t y l e o f c o m p o s i t i o n tow a rd more c o n te m p o ra ry s o n o r i ­
ties. He p u t more emph asis on d i s s o n a n t c o n t r a p u n t a l l i n e s ,
and i n c r e a s e d t h e p o l y p h o n i c t r e a t m e n t o f t h e themes
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of the n e o c l a s s i c a l school.
Ponce i s i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y known as t h e composer o f
t h e f a m i l i a r " E s t r e l l i t a , " a song p u b l i s h e d i n 1914 i n a
c o l l e c t i o n o f h i s p o p u l a r so n g s . He composed a t o t a l
o f s i x t y - e i g h t o f t h i s ty p e o f song ( t h e y a r e m o s t ly
o ut o f p r i n t ) , and a r r a n g e d t w e n t y - s i x f o l k son g s .
His a r t song c o n t r i b u t i o n c o n s i s t e d o f n i n e c y c l e s , o f
which t h r e e a r e s t i l l a v a i l a b l e .

^"Manuel M. P o n c e , " Composers o f t h e A m e r i c a s ,

Vol. I , W a sh in g to n , D. C . : Pan American Un ion, 1955,
pp. 62-64.

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n o f t h e co p y rig h t o w n er. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n prohib ited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n

 33

Manuel Ponce w r o t e a l a r g e number o f c o m p o s it i o n s

i n which he g r a d u a l l y p r o c e e d e d from t h e r o m a n t ic s t y l e ,
th r o u g h t h e French i m p r e s s i o n i s t s c h o o l , t o a typ e o f
n a t i o n a l i s m c o n s i s t i n g o f n a t i v e and t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y

n e o c l a s s i c a l elements.
B e s i d e s h i s p r o l i f i c m u s i c a l c r e a t i o n s , Ponce
fo u n d ed and d i r e c t e d th e magazine C u l t u r a M u s i c a l , and,
a l o n g w i t h many o t h e r a c c o m p l i s h m e n t s , was D i r e c t o r o f t h e
N atio n al Conservatory. The c o n c e r t n a i l o f t h e I n s t i t u t e
de l a s B e l l a s A r t e s was named a f t e r him b e c a u s e o f h i s
c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o Mexican m usic.
Ponce composed Tres Poemas de Mariano B r u l l (Three
Poems by Mariano B r u l l ) i n 1931 w h i l e i n P a r i s . The songs
conform t o t h e i m p r e s s i o n i s t i c i d e a l s , b u t number one,
" G r a n a d a " , which was d e d i c a t e d t o Andres S e g o v i a , a l l u d e s
t o S p a i n i n t h e o r n a m e n t a t i o n a t t h e ends o f p h r a s e s .
R e f e r e n c e s a r e made t o th e famous g u i t a r i s t t h r o u g h th e
u s e o f f o i l e d chords on th e same n o t e s as t h e open s t r i n g s
o f a g u i t a r (E A D G B E ) ; t h e s e a r e l a t e r t r a n s p o s e d to

d i f f e r e n t keys.
The accompaniment o f " P o r e l I r d e l Rio" (Along t h e
R i v e r ' s Jo u r n e y ) c o n s i s t s e n t i r e l y o f a r p e g g i o s , m o d u la tin g
through s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t k ey s, b u t s t i l l s ta y in g w ith in
a t o n a l framework. The a r p e g g i o s r e p r e s e n t t h e r a p i d

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n of t h e co p y rig h t o w n er. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n prohibited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .

 flow o f t h e r i v e r , which g r a d u a l l y i n c r e a s e s i n s p e e d .
There a re s e v e r a l p l a y s on words i n t h e t h i r d song
The t i t l e can be d i v i d e d ( s y l l a b i f i e d ) t h r e e ways f o r

d i f f e r e n t m e a n in g s :
Verde Ha Lago--The Lake h a s ( i s ) g r e e n .
Verde H a lag o Green ( i n s i n c e r e ) f l a t t e r y .
Verdehalago No s p e c i f i c meaning; one o r
b o t h o f t h e above.
This l i t e r a r y s t y l e , i n which " n o n s e n s e ” words a r e
c r e a t e d t o s u i t t h e rhythm o r t h e rhyme, was o r i g i n a t e d
by Mariano B r u l l . The name f o r t h i s s t y l e , j i t a n j a f o r a ,
was c o i n e d b y . A l f o n s o Reyes and a l s o has no o t h e r meaning
The music i s i n t h e same p l a y f u l mood as th e t e x t , and
makes use o f j a z z rhythms and harm onies i n th e m id d le

s e c t i o n o f t h e A B A form.
Example 6. Ponce, V e r d e h a l a g o , No. 3 o f Tres Poemas de

Mariano B r u l l , meas. 20, 21.

KH . — I-" —M—1— —* ■ M M m g £
“I
9 W

_—■■— "--1
• i----——
-- m
_ .. -
S • ^V ---- ^
T his song would make a n i c e e n c o r e number, b u t t h e l i s ­
t e n e r would need t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e w o r d s , or more p r e ­
c i s e l y , what th e p o e t has done t o t h e words.

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n of t h e co p y rig h t o w n er. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n prohibited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .

 35

T res Poemas de Lermontow (Three Poems by Lermontow)

show P o n c e ' s p o s t - i m p r e s s i o n i s t i c s t y l e . The harmonies
a r e more complex, t h e t o n a l i t i e s more o b s c u r e , and t h e
accompaniment does n o t f o l l o w t h e v o c a l l i n e as c l o s e l y .
The poems were w r i t t e n o r i g i n a l l y i n R u s s i a n , t h e n t r a n s ­
l a t e d i n t o French. Ponce made t h e S p a n i s h v e r s i o n from
t h e French t r a n s l a t i o n . The e d i t i o n u s e d f o r t h i s s t u d y

c a r r i e s t h e t e x t i n F r e n c h , S p a n i s h , and E n g l i s h . The
s e t i s now o u t o f p r i n t , b u t t h e l i b r a r y o f t h e Conse rva-

t o r i o N a c i o n a l de Mtisica has a copy.

C u a tr o Poemas de F r a n c i s c o de I c a z a (Four Poems o f
F r a n c i s c o de I c a z a ) i s an example o f P o n c e ' s m idd le p e r i o d .
The c y c l e was p u b l i s h e d p osth u m o usly i n 1952 by h i s w i f e ,
Clema, who was a F r e n c h s i n g e r , and f o r whom Ponce w r o te
many o f h i s s o l o w o rk s .
The f i r s t s o n g , "De Oro" (Of G o l d ) , i s i n t w o - p a r t
form w i t h a coda d e r i v e d from t h e m a t e r i a l a t t h e b e g i n n i n g ,
a l l c e n t e r i n g arou n d t h e key o f E. The f i r s t s e c t i o n i s a
s i m p l e melody i n E min or o v e r a two-m easure o s t i n a t o . The
o s t i n a t o i s e x c l u s i v e l y q u a r t e r n o t e s i n common m e t e r . The
s e c o n d s e c t i o n i s more s e c u r e l y i n E m a j o r , i n 6/8 t i m e ,
w i t h more r a p i d m o tio n.
"La Sombra" (The Shadow) a l s o c e n t e r s aro und t h e
key o f E, and c o n s i s t s o f two m u s i c a l e l e m e n t s : th e w a l k i n g ,

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n o f t h e cop y rig h t o w n e r. F u r th e r re p ro d u c tio n p rohib ited w itho ut p e r m is s io n .

 36

and t h e dawn, ( m u s i c a l themes r e f e r r i n g to t h e t e x t ) .

M a r t i a l rhythms accompany t h o u g h t s o f y o u t h , w h i l e more
s t a t i c rhythms and a s l o w e r tempo i n d i c a t e dawn, o l d age
and d a r k n e s s .
"La F u e n t e " (The F o u n t a i n ) i s a s e c t i o n a l com posi­
t i o n i n which u n i t y i s a c h i e v e d t h r o u g h t h e u se o f r e c u r r i n g
p a r a l l e l s e v e n t h c h o r d s w i t h r e g u l a r e i g h t h - n o t e accompany­
ing f ig u r e s . Lik e t h e f i r s t two s o n g s , s h o r t r e c i t a t i v e ­
l i k e p a s s a g e s i n t e r r u p t t h e r h y t h m i c movement. In t h i s
c a s e . t h e r e c i t a t i v e c o n c l u d e s th e p i e c e .
T y p i c a l Mexican rhythms a r e d e m o n s t r a t e d by t h e
l a s t s o n g , "Camino A r r i b a " (Up t h e Road), i n which d u p le
and t r i p l e p u l s a t i o n s a r e i n t e r c h a n g e d w i t h i n t h e 6 / 8
framework. A m a jo r key i n t r o d u c e s t h e young man g o i n g
up t h e r o a d , w h i l e a m in or key i s a s s i g n e d t o t h e c o m p l a i n ­
i n g o f th e r i c h man. Though t h e words o f t h e young man's
song a r e r e p e a t e d i n t h e l a s t s e c t i o n , Ponce has s e t them
t o d i f f e r e n t m u s i c , t h i s tim e b u i l d i n g t o a f o r t e c l i m a x .
S e i s Canciones A r c a i c a s ( S ix A r c h a i c Songs) has
a l s o been r e f e r r e d t o as S e i s Poemas A r c a i c o s ( S ix
A r c h a i c Poems), and t h e t i t l e s seem to be i n t e r c h a n g e a b l e .
The f r o n t c o v e r o f t h e p u b l i s h e d songs u s e s " C a n c i o n e s , "
w h i l e "Poemas" i s p r i n t e d on t h e f i r s t p a g e . At any r a t e ,
t h e f i r s t poem o f t h e c o l l e c t i o n was w r i t t e n by J u a n d e l
E n c i n a , and th e r e s t a r e anonymous. The poems w ere w r i t t e n

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n of t h e co p y rig h t o w n e r. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n prohibited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .

 37

i n o l d S p a n i s h w i t h o c c a s i o n a l I t a l i a n words and s e n t e n c e s ,
such as " a N a p o li v o g l i o a n d a r " .
The m u s i c a l s t y l e s o f P o n c e ’ s s i x s e t t i n g s a re
. q u i t e r e s e r v e d and u n c o m p l i c a t e d , on t h e o r d e r o f th e
Spanish v i l l a n c i c o or the I t a l i a n f r o t t o l a . The h a r ­
monies a r e e i t h e r t o n a l o r modal, w i t h few c o n t r a s t s o r
m o d u l a t i o n s e x c e p t be tw ee n s e c t i o n s . The accompaniments
a r e p r i m a r i l y c h o r d a l , w i t h t h e rhythms and m elo d ies
u n d o u b t e d l y drawn from f o l k e l e m e n t s o f S p a in and I t a l y .
The c o m p o s i t i o n d a t e o f T res Poemas de E n r i q u e

Gonzalez M a r t i n e z (Three Poems o f E n r iq u e Gonzalez

M a r t i n e z ) i s n o t known, b u t t h e s t y l e i n d i c a t e s t h a t Ponce
s e t them t o music d u r i n g h i s i m p r e s s i o n i s t i c m id d le p e r i o d .
"N o ctu rn o de Las R o sa s” (No ctu rne o f t h e Roses) i s r e m i n i s ­
c e n t o f a Debussy n o c t u r n e w i t h t h e a d d i t i o n o f v o i c e and
text. I n !:Onda” (Wave), t h e se c o n d s o n g , Ponce h i n t s a t
th e m o ti o n o f w a t e r by use o f r i s i n g and f a l l i n g s e q u e n c e s ,
w i t h c o r r e s p o n d i n g c r e s c e n d o s and d im i n u e n d o s , o v e r a
b a r c a r o l l e rhythm i n t h e b a s s .
Example 7. Ponce, Onda, No. 2 o f T res Poemas de E n r iq u e
Gonzalez M a r t i n e z , meas. 4 , 5 .

3E^2Z3EZ53

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n of t h e co p y rig h t o w n er. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n prohibited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .

 38

Ponce c a s t t h e f i n a l song o f the s e t , "La Desp edid a"

( F a r e w e l l ) , i n a somber, m elan c h o ly mood, A polym etric

scheme betw een t h e v o i c e and p i a n o c r e a t e s a r h y t h m i c
t e n s i o n d e p i c t i n g t h e agony o f s a y i n g goodbye t o a lo v ed
one. The v o i c e p a r t i s i n 4 / 4 , and the p i a n o acc om pani­
ment i s w r i t t e n i n 1 2/8 f o r t h e f i r s t h a l f o f t h e p i e c e ;
then i t jo in s the voice in 4/4. At the c o n c l u s i o n th e
p i a n o accompaniment r e c a l l s t h e " h e t e r o - m e t r i c ' 1 d e s i g n .
The two s e t s o f c h i l d r e n s ' songs i n c l u d e d i n t h i s
s t u d y may n o t c o n t r i b u t e m a t e r i a l l y to t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g
o f P o n c e 's m u s i c a l d e v elo pm e nt. They do i n d i c a t e h i s
b r o a d i n t e r e s t s , and i t i s hoped t h a t t h e y m ig ht s e r v e as
an impetus f o r f u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n of h i s works i n t h e
f i e l d o f c o m p a r a t i v e e l e m e n t a r y e d u c a t i o n , which i s o u t ­

s i d e t h e sco pe o f t h i s s u r v e y .

C a r l o s Chavez

C a r lo s Chavez ( b . 1899) i s t h e most o u t s t a n d i n g

m u s i c a l f i g u r e o f Mexico i n t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y . He
has been i n v o l v e d i n e v e r y a s p e c t o f M e xico 's m usic as a
c o n d u c t o r , com poser, p i a n i s t , m u s i c o l o g i s t , e d u c a t o r , and
executive. He h a s i n f l u e n c e d t h e m u s i c a l development of
Mexico s i n c e h i s e a r l y t w e n t i e s . Along w i t h h a v i n g w r i t t e n
a l a r g e number o f c o m p o s i t i o n s i n many fo rm s, he h a s been
D i r e c t o r o f th e N a t i o n a l C o n s e r v a t o r y o f Music, C h i e f o f

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n of t h e co p y rig h t o w n er. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n prohibited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .

 39

t h e N a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e o f Fine A r t s , Head o f th e Department

o f F in e A r t s o f t h e S e c r e t a r i a t o f P u b l i c E d u c a t i o n , and
f o u n d e r and d i r e c t o r o f t h e O r q u e s t a S i n f o n i c a de Mexico.
Chavez began h i s e a r l y m u s i c a l t r a i n i n g by s t u d y i n g
p i a n o w i t h Manuel Ponce and Pedro Ogazon. (The l a t t e r was
a d e v o te e o f t h e V i r g i l C l a v i e r Method). When Chdvez was
t e n y e a r s o l d he made a rr a n g e m e n ts o f Mexican so n g s ,
composed s h o r t p i e c e s f o r p i a n o , and w r o t e a symphony a t
t h e age o f e i g h t e e n . He t h e n s t u d i e d t h e o r y and harmony
w i t h Ju a n B. F u e n t e s w h i l e he was s t i l l i n h i s t e e n s . In
t h e t h r e e s u c c e e d i n g y e a r s he w r o t e e x t e n s i v e l y f o r
o r c h e s t r a , p i a n o , i n s t r u m e n t a l e n sem b le, and v o i c e . A ll
o f t h e s e e a r l y c o m p o s it i o n s r e f l e c t t h e r o m a n t i c and im­

p r e s s i o n i s t i c w r i t in g of t h i s p e rio d .
I n 1922 he t r a v e l e d t o Europe, and from t h e f o l l o w ­

in g y e a r u n t i l 1928 he s p e n t c o n s i d e r a b l e time i n New York,

where he composed and became a s s o c i a t e d w i t h v a r i o u s modern
music s o c i e t i e s . While i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s Chavez became
i n t e r e s t e d i n th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f e l e c t r o n i c music and i n
h i s book, Toward a New Music: Music and E l e c t r i c i t y (1937),
he p r e d i c t s t h a t p e r f o r m e r s w i l l be e l i m i n a t e d as middle
men between composers and l i s t e n e r s t h r o u g h t h e use o f
sound f i l m . During t h i s time he a l s o began i n c o r p o r a t i n g
i n t o h i s music f o l k m a t e r i a l t a k e n from i n d i g e n o u s I n d i a n

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n o f t h e co p y rig h t o w n e r. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n prohibited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .

 40

and m e s t i z o e l e m e n t s , which a r e t h e b a s i c i n g r e d i e n t s
o f t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y Mexican n a t i o n a l i s t i c m u s i c . He

c o n t i n u e d t o . d e v e l o p h i s own p e r s o n a l m u s i c a l s t y l e which
r e s u l t e d i n a c o m b i n a t i o n o f a u s t e r e p r i m i t i v i s m and
S trav in sk y -lik e neoclassicism . In s e v e r a l o f h i s o r c h e s t r a l
works he has w r i t t e n p a r t s f o r p r i m i t i v e n a t i v e i n s t r u m e n t s .
There i s no u p - t o - d a t e l i s t i n g i n E n g l i s h o f
Chavez1 u n p u b l i s h e d a r t s o n g s . The a p p e n d ix a t t h e end
o f t h i s p a p e r i n c l u d e s a l l o f Chavez' p u b l i s h e d songs
and s e t s . The f o l l o w i n g c o m p o s it i o n s a r e s t i l l i n manu­
scrip t:
C u a tro P i e z a s p a r a Canto y Pia no
"Extase"
"Du B i s t Wie E in e Blume"
"E stre lla s Fijas"
" I n s t i l Epigramma"
Tres Exdgonos p a r a Canto y Piano
"Amar, Toda l a Vida en L lamas"
" L l e g a d , Oh Dulces Horas"
"Amada, Dejame Ver l a Luna"
Otros T res Exagonos^ ( f o r f o u r wind i n s t r u m e n t s ,
p i a n o and v o i c e )
"E l Buque Ha Chocado con l a Luna"
"iAdonde Va Mi Corazon?"
"Cuando e l T r a s a t l a n t i c o P a sa b a"
C u a tro N oc turn os de V i l l a u r r u t i a ( f o r s o p r a n o ,
c o n t r a l t o and o r c h e s t r a )
"No ctu rn o"
"Nocturno Sueno"
"Nocturno de l a E s t a t u a "
"Noc turno en Que Nada se Oye"

^This w r i t e r has a m a n u s c r i p t copy o f t h i s s e t .

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n o f t h e co p y rig h t o w n e r. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n proh ibited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .

 41

The two songs o f Dos Canciones were composed t e n

y e a r s a p a r t , b u t were combined f o r p u b l i c a t i o n . They
bear l i t t l e r e s e m b l a n c e to e ac h o t h e r , e x c e p t t h e f a c t
t h a t t h e y were t h e o n l y s i n g l e songs t h a t h a d n o t be en
published. "Todo" ( A l l ) was w r i t t e n i n 1932. In t h e
same y e a r Chavez w r o t e h i s S t r i n g Q u a r t e t Number Two and
T i e r r a Mojada f o r mixed c h o r u s , o bo e , and E n g l i s h h o r n .
"Todo': i s t h r o u g h - c o m p o s e d and marked by an extreme
economy o f m u s i c a l m a t e r i a l s . The accompaniment r a r e l y
has more t h a n t h r e e s i m u l t a n e o u s n o t e s , and n e v e r more
t h a n f i v e , u s u a l l y o u t l i n i n g two d i f f e r e n t k e y s . The
melody does n o t conform t o any p a t t e r n . I t is derived
from t h e p e n t a t o n i c s c a l e , and L ydia n mode, and m inor
s c a l e s w i t h numerous a u g m e n t e d - f o u r t h s k i p s . Despite
t h e f r e q u e n t change i n t h e m e t e r , t h e rhythm i s n o t o v e r l y
complex compared t o o t h e r works by Chavez.
The theme o f " N o r t h C a r o l i n a B l u e s " i s r e p e a t e d i n
A m in o r i n e a c h o f t h e r e c u r r i n g s e c t i o n s o f a m o d i f i e d
rondo form. Fragm en ts o f t h e theme a r e t r a n s p o s e d i n t o
E m ino r and D m in or i n t r a n s i t i o n a l p a s s a g e s . Chavez
has a d ded s t r i d e n t d i s s o n a n c e s t o a j a z z id io m , w i t h an
i n t r i c a t e r h y t h m i c p a t t e r n , t o g i v e a f u t u r i s t i c a u r a to
the " b lu e s " .
The t e x t s o f T res Poemas P a r a Canto y Pia n o were
w r i t t e n by C a r l o s P e i l i c e r , S a l v a d o r Novo, and X a v i e r

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n of t h e co p y rig h t o w n e r. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n prohibited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .

 42

V illa u rru tia , respectively. These men a r e c o n t e m p o r a r i e s

o f Chavez and c o n s i d e r e d t o be t h r e e o f t h e most o u t s t a n d ­
i n g Mexican p o e t s o f t h e i r g e n e r a t i o n .
" E l S e g a d o r" (The Reaper) i s a good example o f t h e
u s e o f t h e two b a s i c Mexican e le m e n t s - - a b o r i g i n a l and
m estizo. Chavez r e c a l l s t h e a b o r i g i n a l m u sic by t h e use
o f open f o u r t h s .
Example 8. Chavez, El S e g a d o r , No. 1 o f Three Poems,

meas. 37-40.

He makes c o n s i d e r a b l e u s e o f t h e m ajor s e c o n d i n m elo d ic

phrases. The p a r a l l e l t h i r d s which o c c u r s e v e r a l tim es
a r e a r e f l e c t i o n o f n i n e t e e n t h and t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y
folksongs.
Example 9. C havez, El S e g a d o r , meas. 6 1 - 6 3 .

J :IS2.
) —7------------------ k —
Vb — J
1 ------- 1
M

- * Is- - - - - - - - - 4 0

K 1— 1 cy

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m is s io n of t h e cop y rig h t o w n e r. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n prohibited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .

 43

Chavez d e m o n s t r a t e s i m a g i n a t i v e u s e o f rhythm by com­

b i n i n g 2 / 4 , 3 / 4 , and 5 / 4 , The t y p i c a l Mexican combina­
t i o n o f 6/8 and 3/4 m e t e r s , i n t e r c h a n g e d and su p erim p osed
o v e r each o t h e r , prod u ce r h y t h m i c v a r i e t y . A prim itive
e f f e c t c e n t e r e d on E s i g n i f i e s t h e I n d i a n e l e m e n t , w h i l e
i n t h e a l t e r n a t i n g f o l k - l i k e s e c t i o n s , a B-major t o n a l i t y
predom inates.
The se co n d o f t h e Three Poems, "Hoy No L u c i / l a
E s t r e l l a de Tus Ojos" (Now From Your Eyes No Longer Shines
the S t a r l i g h t ) , is s e t in a v e in s i m i l a r to the f i r s t
s o n g , "El S e g a d o r . " The melody b e g i n s by o u t l i n i n g f o u r
n o t e s o f th e p e n t a t o n i c s c a l e , t h e n p r o c e e d s modally
t h r o u g h s e v e r a l s e c t i o n s , u s i n g t h e P h r y g i a n , A e o l i a n , and
D o r i a n modes. The l e f t hand o f t h e accompaniment o f t e n
moves i n p a r a l l e l m otion on i n t e r v a l s o f p e r f e c t f o u r t h s
and m a j o r n i n t h s . The harmony i s somewhat u n p r e d i c t a b l e
b e c a u s e o f t h e sudden u n p r e p a r e d changes from m o d a l i t y
t o m a j o r k e y s , and v i c e v e r s a .
Chdv'ez' s e t t i n g o f " N o c tu r n a Rosa” ( N o c tu r n a l
Rose) makes use o f t h e same b a s i c m a t e r i a l as th e two
p r e v i o u s so n g s . However, t h e s e c o n d s e c t i o n i s q u i t e
chrom atic. The accompaniment f o l l o w s t h e same n o t e s as

t h e v o i c e l i n e , b u t i s s p r e a d o v e r more t h a n f o u r o c ta v e s
by d i s p l a c e m e n t . In th e c o n c l u d i n g measure o f t h e s e c t i o n
t h e r i g h t h and o f t h e accompaniment c o i n c i d e s w i t h t h e

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n o f t h e co p y rig h t o w n e r. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n proh ibited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .

 44

melody, w h i l e t h e l e f t hand i s w r i t t e n a minor n i n t h below,

w i t h e v e r y o t h e r n o t e d i s p l a c e d one o c t a v e l o w e r. Chavez
a p p l i e s t h e c h r o m a t i c s i n a t e x t u r e r e s e m b l i n g Webern's
s e r i a l com positions.
Example 10. Chavez, N o c tu rn a Rosa, No. 3 o f Three Poems,

meas. 11-13.

"La Casada I n f i e l " (The F a i t h l e s s Wife) i s t h e

l o n g e s t poem Chavez has s e t t o m usic. I t is a narrativ e
by t h e p o e t F e d e r i c o G a r c i a L o r c a , t h e w e ll-known S p a n i s h
w r i t e r who was s h o t by t h e Franco f o r c e s d u r i n g t h e
S p a n i s h C i v i l War i n 1936. The s t o r y t e l l s o f a man who
made l o v e t o a g i r l w i t h o u t knowing she was m a r r i e d . Two
r e c u r r i n g m o t i f s , b a s e d on t y p i c a l Mexican f o l k t u n e s ,
g i v e t h e work a q u a l i t y o f c o h e r e n c e . At t h e b e g i n n i n g
and end o f t h e p i e c e , one m o t i f r e f e r s t o t h e man and
a n o t h e r r e f e r s t o t h e woman. Both m o t i f s a r e u t i l i z e d
t h r o u g h o u t t h e p i e c e , b u t i n t h e m id dle s e c t i o n do n o t
r e f e r t o any p a r t i c u l a r p e r s o n ; t h e y a r e u s e d m ainly as
a u n ify in g m usical device.

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m is s io n o f t h e cop y rig h t o w n e r. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n p rohib ited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .

 45

Example 11a. Chavez, La Casada I n f i e l , meas. 197-199,

( M o t i f No. 13

dt

k k
Example l i b . La Casada I n f i e l , meas. 9 -11 .
( M o t i f No. 2)

51 $ j
V

The d i s s o n a n t harm onies and complex rhythms a r e

given a t e r s e tre a tm e n t. The accompaniment o f t h e f i r s t
p a r t o f t h e song i s made up o f i n t r i c a t e l i n e s o f con­
s i d e r a b l e s t r i d e n c y , w hile the l a s t o n e -th ir d is p r e ­
dom inantly c h o rd a l. Between t h e m e l o d i c p h r a s e s ,
r e c i t a t i v e - l i k e s e c t i o n s emphasize t h e d e t a i l s o f t h e
story.

S i l v e s t r e R e v u e l ta s

S i l v e s t r e R e v u e l t a s was b o r n i n t h e s t a t e o f Durango,
Mexico, one day b e f o r e th e new c e n t u r y , December 31, 1899,
and d i e d i n 1940 i n Mexico C i t y . His r u d i m e n t a r y m u s i c a l
t r a i n i n g began i n Colima (1907) when he began t h e s t u d y
of v io lin . He t h e n c o n t i n u e d a t t h e I n s t i t u t o J u a r e z i n t h e

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n of t h e co p y rig h t o w n e r. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n prohibited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .

 46

c i t y o f Durango. From 1913 t o 1916 he s t u d i e d v i o l i n

w i t h J o s ^ Rocabruna and c o m p o s i t i o n w i t h R a f a e l T e l l o a t
t h e C o n s e r v a t o r i o N a c i o n a l de Musica i n Mexico C i t y .
In A u s t i n , T e x a s , he e n r o l l e d a t S t . Edward C o l l e g e , and
i n 1918 he went t o C h i c a g o , where he s p e n t two y e a r s
s t u d y i n g v i o l i n w i t h S a m e t i n i and c o m p o s i t i o n w i t h F e l i x
Borowski a t t h e Chicago M u s ic a l C o l l e g e .
During t h e f o l l o w i n g two y e a r s he was i n Mexico
g i v i n g v i o l i n r e c i t a l s , and i n 1922 r e t u r n e d t o Chicago
t o complete h i s f o u r - y e a r c o u r s e . I n 1924 and 1925 he
was c o n c e r t i z i n g a g a i n i n Mexico, t h i s tim e w i t h C a r lo s
Chdvez a t t h e p i a n o . The n e x t two y e a r s were s p e n t i n
San A n t o n i o , T e x a s , and M o b i l e , Alabama, as t h e a t e r v i o l i n ­
i s t and o r c h e s t r a c o n d u c t o r . He l e f t t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s f o r
t h e l a s t tim e i n 1929 t o t a k e t h e p o s t o f a s s i s t a n t con­
d u c t o r o f t h e O r q u e s t a S i n f d n i c a de Mdxico u n d e r C a r l o s
Chdvez.
I t was d u r i n g t h e f i v e - y e a r p e r i o d w i t h t h i s o r c h e s ­
t r a t h a t he began composing, a f t e r he was t h i r t y y e a r s o f
ag e. I t was t h r o u g h Chavez' enco urag em en t t h a t he w r o t e
h is f i r s t com positions. Meanwhile he j o i n e d t h e f a c u l t y
a t th e C o n s e r v a t o r i o N a c i o n a l as p r o f e s s o r o f v i o l i n and
d i r e c t o r o f chamber c o n c e r t s . R e v u e l t a s was a s s o c i a t e d
w i t h t h e music s e c t i o n o f t h e L o y a l i s t Government d u r i n g
t h e S p a n i s h C i v i l War, a p p e a r i n g i n m ajor c i t i e s as

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n o f t h e co p y rig h t o w n e r. F u r th e r re p r o d u c tio n proh ibited w ithout p e r m is s io n .

 47

c o n d u c t o r o f h i s own w orks. I n 1938 he r e t u r n e d to Mexico

C i t y t o spend h i s l a s t two y e a r s t e a c h i n g and composing.
"E l T e c o l o t e " (The Owl) i s f u l l o f t h e s a r c a s t i c
w it R evueltas o f te n d isp la y e d . The rhythm o f t h e f o l k ­
l i k e melody comes from t h e h u a p a n g o , a p o p u l a r Mexican
dance combining 2 / 4 , 3 / 4 , and 6 /8 i n a l i v e l y tempo. The
accompaniment c o n s i s t s o f two c o n t r a s t i n g f i g u r e s ; one
f o r t h e I n d i a n ho rseman who has r u n away w i t h t h e r a n c h e r ' s
woman, and t h e o t h e r f o r t h e r a n c h e r o .
Example 11a. R e v u e l t a s , El T e c o l o t e , meas. 7-10.
( I n d i a n Hors em an's Theme)

r 2 --i r 2 . —i
~
- H
- f — f - - M _____ J ------- 0
■ w
[1 - 0
: = y =
t k * • m » 0 * 0
0
<)'-< h t, U m l —19— m — $ — m— f - t - f — i z t c
T ~ f T ':
u y . f — = H = —
1__

Example 1 2 b . ' El T e c o l o t e , meas-. 2 4 ,2 5 .

( R a n c h e r o ' s Theme)

4 ^ — j _ i «w -J
^ 0 *
I
. . . , ^ \ P ? T
------- 2 ------- 1 f ------------ — f - — ^ — ---------{f ---------

f l _ J f j
■ H d f c H d

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n of t h e co p y rig h t o w n e r. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n prohibited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .

 48

The p i a n o i n t r o d u c t i o n i s i n m ajor. At t h e con­

c l u s i o n o f t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n , t h e p i a n o assumes (w ith no
m o d u la t io n ) t h e key o f B m a j o r , w h i l e t h e v o i c e e n t e r s
i n th e o r i g i n a l key o f A*5 m a j o r .

The r a n c h e r o m u t t e r s c u r s e a f t e r c u r s e upon t h e
horseman f o r r u n n i n g away w i t h h i s woman. While J i s
h e a r t b e a t s and s h a k e s , he remembers t h a t t h e horseman
i s pure In d ian . For h i s vengeance he o n l y hopes t h a t the
owl w i l l s i n g , b e c a u s e i n Mexico t h e r e is a s u p e r s t i t i o n
t h a t an I n d i a n d i e s when an owl s i n g s .
In "Ranas" ( B u l l f r o g s ) R e v u e l t a s p o r t r a y s an ex-
p r e s s i o n i s t i c p i c t u r e o f t h e sounds o f a f r o g pond a t
n i g h t , which h a r k back t o preh isto ric tim es. He shows
h i s own u n iq u e s t y l e o f b i t o n a l i t y w i t h u n r e l a t e d m elo dic
fr a g m e n ts o v e r a f i x e d b a s i s o f r h y t h m i c movement--
o s t i n a t o f i g u r e s , and f r e q u e n t d i s s o n a n t c l a s h e s betw een
th e d i f f e r e n t m e l o d i c l i n e s . The f o l k e l e m e n t , so common
t o R e v u e l t a s ’ m u s i c , i s n o t too a p p a r e n t i n t h i s s o n g ,
p o s s i b l y due t o added c h r o m a t i c i s m . The rhythm o f t h e
accompaniment p r o v e s t o be q u i t e i n v o l v e d w i t h i t s a l t e r ­
n a t i n g j u x t a p o s i t i o n o f b i n a r y and t e r n a r y f i g u r e s .

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n of t h e co p y rig h t o w n er. F u r th e r re p r o d u c tio n prohibited w ithout p e r m is s io n .

 49

Example 13. R e v u e l t a s , R a n a s, meas. 13, 14,

~~:~"»------'--------- r

p m
f
pi9

fe:
Ini
^jT b(j
"Duo P a r a Pato' y C a n a r i o " C^uet f o r a Duck and a
Canary) was w r i t t e n o r i g i n a l l y f o r v o i c e and s m a l l o r c h e s ­
t r a , b u t was t r a n s c r i b e d f o r p i a n o s h o r t l y t h e r e a f t e r .
The poem i s c a l l e d a r e t r u e ' c a n o , (a p l a y on words) , and
i s somewhat s i m i l a r a t tim es t o t h e j i t a n j / f o r a by Mariano
B r u l l which was s e t to music by Manuel Ponce. The d i f ­
f e r e n c e i s t h a t i n t h e r e t r u e 'c a n o new words a r e n o t
c o i n e d t o c o n s t r u c t th e s e n s e l e s s rhyme. For exam ple,
t h e p o e t , C a r l o s B a r r e r a , u se s mnemonic p h r a s e s suc h a s :
A, E, I , 0 , U, - - e l b u r r o sa be m/s que t / .
(A, E, I , 0 , U, - - t h e jackass knows more than you.)

This t e c h n i q u e i s u se d t o h e l p c h i l d r e n l e a r n t h e f i v e
vowels o f t h e S p a n i s h l a n g u a g e . There i s a l s o a b r i e f
l e s s o n i n unaccompanied s o l f e g g i o :

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n of t h e co p y rig h t o w n er. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n prohibited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .

 50

Example 14. R e v u e l t a s , Due P a r a P a t o y C a n a r i o , meas

38-41.

\----------------- ■■t I K
»—^ - - H 0 ------ + ~ 1&0 L J—
a - 7 - ^ f ■' J
I-#* .Ll ^ — T J - Z -----------------------,---------------.
—

re -iy\ •e-> 4 Cm let. S i be

The c o m p o s i t i o n a l t e c h n i q u e o f "Duo P a r a P a to y
C a n a r i o " i s s i m i l a r t o t h e two p r e v i o u s s o n g s , w i t h d i s ­
j u n c t m e l o d i c l i n e s , b i t o n a l o s t i n a t o s i n accompaniment,
i n t r i c a t e rhythm p a t t e r n s and m e t e r c h an g e s, and h a r s h
dissonances.
The t h r e e s o n g s , " T e c o l o t e , ” " R a n a s , ” and "Duo P a r a
P a t o y C a n a r i o " would make good r e c i t a l e n c o r e m a t e r i a l .
"Canto de Una Muchacha Negra" (Song f o r a Dark
G i r l ) i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f h i s l a t e s t p e r i o d i n which he
f e l t c o m p e ll e d " t o i n t e r p r e t and g i v e forum t o t h e s u f ­
f e r i n g o f t h e Negro o p p r e s s e d by c e n t u r i e s o f m i s e r y .
R e v u e l t a s p r e s u m a b ly made h i s own t r a n s l a t i o n o f L angsto n
Hughes' poem from E n g l i s h i n t o S p a n i s h . The v o i c e p a r t
i s w r i t t e n on two d i f f e r e n t l i n e s , one f o r t h e S p a n i s h and
one f o r t h e o r i g i n a l E n g l i s h v e r s i o n . ^ The poem i s a b o u t
a Negro g i r l whose l o v e r was hung "Way Down South i n D i x i e . "

^Otto M a y e r - S e r r a , " S i l v e s t r e R e v u e l t a s and M us ic a l

N a t i o n a l i s m i n M e x ico ," M u sic a l Q u a r t e r l y , XXVI No. 2
( A p r i l , 1941) , p . 128.
^ S i l v e s t r e R e v u e l t a s , Canto de Una Muchacha N e g r a ,
Edward B. Marks Music C o r p o r a t i o n , p . 1.

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n of t h e co p y rig h t o w n e r. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n prohibited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .

 51

The v o c a l p a r t i s i n p a r l a n d o s t y l e , o v e r a slow-moving
accompaniment a lm o s t l i k e a d i r g e , b u i l d i n g r h y t h m i c
i n t e n s i t y from whole and h a l f n o t e s t o q u a r t e r n o t e s .
The r e p e a t e d f i g u r e s a r e framed i n a D - f l a t and E - f l a t
b i t o n a l a r r a n g e m e n t.
Example 15. R e v u e l t a s , Canto de Una Muchacha Negra,
a. meas. 1. b. meas. 13. c. meas. 16.
A A A

) j? 1 ...i j ______i |
f,\ 1w — -k-
7 *T“
9 —■9 ~ 1'"If "" ... i P
--------4m
N -----------g >----------<¥ -----

sf PPP
.-.b o t 1-------c *
»— >— >---------4t------
rf----------
V V

Dos Canciones i s composed i n a more c o n s e r v a t i v e

style. "Amiga Que Te Vas" ( D e p a r t i n g F r i e n d ) i s q u i t e
i m p r e s s i o n i s t i c i n s o n o r i t y , b u t i t i s c l e a r l y Mexican
im pressionism . There i s a b u nd an t u s e o f c h r o m a t i c i s m ,
augmented chord s and a r p e g g i o s , s u g g e s t i n g s e v e r a l d i f ­
f e r e n t keys b u t o n ly b r i e f l y r e m a i n i n g i n any one.
R e v u e l t a s shows t h a t he i s a l s o c a p a b l e o f s u b l i m i t y and
s e n t i m e n t as w e l l as h i s s a t i r i c a l i r o n y , which a t tim e s
b o r d e r s on b i t t e r n e s s .
"Caminando" (Walking) m ig h t have been w r i t t e n f o r
v o i c e and s m a l l o r c h e s t r a i n 1937, as Slonimsky i n d i c a t e s . ^

^Slon im sky , p. 250.

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n of t h e co p y rig h t o w n e r. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n prohibited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .

 52

The c a t a l o g o f h i s works p u b l i s h e d i n t h e Pan American

U n i o n 's Composers o f t h e Americas b u l l e t i n , shows Two
Songs f o r v o i c e and v a r i o u s i n s t r u m e n t s were composed
i n 1937 w i t h t e x t s by N i c o ld s G u i l le 'n , b u t t h e t i t l e s
are n o t given. With h i s 194 0'C o m p o s i t io n s i s l i s t e d
Dos Ca ncion es f o r v o i c e and p i a n o , one o f them b e i n g
"Caminando" ( t e x t by N i c o l / s G u i l l e n ) . The song i s n o t
l i s t e d i n o t h e r c a t a l o g u e s o f t h e works o f R e v u e l t a s .
The m u s i c a l s t y l e o f "Caminando" i s t h e same
l y r i c a l r o m a n t i c i s m which i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f R e v u e l t a s '
e a r l i e s t com positions. The Mexican f o l k idio m i s a p p a r e n t
i n t h e melody which i s h a rm o n ize d i n s i x t h s . The p i a n o
p a r t c o n s i s t s m a in ly o f a p e d a l to n e on low F w i t h r e p e t i ­
t i o u s s y n c o p a t i o n s a f i f t h above. A s h o rt m otif rec u rrs
t h r o u g h o u t t h e s o n g , p o s s i b l y t o d e p i c t t h e monotony o f
w a l k i n g lo ng d i s t a n c e s .
Example 16. R e v u e l t a s , Caminando, No. 2 o f Dos C a n c i o n e s ,
meas. 18.

Uw.' f- » tj 6

Luis Sandi
L uis Sa nd i (b. 1905) s t u d i e d v i o l i n , v o i c e , and

c o m p o s i t i o n a t t h e C o n s e r v a t o r y o f Music i n Mexico C i t y .

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n of t h e co p y rig h t o w n er. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n prohibited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .

 53

A f t e r c o m p l e t i o n o f h i s s c h o o l i n g , he became a c h o i r
d i r e c t o r and s p e c i a l i z e d i n v o c a l m usic; however, he has
w r i t t e n some i n s t r u m e n t a l w o r k s . El Venado, w r i t t e n f o r
v o i c e and i n s t r u m e n t a l e n s e m b l e , u s e s n a t i v e Mexican
instrum ents. I t was composed i n 19 32, and rem a in s i n
7
m anuscript. The themes a r e b a s e d on p r i m i t i v e Yaqui
Indian tunes. His o n e - a c t o p e r a , C a r l o t a was p e r f o r m e d
i n Mexico C i t y i n 1948.
Sa ndi has worked e x t e n s i v e l y i n t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n
o f m usical a f f a i r s . P o s i t i o n s which he has o c c u p i e d i n ­
clude: G e n era l D i r e c t o r o f t h e N a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e o f Fine
A r t s , C h i e f o f t h e Departm ent o f Music o f t h e S e c r e t a r i a t
o f P u b l i c E d u c a t i o n , and Head o f t h e School Music S e c t i o n
o f t h a t D epartm en t. His c o n t r i b u t i o n to music e d u c a t i o n
i n M e xico ’ i s n o t e w o r t h y , b e c a u s e o f h i s e a r l y a p p l i c a t i o n
o f t h e c u r r e n t t r e n d s i n " co m p r e h en s iv e m u s i c i a n s h i p . "
S t e v e n s o n d e s c r i b e s one o f S a n d i* s music t e x t b oo k s:
I n h i s I n t r o d u c c i o 'n a l E s t u d i o de l a Mifsica, 1948
e d i t i o n , Sandi p r e s e n t e d m u sic t h e o r y and h i s t o r y as
a synchronized study. I t is his b e li e f th a t "ap­
p r e c i a t i o n " courses f o r secondary s tu d e n ts should
t e a c h t h e r u d i m e n ts o f m usic t h e o r y f i r s t . The
f i r s t eight u n its in h is tw enty-nine-unit te x t
d e a l w i t h what we u s u a l l y i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s
c a l l " f u n d a m e n ta l s o f t h e o r y " . The t e n t h and
e l e v e n t h u n i t s d e a l w i t h p re-C olu m bia n music i n

7
"L u is S a n d i , " Composers o f t h e A m e r i c a s , Vol. XIV,
W ash in g to n, D. C.: Pan American Union, 1968, p . 150

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n of t h e co p y rig h t o w n e r. F u r th e r r e p ro d u c tio n p rohibited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .

 54

Mexico and P e r u r e s p e c t i v e l y . The l a s t two u n i t s

d e a l w i t h c o l o n i a l and r e p u b l i c a n m usic i n Mexico.
In 1938 Sandi o r g a n i z e d t h e Coro de M a d r i g a l i s t a s
which soon was r e c o g n i z e d as one o f t h e f i n e s t c h o i r s i n
L a t i n A m erica. Sandi has made t w e n t y - e i g h t c h o r a l a r ­
range ments and f o u r t r e b l e a rr a n g e m e n ts o f p o p u l a r Mexican
s o n g s , a l l p r i m a r i l y f o r use i n t h e p u b l i c s c h o o l s .
Diez H a i k a i s (Ten H a i k a i s ) i s S a n d i* s f i r s t
p u b l i s h e d v o c a l s o l o m u sic. The t e x t i s p a t t e r n e d a f t e r
t h e J a p a n e s e h a i k a i , which c o n s i s t s o f two o r t h r e e
unrhymed l i n e s . The p o e t , J o s / Ju a n T a b l a d a , made t h e
l i t e r a r y s t y l e p o p u l a r i n Mexico a f t e r h a v i n g l i v e d i n
Japan. An o r i e n t a l f l a v o r p e r v a d e s a l l o f t h e s h o r t
songs. Every melody i s b u i l t on some form o f t h e p e n t a -
to n ic or o r i e n t a l s c a l e . O s t i n a t o f i g u r e s a r e common,
b e i n g c o m p r i s e d o f a r p e g g i o s , c o n s e c u t i v e open f i f t h s o f
two k e y s , o r p a r a l l e l p a s s a g e s betw een t h e two hands o f
the p ian o . At t i m e s t h e accompaniment p a r a l l e l s t h e v o i c e
i n t r i a d s , u s i n g t h e melody f o r t h e r o o t .
The t e n so ng s o f t h e s h o r t c y c l e a r e s k e t c h e s o f
n a tu re , anim als, t r e e s , or p la n ts . The S p a n i s h t i t l e s
a re g i v e n i n t h e a p p e n d i x . The E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n s a re

8
S t e v e n s o n , p . 261.

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m is s io n of t h e cop y rig h t o w n e r. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n prohibited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .

 55

l i s t e d below:
1. The Peacock
2. The Bees.
3. The Willow
4. The Bumble Bee
5. The Dolp hins
6. The D e v i l ' s Horse (The D ra g o n f ly )
7. The A lligator
8. The B u tterfly
9. The Flying Fish
10. The Bamboo
"El Pavo Real" (The Peacock) b e g i n s w i t h a c h o rd
p r o g r e s s i o n b u i l t on a d e s c e n d i n g E ^-m ajo r s c a l e i n t h e
piano. The o s t i n a t o o f "El A b e j o r r o " (The Bee) i s two
c h r o m a t i c s c a l e s o f a m a j o r t h i r d , moving i n c o n t r a r y
m o ti o n w i t h each group b e g i n n i n g a t h i r d a p a r t .
Example 17. Sandi, El A b e j o r r o , No. 4 o f Diez H a i k a i s ,
meas. 1, 2.

Cuatro C anciones de Amor (Four Love Songs) a r e from

S a n d i ' s m id dle p e r i o d . The t e x t u r e i s t h i c k e r , w i t h f r e ­
q u e n t open f o u r t h s and f i f t h s o u t l i n i n g two k e y s , and
much p a r a l l e l i s m . The f i r s t two songs were s e t t i n g s o f
anonymous A r a b i c poems.
The p i a n o p a r t o f "La Hora T r a n q u i l a " (The T r a n q u i l
Hour) c o n s i s t s m a in ly o f p a r a l l e l f o u r t h s and f i f t h s f o r

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n of t h e co p y rig h t o w n e r. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n prohibited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .

 56

each ha nd i n c o n t r a r y motion t o each o t h e r . There i s

c o n s id e r a b le use o f the p e n t a t o n i c s c a l e in the melodic
l i n e , p o s s i b l y drawn from I n d i a n f o l k l o r e m a t e r i a l .
Example 18. S a n d i , La Hora T r a n q u i l a , No. 1 o f C uatr o
Canciones de Amor, meas. 7 ,8 .

P -------------- ------- • .......... m

'—3 z — f ' - ----------------- i ---------- :-------- 0-----------------------------
-----------------------------
t* 3-4*
' I
PP
---- ------------- ---------------------- Pm
/ A 1 m - - ^
------------ k m om
• .... .. 'Z *

"La B a t a l l a " (The B a t t l e ) i n d i c a t e s S a n d i Ts f o n d ­

ness f o r the l a t e romantic te c h n iq u e s . The i n t r o d u c t i o n
and c o n c l u s i o n r e s e m b le t h a t o f t h e a r i a " V e cc h ia Zimarra"
from P u c c i n i ' s La Boheme.
Example 19. S a n d i , La B a t a l l a , No. 2 o f Cuatro C a n c i ­
ones de Amor, meas. 1 -3 .

The t h i r d song o f t h e s e t , "Y F e n s a r Que Pudimos. .

. . " (And To Think That We Could. . . ) is in a c le a r ly
t r ip a r ti t e stru ctu re. I n f l u e n c e o f t h e l a t e r o m a n t i c i s m of

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n of t h e co p y rig h t o w n er. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n prohibited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .

 57

S t r a u s s i s e v i d e n t i n t h e f i r s t and t h i r d s e c t i o n s , w i t h
t h e r i c h harm on ic t e x t u r e s and a l t e r e d d i a t o n i c i s m o f th e
melody. The t e x t u r e i s t h i n n e r and t h e harmony i s s i m p l i ­
f i e d i n th e m id dle p a r t . The melody i s a l t e r e d and i s
s u p p o r t e d by a r e p e a t e d r h y t h m i c f i g u r e .
Example 20. S a n d i , Y P e n s a r Que Pudimos. . . . No . 3 of
C u a tr o Canciones de Amor, meas. 12-1 4.

-r
)-------------------------------- 1
ll: C — --^ = 4
-f
T" rz ------------- k - ? - ----------9r ---- -------- N---------- 1r __
----------- 1—
#
S' i

The i m p r e s s i o n i s t i c t r e a t m e n t o f "Preg<$n Submarino”

(U nderwater P e d d l e r ) g i v e s t h e f e e l i n g o f o n e ’s b e i n g und e r
the se a, b u t n o t able to see c l e a r l y i n t o the d i s ta n c e .
At t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h e p e d d l e r i s s h o u t i n g o u t to s e l l h i s
m erchandise: -Algas f r e s c a s de l a m a r l ( F r e s h a l g a e from
the seal)
The c y c l e Poemas Del Amor y De La Muerte (Poems o f
Love and Death) i s from S a n d i ' s l a t e s t p e r i o d . The poems
a r e t a k e n from t h e Greek E p ig r a p h s and R u b a i y / t o f Omar
Khayyam. A l l tw e lv e songs s t i l l show S a n d i ’ s p e n c h a n t
f o r the p e n ta to n i c s c a l e , e s p e c i a l l y in the vocal l i n e .
Because o f h i s i n t e r e s t i n c o l l e c t i n g p r e - C o r t e s i a n

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n o f th e co p y rig h t o w n e r. F u r th e r re p r o d u c tio n proh ibited w ithout p e r m is s io n .

 58

m e l o d i e s , i t i s p o s s i b l e he h a s u se d m a t e r i a l d e r i v e d from

th is era. These l a t e s t songs show a more complex harmon ic

construction. The accompaniment u t i l i z e s a s h i f t i n g b i ­
m o d a l i t y , w i t h t h e v o i c e a d d in g i t s own " p e n t a t o n i c mode."
Sa ndi s t i l l a d h e r e s t o t h e p r i n c i p l e o f r e p e a t e d p a t t e r n s
throughout the cy cle.

D a n i e l Ayala
D a n i e l A ya la was b o r n i n Y ucatan i n 1908 o f Mayan
Indian descendents. He began s t u d y i n g v i o l i n i n h i s home
town o f Abala7, t h e n e n r o l l e d i n t h e s t a t e m u sic s c h o o l i n
M / r i d a , t h e c a p i t a l o f Y u c a ta n . In 1927 he e n t e r e d t h e
c o n s e r v a t o r y i n Mexico C i t y , where he c o n t i n u e d h i s v i o l i n
s t u d y w i t h S i l v e s t r e R e v u e l t a s and o t h e r s . A y a la a l s o
took harmony and c o m p o s it i o n c l a s s e s w i t h C a r l o s Chavez,
Manuel P o n c e , and J u l i a n C a r r i l l o . The l a t t e r o r i g i n a t e d
Sonido T rec e ( T h i r t e e n t h Sound) a m i c r o t o n e syste m i n
which a whole s t e p i s d i v i d e d i n t o as many as s i x t e e n
in terv als. He c o n s i d e r s h i m s e l f t o be t h e i n v e n t o r o f a
method o f n o t a t i o n f o r f r a c t i o n a l t o n e s .
D a n i e l Ayala was a v i o l i n i s t i n t h e Mexican Symphony
O r c h e s t r a from 1931 t o 1937, d u r i n g which tim e he j o i n e d
t h e f a c u l t y o f t h e Departm ent o f Fine A r t s . I n 1935
A y a la and t h r e e o t h e r young Mexican composers formed t h e
Grupo de l o s C u a tro (Group o f Four) d e d i c a t e d t o n a t i v e

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n of t h e co p y rig h t o w n er. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n prohibited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .

 59

Mexican m u sic i n a con te m po ra ry idiom. The o t h e r t h r e e

members were S a l v a d o r C o n t r e r a s , B ias G a l in d o , and Pa b lo
Moncayo. The "Mexican Four" t o o k i t s p l a c e b e s i d e t h e
n a t i o n a l i s t i c music gro ups from t h r e e o t h e r c o u n t r i e s :
"The R u s s i a n F i v e " , "The Fre nch S i x " , and "The S p a n i s h
E ight". A y a la has w r i t t e n s e v e r a l o r c h e s t r a l works f o r
n a t i v e Mexican i n s t r u m e n t s , i n c l u d i n g a b a l l e t s u i t e ,
El Hombre Maya (The Mayan Man),
S i n c e 1942 Ayala h a s l i v e d i n Yucatan, where he
has b e en d i r e c t o r o f t h e Me“r i d a C o n s e r v a t o r y and c o n d u c t o r
o f t h e Y ucatan Symphony O r c h e s t r a .
The o n l y p u b l i s h e d v o c a l work by Aya la i s C u a tro
Canciones (Four Songs) on t e x t s by Ju an Ramc^n Jim e n e z .
His u n p u b l i s h e d v o c a l p i e c e s i n c l u d e : U K ay il Chaac
( P r a y e r f o r Rain) i n t h e Mayan Language, f o r so p r a n o and
o r c h e s t r a o f i n d i g e n o u s i n s t r u m e n t s ; and El G r i l l o
(The C r i c k e t ) , f o r so p r a n o and chamber group.
The f i r s t p i e c e o f C u atr o C a n c i o n e s , " N o s t a l g i a " ,
i s i n an e c l e c t i c s t y l e . The melody i s d i a t o n i c a l l y c o n ­
s t r u c t e d and q u i t e s i m p le and r e p e t i t i o u s . The accompani­
ment i s m o s t l y c h r o m a t i c f o u r t h s and f i f t h s i n p a r a l l e l
m o tion . The r i g h t hand o f th e p i a n o dou bles t h e v o i c e i n
some p l a c e s . The rhythm i s t y p i c a l l y Mexican, w i t h a
tw o-against-three configuration.
" A b r i l " ( A p r i l ) i s b u i l t on a r e c u r r i n g r h y th m ic

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n o f t h e co p y rig h t o w n e r. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n prohibited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .

 60

f i g u r e which a l t e r n a t e s between t h e t r e b l e and b a s s o f

the p ia n o .
Example 21. A y a l a , A b r i l , No. 2 o f C uatro C a nciones.

The melody i s c o n s t r u c t e d around a d i m i n i s h e d ch o rd on A,

w ith chrom atic a l t e r a t i o n s .
The m usic o f "Otono tfltim o" (The L a s t Autumn) i s an
i m p r e s s i o n i s t i c view o f an autumn s t o r m : r a i n is follow ed
by calmne ss and t h e g e n t l e r u s t l i n g o f d r y i n g l e a v e s i n
the breeze. A l l b u t t h e t h i r d p a r t i s composed f o r p i a n o
a l o n e . The t e x t o f t h e f o u r s h o r t v o c a l p h r a s e s t e l l s

of a t r e e t h a t i s ready to accept i t s death in w in te r be­

c ause i t h ad two months o f g o ld e n l e a v e s i n autumn.
The f o u r t h s o n g , " S o le d a d " ( S o l i t u d e ) i s i n a
s h o r t A A B A form. The sim p le melody i s e n t i r e l y on
n o t e s o f t h e p e n t a t o n i c s c a l e , p e r h a p s an o l d Mayan t u n e .
Example 22. A y a l a , S o l e d a d , No. 4 o f C u atro C a n c i o n e s ,
meas. 1 -5.

The b a s s accompaniment i s c h o r d a l and t h e t r e b l e d ou b les

the voice throughout.

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m is s io n o f t h e cop y rig h t o w n e r. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n p rohib ited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .

 61

Bias Galin do

B ias G a lind o (b. 1910) i s a f u l l - b l o o d e d H uic h o l

I n d i a n who i n t e n d e d t o become a l a w y e r . However, he began
h i s academic m u s i c a l s t u d i e s a t n i n e t e e n when he e n r o l l e d
a t t h e C o n s e r v a t o r y i n Mexico C i t y , a f t e r b e i n g i m p r e s s e d
9
by a n a t i o n a l i s t i c c o m p o s i t i o n o f S i l v e s t r e R e v u e l t a s .
While a t t h e music s c h o o l he s t u d i e d p i a n o w i t h Manuel
R o d r i g u e z - V i z c a r r a and c o m p o s i t i o n w i t h C a r l o s Chdvez,
C a n d e l a r i o H u i z a r , and J o s 4 Roldn. F i n a l l y i n 1944 he
r e c e i v e d t h e diploma o f M a e s t r o en Composici(4n, t h e
h i g h e s t d e g r e e awarded a t t h e i n s t i t u t i o n .
G a lin d o i s a p r o d u c t o f Chavez' c l a s s e s i n "music
c r e a t i o n , " a method o f t e a c h i n g c o m p o s i t i o n which em phasized
melody w r i t i n g . Two, t h r e e and f o u r m e l o d i e s were combined
and p l a y e d i m m e d ia te l y so t h e s t u d e n t s m ig h t h e a r t h e i r
com positions. I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n and c o u n t e r p o i n t were
l e a r n e d t h r o u g h composing and l i s t e n i n g . Conventional
harmony which s t r e s s e d t h e v e r t i c a l a s p e c t o f music was
avoided.
During t h e y e a r s 1941 and 1942 Galin d o co m p lete d
c o u r s e s i n c o m p o s i t i o n w i t h Aaron Copland a t t h e B e r k s h i r e
Music C e n t e r i n Lenox, M a s s a c h u s e t t s , and o b t a i n e d a

^ S t e v e n s o n , p . 255.

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m is s io n of t h e cop y rig h t o w n e r. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n prohibited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .

 62

commission from t h e K o u s s e v i t z k y F o u n d a t i o n . In 1947 he

was named d i r e c t o r o f t h e C o n s e r v a t o r y N a c i o n a l de Mi^sica
and p r o f e s s o r o f harmony, c o u n t e r p o i n t , c o m p o s i t i o n ,
music h i s t o r y and m u s i c a l analysis.'*'® At t h e p r e s e n t time

he i s d e v o t i n g h i m s e l f t o c o m p o s i t i o n .
G a l i n d o ' s f i r s t p u b l i s h e d v o c a l m u s i c , Tres C ancion es
(Three Songs) i s t y p i c a l of p o p u l a r m e l o d i e s o f Mexico.
The accompaniments a r e i n t e r e s t i n g enough t o make them
sem i-popular a r t songs. The s y n c o p a t e d rhythms a r e common
i n t h e m a r i a c h i ban d s h e a r d a l l o v e r Mexico. (Example 23).
The p i e c e s c o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d "modernly h a rm o n ize d f o l k
s o n g s , " b e c a u s e t h e y l a c k t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c harmony i n
p a ralle l th ird s.
Example 23. G a l i n d o , Mi Qu erer P a s a b a El R io , No. 2 o f

Tres C a n c i o n e s , meas. 14-16.

m .

The two so n g s o f Dos C a n cion es a re a l s o i n c o n s e r v a ­

t i v e s t y l e s , and i n a c o n v e n t i o n a l t e r n a r y form. "A rrullo"

" B ia s G a i in d o - D i m a s , " Composers o f t h e A m e r i c a s ,

Vol. XI, W a sh in g to n , D. C.: Pan American Union, 1965,
p . 33.

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n o f t h e cop y rig h t o w n e r. F u r th e r re p ro d u c tio n p rohib ited w itho ut p e r m is s io n .

 63

i s a s im p le l u l l a b y h a rm o n ize d i n t h i r d s . "Madre Mia,

Cuandc Muera" (When I D i e , My Mother) i s b r i e f l y d e s c r i b e d
11
i n A H i s t o r y o f Song.
" F u e n s a n t a " ( S a c r e d S o u rc e) i s G a l i n d o ' s l a t e s t
creation. The t i t l e i s l i s t e d as "Hermana, Hazme L l o r a r "
i n m a n u s c r i p t f orm , b u t was l a t e r changed f o r t h e 1968
p u b l i c a t i o n by E d i c i o n e s Mexicanas de Mifsica.^^ I t is
more h a r m o n i c a l l y advanced t h a n t h e p r e v i o u s v o c a l works.
D i s s o n a n t c h r o m a t i c i s m combines w i t h e le m e n t s o f i m p r e s ­
s i o n i s m and neoclassicism . The s e c t i o n s a r e w e l l
d e f i n e d by m e t e r and key c h a n g e s . R ecurring rhythmic
and m e l o d i c p a t t e r n s a l t e r n a t e w i t h r e c i t a t i v e - l i k e
se c tio n s w ithin the tern a ry s tr u c tu r e . There i s e x t e n ­
s i v e u se o f o c t a v e l e a p s i n b o t h t h e v o i c e and accompani­
m ent. There a r e t h r e e m e l o d i c m o t i f s which a r e r e p e a t e d

s e v e r a l tim es t h r o u g h o u t t h e song:
Example 24a. G a l i n d o , F u e n s a n t a , meas. 3 - 6 .

( M o t i f No. 1)

-------- hr-* ft # 4
u W - o -----f t I f ----- &
s W

= y = j ----
4=

■ ^ G i l b e r t Chase, " L a t i n A m e ric a" , A H i s t o r y o f

So ng , p. 309.
■^"Blas G a l i n d o - D i m a s " , p . 44.

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n of t h e co p y rig h t o w n er. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n prohibited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .

 64

Example 24b. F u e n s a n t a , meas. 11-13.

(M o t i f No. 2)

/hr*!P ---------
p-i#-i ^---- i?
PnP~i-i— 0 —f — --------------- —

^ --- -3— —

Example 24c. F u e n s a n t a , meas. 34-37.

(M o t i f No. 3)

3 3
^ -3=3 ^ A
1
i

} .M # _ i
-

^= ]F ^
# 4 =

P a r a l l e l f i f t h s a r e t h e one l i n k t o a n c i e n t Mexico,
and t h e r e i s no e v i d e n c e o f p o p u l a r f o l k m a t e r i a l s o f
l a t e r tim es.

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m is s io n of t h e cop y rig h t o w n e r. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n prohibited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .

 65

CHAPTER IV

FORWARD-LOOKING COMPOSERS

Rodolfo H a l f f t e r

Rodolfo H a l f f t e r was b o r n i n M adrid, S p a i n , i n

1900, son o f a German f a t h e r and a S p a n ish m o th e r . His
y o u n g e r b r o t h e r , E r n e s t o , i s a well-known S p a n i s h
composer; a c o u s i n , C r i s t o b a l , has w r i t t e n f o r v o i c e
and p i a n o . Both have had t h e i r works p u b l i s h e d i n
Spain.
H a l f f t e r i s p r i m a r i l y a s e l f - t a u g h t composer
who m a s t e r e d c o m p o s i t i o n a l t e c h n i q u e by t h e s t u d y o f
c l a s s i c a l w ork s. However, he d i d r e c e i v e some i n s t r u c t i o n
and a d v i c e from Manuel de F a l l a , and was a l s o i n f l u e n c e d
t o some e x t e n t by t h e n e o c l a s s i c a l works o f S t r a v i n s k y .
He be gan composing when he was t w e n t y - f o u r y e a r s o l d ,
and soon a f t e r w a r d became a member o f t h e Grupo de l o s
Ocho, an a s s o c i a t i o n o f e i g h t young S p a n ish composers
d e d i c a t e d t o n a t i o n a l i s t i c music employing modern
m ethods.

D ur ing t h e S p a n i s h C i v i l War(1936-39) he c o l ­
la b o r a te d w ith the c u l t u r a l s e c t i o n s of the L o y a l is t

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n of t h e co p y rig h t o w n e r. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n prohibited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .

 66

government u n t i l i t s o v e r t h r o w , t h e n f l e d to Mexico
where he i s s t i l l a c t i v e i n music a f f a i r s . H alffter
has an e x t e n s i v e l i s t o f m u s i c a l a c c o m p l i s h m e n t s , b e ­
s i d e s t h a t o f composer, i n h i s a d o p t e d c o u n t r y . In
1939 he c om p iled and p u b l i s h e d a c o l l e c t i o n o f S p a n i s h
m e lo d ie s i n Mexico C i t y . He h a s b e en a t e a c h e r o f harmony
and c o m p o s i t i o n a t th e N a t i o n a l C o n s e r v a t o r y and e d i t e d
th e magazine N u e s t r a Mifsica from 1946 t o 1951. He a l s o
founded t h e f i r s t Mexican b a l l e t g r o u p , and was t h e
S e c r e t a r y G e n e r a l o f t h e Mexican s e c t i o n o f t h e I n t e r ­
n a t i o n a l S o c i e t y f o r Contemporary Music. .Rodolfo H a l f f t e r
i s now t h e e d i t o r - i n - c h i e f o f a s u c c e s s f u l music p u b l i s h i n g
house i n Mexico C i t y , E d i c i o n e s Mexicanas de Music a.
A p p r o x im a te ly o n e - t h i r d o f t h e music i n c l u d e d i n t h i s p a p e r

was p u b l i s h e d by h i s f i r m .
The two songs of Dos S o n e to s (T w o So n n e ts) were
w r i t t e n i n Mexico and p u b l i s h e d i n S p a i n (1962) some
s i x t e e n y e a r s a f t e r t h e se c o n d was composed. H alffter
chose poems by t h e famous s i x t e e n t h - c e n t u r y p o e t e s s - n u n ,

Sor J u a n a In d s de l a Cruz, m e n tio n e d i n t h e p r e v i o u s

c h a p t e r as t h e w r i t e r o f v i l l a n c i c o s .
The f i r s t s o n g , "Miro^ C e l i a una Rosa” ( C e l i a Spied
a R o s e ) , does n o t show much S p a n i s h i n f l u e n c e . The
melody i s r e l a t i v e l y s i m p l e , moving s t e p - w i s e much o f

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n of t h e co p y rig h t o w n e r. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n prohibited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .

 67

t h e t i m e , and r e m a i n i n g on one o r two n o t e s t o c r e a t e a

chant-like re c ita tiv e . The accompaniment i s s p a r s e ,
f o l l o w i n g t h e v o i c e i n p a r a l l e l f o u r t h s and f i f t h s much
o f t h e t im e . The v o c a l l i n e f i l l s in th e t h i r d o f the
chord in t h i s c a se .
Example 25. H a l f f t e r , Mir</ C e l i a una Rosa, No. 1 o f
Dos S o n e t o s , meas. 30-33.

" F e l i c i a n o Me Adora" ( F e l i c i a n o Adores Me), t h e .

s e c o n d o f t h e two s o n n e t s , shows t h e g a i e t y w hich " i s
the e s s e n t i a l p a r t of H a l f f t e r ' s p e r s o n a lity , both in
and o u t o f m u s i c . T h e s t y l e i s c o n s e r v a t i v e and
charmingly l i l t i n g i n i t s c h i l d - l i k e s i m p l i c i t y . Each
p h r a s e o f t h e song ends w i t h t h e same m e l o d i c f r a g m e n t ,

^Michael G r e e t F i e l d , "Two-World Composer,"

A m e r i c a s , Vol. V I I I ( 1 9 5 5 ) , p . 12.

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n o f t h e co p y rig h t o w n e r. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n proh ibited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .

 68

tra n s p o s e d i n to s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t keys.
Example 26. H a l f f t e r , F e l i c i a n o Me Adora, No. 2 o f

Dos S o n e t o s .

The c h a n g i n g m e t r i c p a t t e r n s o f 2 / 4 , 3/4 and 3/8 a r e

t y p i c a l o f H a l f f t e r ' s m u s i c , as w e l l as most o t h e r
L a t i n American com posers. However, he has d e v e lo p e d
h i s own modern S p a n i s h s t y l e w i t h o u t employing Mexican
I n d i a n o r c o l o n i a l id io m s .
M a r i n e r o en T i e r r a ( S a i l o r on L an d ), t h e f i v e -
song c y c l e w i t h t e x t s by t h e S p a n i s h p o e t R a f a e l
A l b e r t i , r e f l e c t t h e S p a n i s h h e r i t a g e o f t h e composer.
Number o n e , "Qiie A l t o s l o s B a l c o n e s " (How High the
B a lc o n ie s), r e c a l l s the Ib e ria n P e n is u la , w ith t r i p l e t
t u r n s r e m i n i s c e n t o f Flamenco s o n g s . R u s t i c S p a n ish
gypsy songs a r e a l l u d e d t o by u s e o f open f i f t h s mov­
i n g i n p a r a l l e l m o tio n l i k e t h e c h o r d i n g o f a g u i t a r .
" C a s a d i t a " ( L i t t l e W i f e ) , t h e se cond o f t h e s e t ,
evokes memories o f de F a l l a ' s o p e r a , La Vida B r e v e ,
w i t h i t s r i c h h a r m o n i z a t i o n s p r e a d o v e r t h r e e and
fo u r octaves. By combining 6 /8 and 3 /4 m e t e r s , song

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n of t h e co pyright o w n er. F u r th e r re p ro d u c tio n p rohib ited w itho ut p e r m is s io n .

 t h r e e , "Siempre Que Sueno Las P l a y a s " (Always I Dream o f
t h e Shore) and song f i v e , "Gimiendo Por Ver e l Mar"
(Longing t o View t h e S e a ) , a r e i d e n t i f i e d as t y p i c a l
A n d a l u s i a n dance t u n e s . The p i a n o accompaniment o f t h e
fo r m e r lo o k s as i f i t c o u ld have been w r i t t e n f o r g u i t a r .
Example 27. H a l f f t e r , Siempre Que Sueno Las P l a y a s ,
No. 3 o f M a rin ero En T i e r r a , meas. 5, 6.

The l a t t e r song i s e m b e l l i s h e d w i t h r i c h e r harmoni

c o n t r a s t s , u s i n g n i n t h and e l e v e n t h c h o rd s t o d e p i c t t h e
agony o f t h e s a i l o r l o n g i n g t o be a t s e a once more.
The f o u r t h song o f th e c y c l e , "Verano ” (Summer)
is s e t in a d i f f e r e n t s t y l e than the o th er fo u r. The
v o c a l l i n e and t h e t h i n t e x t u r e o f t h e accompaniment
blend in to a s t y l e fashioned a f t e r the s ix te e n th -c e n tu ry
m adrigal. The composer use d a 3/8 and 2/8 m e t e r scheme
which changes t h e p u l s e o f t h e rhythm t h r o u g h o u t t h e song
H a l f f t e r has w r i t t e n o v e r a dozen s c o r e s f o r
m o v ie s, as w e l l as b a l l e t s , [works f o r p i a n o , chamber

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n of t h e co p y rig h t o w n e r. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n prohibited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .

 70

en sem b le, and o r c h e s t r a . His v o c a l works i n c l u d e an

o p e r a , C l a v i l e n o , which was d e s t r o y e d d u r i n g t h e Sp an ish
C i v i l War, E p i t a f i o s f o r a c a p e l l a c h o i r , and Pregg^n
P a r a una P ascua Pobre f o r c h o r u s , b r a s s and p e r c u s s i o n .
H a l f f t e r has w r i t t e n one work, T re s Hojas de Album (Three
Album L e a v e s ) , f o r p i a n o and s t r i n g o r c h e s t r a , u s i n g t h e

tw elve-tone technique. He has n o t y e t w r i t t e n any

d o de ca ph o nic v o c a l m usic.

Lan Adomizm

Lan Adomi^n ( b . 1905) was b o r n i n th e U k r a in e ,

Russia. He came t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i n 1923 and worked
a t odd j o b s u n t i l he r e c e i v e d a s c h o l a r s h i p t o s t u d y
v i o l i n and harmony f o r two y e a r s a t t h e Peabody Co n serva­
tory. He s t u d i e d c o m p o s i t i o n , c o u n t e r p o i n t , and a n a l y s i s
a t t h e C u r t i s I n s t i t u t e f o r two y e a r s u n d e r R e g in a ld
Owen M o r r i s . Adomian l i v e d i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s f o r
alm o st t h i r t y y e a r s b e f o r e moving to Mexico; however, he
s p e n t some time i n Sp a in d u r i n g th e S p a n i s h C i v i l War.
9
He c o n s i d e r s h i m s e l f t o be " b a s i c a l l y a u t o d i d a c t i c , "
b u t ad m its t h a t M o r r i s , Henry Cowe ll, and C h a r le s S e e g er
were h e l p f u l t o him b e c a u s e o f t h e i r i n t e r e s t and
encou ragem ent.

^Lan Adomian, a t e l e p h o n e c o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h th e
p r e s e n t w r i t e r , El P a so , Texas - -Mexico C i t y , J u n e , 19 70.

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n of t h e co p y rig h t o w n e r. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n prohibited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .

 71

He h a s composed works i n many forms i n c l u d i n g

e i g h t sym phonies, s m a l l e r works f o r o r c h e s t r a , chamber
m u s i c , and c h o r u s . His a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h t h e H a l l Johns on
Negro C h o ir pro m p te d t h e i n c l u s i o n o f j a z z e le m e n t s i n
h i s t w o - a c t o p e r a , La M a s c h e r a t a , which i s b a s e d on a
n o v e l by A l b e r t o M o r a v ia . Adomi^n has w r i t t e n " v a r i o u s
l i e d e r on E n g l i s h , S p a n i s h and F r e n c h t e x t s , a l l of
w hi ch rem ain i n m a n u s c r i p t .
D uring World War I I , Adomi^n composed t h e music
f o r f i v e a n t i - N a z i f i l m s f o r t h e U. S. Navy. He com­
p o s e d and c o n d u c t e d m u s i c a l s c o r e s f o r d r a m a t i c -radio
programs f o r t h e f o u r p r i n c i p a l American r a d i o n e t w o r k s ,
as w e l l as music f o r t h e r a d i o and f i l m d e p a r t m e n t s o f
th e United N a tio n s . In Mexico, he has composed a number
o f s c o r e s f o r Mexican f i l m s .
The songs o f Dos Nanas (Two Slumber Songs) a r e
a t o n a l b u t do n o t f o l l o w t h e r u l e s o f t h e t w e l v e - t o n e
technique. The songs a r e numbered I and I I , and do
n o t have t i t l e s . "Nana I " i s i n a m o d i f i e d t e r n a r y form,
w i t h t h e r e c u r r i n g theme a l t e r e d and a b b r e v i a t e d , and a
f o u r - b a r c o d e t t a f o r t h e p ian o added a t t h e c o n c l u s i o n .
I n t h e accompaniment o f t h e f i r s t and t h i r d s e c t i o n s

^Lan Adomian, i n a l e t t e r t o t h e p r e s e n t w r i t e r ,
J u n e , 19 70.

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n of t h e co p y rig h t o w n e r. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n prohibited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .

 72

t h e r e i s a s e r i e s of re p e a te d e i g h t h - n o te f i g u r e s in the
t r e b l e , and i n t e r j e c t i o n s o f s h o r t m e l o d i c f r a g m e n ts i n
the bass. I n t h e m id dle s e c t i o n t h e v o i c e p a r t i s o f t e n
u n a cc o m p a n ie d , w i t h c h o rd s p u n c t u a t i n g t h e ends o f the
phrases.
Example 28. Adomian, Nana I , No. 1 o f Dos Nanas,
meas. 34-38.

\
-Z— I----------;------ 1— h r -i / n -
-------
* = h m 9c - -
fye. 5tfL-
ft Id .

-6-------«■------------- —m h ^ 4 t =
— :f = - ■■■" w 9-4— • —j— *

*
------- m------------- » f L^f-x— —«--------- ? 7 \\>f "
~Mzr— 'HFz ~ ... : : ---------j—
E x cep t f o r t h r e e m ea sure s n e a r t h e end o f t h e p i e c e ,

t h e accompaniment f o r "Nana I I " c o n s i s t s o f m e l o d i c p a s ­

s a g e s , doubled in v a rio u s ranges o f the p ian o . This
d o u b l i n g i s always from t h r e e t o f i v e o c t a v e s a p a r t .
T h e r e a r e two one-m eas ure m e l o d i c m o t i f s i n t h e accompani­
m e n t , which open and c l o s e t h e s o n g . Both o f t h e m o t i f s
t e n d t o g r a v i t a t e t o B, b u t no f e e l i n g o f t o n a l i t y is
achieved. The f i r s t m o t i f i s r e p e a t e d t h r o u g h o u t the
s o n g , and i s a l t e r e d by t r a n s p o s i t i o n and d i m i n u t i o n .

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n o f t h e co p y rig h t o w n e r. F u r th e r re p r o d u c tio n proh ibited w ithout p e r m is s io n .

 73

Example 29. Adomi^n, Nana I I , No. 2 o f Dos Nanas ,

M o t i f 1, meas. 1 ( T ra n s p o s e d and i n d i m i n u t i o n , meas.20)

The se co n d m o t i f i s s t a t e d f o u r tim e s and i s u n ­

c h a n g e d , e x c e p t f o r t h e f i n a l m e a s u r e , where i t i s s p r e a d
over f iv e o ctaves.
Example 30. Nana I I , M o t i f 2 , meas. 29.
? 5L— ^33-------- — ------------
M r - - k '* bS ■ '* 1
f f ^ j

The v o i c e p a r t i s i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e acc o m pa ni­

m en t, and b e g i n s w i t h a r e c u r r i n g m e lo d ic p a t t e r n o f
consecutive fo u rth s. (Example 31). There a r e s e v e r a l
s k i p s o f a s e v e n t h i n t h e melody, as w e l l as one s k i p
of a ten th . (Example 3 1 ) . The v o c a l p h r a s e s g r a v i t a t e

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n of t h e co p y rig h t o w n er. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n prohibited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .

 74

t o t h e n o t e A, which c r e a t e s a d i s s o n a n t p o l a r i t y between

t h e v o i c e and p i a n o .
Example 31. Nana I I , meas. 10-14.

h
4a»rcJtf. U4ir. is — .

C a r l o s Jimenez-Mabarak

C a r lo s Jimenez-Mabarak was b o rn i n T acuba, D . F . ,

a su burb o f Mexico C i t y . The i n i t i a l s , D. F . , s t a n d f o r
D i s t r i t o F e d e r a l ( F e d e r a l D i s t r i c t ) , which i s compa rable
t o o ur D i s t r i c t o f Columbia. An anonymous a r t i c l e i n
Composers of t h e A m e ric a s^ and N i c h o la s SlonimskyS g ive
M a b a r a k 's b i r t h d a t e as 1916, w h i l e R obert S t e v e n s o n . l i s t s

^ " C a r l o s Jim d n ez -M a b ara k ," Composers o f t h e Americas

Vol. V I I I , W ashington, D. C.: Pan American U nion , 1962,
p . 94.
^Slonimsky, p. 240.

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n of t h e co pyright o w n e r. F u r th e r re p ro d u c tio n p rohibited w ithout p e r m is s io n .

 i t as 1912.6 The Mabarak comes from t h e A r a b i c
word, M 'b a r a k , which means " b l e s s e d . " I t was h i s m o t h e r ' s .
l a s t name-, and t h e " a " was added f o r p h o n e t i c r e a s o n s .
Mabarak began h i s m u s i c a l e d u c a t i o n i n S a n t i a g o ,
C h i l e , p r i o r t o h i s t r i p t o . E u r o p e i n 1932. In B russels
he a t t e n d e d t h e I n s t i t u t e o f Advanced M u s ic a l S t u d i e s and
the Royal.Conservatory. At th e l a t t e r i n s t i t u t i o n he
s t u d i e d harmony and a n a l y s i s w i t h M a r g u e r i t e Wouters
and music h i s t o r y w i t h C h a r l e s Van Ben B o r r e n . With t h e
a i d o f a' f e l l o w s h i p from UNESCO i n 1956 Mabarak worked
u n d e r Rene L e i b o w i tz i n P a r i s , where he became f a m i l i a r
w i t h the do d e ca p ho n ic t e c h n i q u e . ^ Mabarak i s now on t h e
f a c u l t y o f t h e C o n s e r v a t o r y o f Music i n Mexico C i t y . He-
was one o f t h e f i r s t Mexican composers to come i n c o n t a c t
w i t h e l e c t r o n i c and c o n c r e t e music i n Europe, and upon
h i s r e t u r n t o Mexico i n f l u e n c e d o t h e r young composers to
se e k new s o n o r i t i e s . ®
S i n g l e songs by Mabarak a r e t o be found i n a
h e l i o g r a p h i c r e p r o d u c t i o n made by t h e composer and d i s ­
t r i b u t e d by Casa R i c o r d i i n Mexico C i t y . O t h e r songs

^ S t e v e n s o n , p . 270.
•7 /
' " C a r l o s J i m e n e z - M a b a r a k ,"■Composers o f t h e A m e ric as ,
p. 94.
®Pablo C a s t e l l a n o ^ . , "A specto s d e l N a c i o n a li s m Musi­
c a l M e x ica n a," H e t e r o f o m a , A?!o I Numero 5 (March, 1969)
p. 10.

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n of t h e co p y rig h t o w n e r. F u r th e r r e p ro d u c tio n prohibited w ith o u t p e rm is s io n .

 76

p r i n t e d by t h e same p r o c e s s , b u t u n a v a i l a b l e , a r e : Dos
Canciones A r c a i c a s , Tres Poemas de J o r g e G o n z / l e z . D u r / n ,
Dos L i e d e r Sobre Una S e r i e D o d e c a f o n i c a , "Ay," and
"Poema d e l R i o . " The s e t o f s i x c h i l d r e n ' s songs a re
p u b l i s h e d by R i c o r d i Americana i n 3uenos A i r e s .
"La Cancion de l a Pilmama" (Song o f t h e Nursemaid)
i s from M a b ar a k 's e a r l y p e r i o d and i s i n a c o n s e r v a t i v e
rom antic s t y l e . The s i m p le melody i s a l u l l a b y i n which
e ac h p h r a s e i s r e p e a t e d o v e r an accompaniment o f u n ­
c o m p l i c a t e d harmony.
" E s t a n c i a s N o c t u r n a s " ( N o c tu r n a l S t a n z a s ) was

w r i t t e n i n 1950, t e n y e a r s a f t e r th e p r e v i o u s song. The

harmony i s more a dvanced and shows i n f l u e n c e s o f l a t e
r o m a n t i c i s m and e a r l y i m p r e s s i o n i s m . The key c e n t e r s
s w i t c h r a p i d l y b u t rem a in w i t h i n a t o n a l framework.
The c y c l e , S e i s Ca nciones P a r a C a n t a r - a Los Ninos
( S i x Songs t o S i n g t o C h i l d r e n ) c o n t a i n s a d m i r a b l e s e t ­
t i n g s o f i n t e r e s t i n g and o f t e n humorous poems f o r c h i l ­
dren. They would be i d e a l f o r e n c o r e r e c i t a l numbers,
e s p e c i a l l y w i t h good t r a n s l a t i o n s . The accompaniments
show i m a g i n a t i o n b u t employ n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y t e c h n i q u e s
f o r t h e most p a r t . I n "El A l a c r a n " (The S c o r p i o n ) ,
c r o s s rhythms a r e c r e a t e d by t h e s i m u l t a n e o u s u se o f two
d i f f e r e n t m eters. The v o i c e i s w r i t t e n i n 1 2/8 and th e

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n of t h e co p y rig h t o w n e r. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n prohibited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .

 77

p i a n o i n 4/4 f o r t h e f i r s t two p a g e s . On t h e t h i r d page

t h e v o i c e and p i a n o a r e t o g e t h e r i n 4 / 4 and 3 /4 u n t i l
t h e l a s t two m e a s u r e s , where t h e v o i c e i s i n 6 / 8 and t h e
piano i s in 2/4. The E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n s o f t h e t i t l e s
a r e shown below:
1. Ding Dong
2. The House
3. Old I n e s
4. P u r r , Purr
5. Blue Boy
6. The S c o r p i o n
"Ronda" and " E l e g i a " do n o t a p p e a r i n t h e l i s t i n g
Q
o f h i s works i n Composers o f t h e A m e r i c a s . The d a t e
o f 1963 i s g i v e n i n t h e s c o r e o f "R o n da," b u t " E l e g i a "
l i s t s no y e a r . "Ronda" (Rondo) i s , as t h e t i t l e suggests,
i n t h e form o f a m o d i f i e d r o n d o : ABABA' C B A.
The A' p o r t i o n i s p l a y e d by t h e p i a n o i n t h e dominant
key (G ) , which s e r v e s as a m o d u l a t i o n t o t h e key o f C
i n the n ex t s e c t i o n . The f i n a l rondo i s a r e p e t i t i o n o f
t h e two-m easure p i a n o i n t r o d u c t i o n . The f i n a l m e l o d i c
f r a g m e n t o f each B s e c t i o n f u r t h e r i d e n t i f i e s t h e song
w ith e ig h te e n th -c e n tu ry c la s s ic is m .

^ " C a r l o s Jime^nez-Mabarak," Composers o f t h e

A m e r i c a s , p. 100.

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n o f th e co p y rig h t o w n e r. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n proh ibited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .

 78

Example 32. Mabarak, "Ronda" meas. 16, 17.

§
— jJp* ■; 1 — •—

-v trtrpi r ~^
^ ; m-------------------------------- — zz*-----------------------------------------------

T w e n tie th -c e n tu ry dissonances in the harm onization give

the p iec e a n e o c la s s ic s o n o r ity , b u t the voice p a r t is
s t r i c t l y diatonic.
" E l e g i a " (Elegy) i s i m p r e s s i o n i s t i c w i t h e x t e n ­
s i v e chrom aticism: n i n t h and e l e v e n t h c h o rd s w i t h added
f o u r t h s , s i x t h s , and s e v e n t h s , and ambiguous key c e n t e r s .
The songs d e s c r i b e d i n t h i s p a p e r do n o t p l a c e
Mabarak i n t h e c a t e g o r y o f c o n te m p o r a r y i n t e r n a t i o n a l i s t i c
co mposer. However, b e c a u s e o f h i s e x p e r i e n c e w i t h t h e
s e r i a l i s t i c and e l e c t r o n i c t e c h n i q u e s , and h i s composi­
t i o n Dos L i e d e r Sobre una S e r i e D o d e c a f o n ic a (Two L i e d e r
on a Dodecaphonic S e r i e s ) i t i s f e l t t h a t he b e lo n g s i n
t h e f i n a l c h a p t e r , even tho ugh t h i s w r i t e r was u n a b le
t o o b t a i n a copy o f h i s t w e l v e - t o n e a r t s o n g s .

Mario K u r i - A l d a n a

Mario K u r i- A ld a n a was b o r n i n 1931. He i s c o n s i d e r ­

ed one o f t h e most p r o m i s i n g composers o f t h e you nger
generation. His works have b e e n d e s c r i b e d as b e i n g i n a

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n of t h e co p y rig h t o w n er. F u r th e r re p r o d u c tio n pro hibited w itho ut p e r m is s io n .

 s t y l e s i m i l a r t o t h e " r e a l i s t i c n a t i o n a l i s m " o f R e v u e l ta s
The s e t , JEstas C u a tr o (These Four) i s t h e only
v o c a l c o m p o s i t i o n by K u r i - A l d a n a t h a t has be en p u b l i s h e d .
The m e lo d ie s o f th e f o u r songs a r e p r i m i t i v e and s i m p l e ,
b u i l t f o r t h e most p a r t on th e p e n t a t o n i c s c a l e . The
c o m b i n a t i o n o f t h e p e n t a t o n i c v o c a l l i n e and t h e extreme
d i s s o n a n c e o f t h e harmony p r o d u c e s a u n iq u e s o n o r i t y o f

" p r i m i t i v e m odernism ."

The f i r s t s o n g , "Cuando Yo Muy Nino" (When I was
a Very Young C h i l d ) , i s a sa d song ab o ut a boy who l o s t
h i s p a r e n t s and whose l i f e was "marked w i t h m i s e r y . " A
m e l o d i c p h r a s e i s r e p e a t e d i n two p e n t a t o n i c modes.
Example 33. A l d a n a , Cuando Yo Muy Nino, No. 1 o f E s t a s
C u a t r o , meas. 1 - 3 .

.
ear*4- wJ1 f vv-*=*1£:f ■£-44=
- - :- ih = 3
A p j, ft

| - -

The accompaniment u t i l i z e s th e extreme r a n g e s o f t h e

p i a n o and p ro d u c e s a p e c u l i a r e e r i n e s s . The example

shows t h e t r e b l e and b a s s p ia n o p a r t s w r i t t e n a minor
n in th a p a r t , b u t sp read four octaves a p a r t .

■^Pablo C a s t e l l a n o s , 'JAspectos d e l Nacionalism o

M u s ic a l M e x i c a n a , " H e t e r o f o n i a , Ano I Numero 4 ( Ja n u a r y
19 6 9 ) , p . 14.

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n of t h e co p y rig h t o w n er. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n prohibited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .

 80

Example 34. Cuando Yo Muy Nino , meas. 7, 8.

rj
bdLSSA r r ^ r - - - i — J - *
r » fO = r r :r" •
- - I ------------------
"La Nina Estd^ Ronca" (The L i t t l e G i r l i s Hoarse )
g i v e s th e f e e l i n g o f a t o n a l i t y t h r o u g h t h e u se o f s i m u l ­
ta n e o u s p o l y m o d a l i t y . The p i a n o i n t r o d u c t i o n s t a t e s two
p r i m i t i v e m elo dic l i n e s on d i f f e r e n t modes.
Example 35. A l d a n a , "La Nina Estd' Ronca" No. 2 o f E s t a s
C u a t r o , meas. 1, 2.

The lo wer f i g u r e i s l a t e r t a k e n by t h e v o i c e w h i l e t h e
piano p lay s the top l i n e fo u r octaves a p a r t.
The d i a t o n i c melody o f " V a r i t a de Canela" (C innam on

S t i c k ) i s s u p p o r t e d by t r i a d i c harmony and s h i f t i n g
rhythms i n t h e accompaniment.
The t i t l e o f t h e f o u r t h s o ng , "Minaal Tuifsch
I n c u c h u l " i s i n t h e Mayan l a n g u a g e , and may be an i n c a n t a t i o n

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n of t h e co p y rig h t o w n e r. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n prohibited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .

 81

to t h e Gods. The f i n a l v o c a l p h r a s e i s a s t a t e m e n t o f
t h e t i t l e i n Mayan, b u t t h e r e s t o f t h e song i s i n S p a n i s h .
The a t o n a l harmony and wide s k i p s i n t h e v o i c e b l e n d t o

g iv e a f o r c e f u l f e e l i n g o f a n t i q u i t y . A rhythmic f ig u r e
marked percus-ion a l p i a n o ( p e r c u s s i o n on t h e p i a n o ) can
be sounde'd by t h e s i n g e r o r p i a n i s t s t r i k i n g t h e to p o f
the piano. The p e r c u s s i v e p a r t i s w r i t t e n o n l y a t t h e
b e g i n n i n g and c o n c l u s i o n o f t h e p i e c e , b u t t h e accompani­
ment i n t o n e s i t s e v e r a l t i m e s e l s e w h e r e .
Example 36. A la a n a M in aal Tuifsch I n c u c h u l , No. 4 o f
E s t a s C u a t r o , meas. 1-4

Mario L a v i s t a

Mario L a v i s t a was b o r n A p r i l 3, 1943, i n Mexico

City. He f u l f i l l e d h i s s t u d i e s o f p i a n o w i t h F r a n c i s c o
Gyves, harmony and c o u n t e r p o i n t w i t h H e c t o r Q u i n t a n a r ,
and a n a l y s i s w i t h Rodolfo H a l f f t e r . From 1963 to 1967
he was a member o f t h e T a l l e r de Composicion (Composi­
t i o n Workshop), which was c r e a t e d by C a r lo s Ch/vez and
d i r e c t e d by H e c t o r Q u i n t a n a r . In 1964 he b e g an t ea ch in g ,
c o u r s e s i n f u n d a m e n ta l s o f m u s i c , m usi c a p p r e c i a t i o n
and music o f t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y a t Casa d e l Lago
(an a f f i l i a t e o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f M e x i c o ) . I n 1967 he
gave up t h i s p o s i t i o n , a c c e p t e d a s c h o l a r s h i p from t h e
F re n ch Government, and went t o s t u d y i n P a r i s . For two

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n of t h e co p y rig h t o w n e r. F u r th e r r e p ro d u c tio n prohibited w ith o u t p e rm is s io n .

 82

y e a r s he worked w i t h J e a n - ^ t i e n n e - M a r i e i n E x p e r i m e n t a l

Music and Problems i n R e c o r d i n g , on t h e Fre n ch r a d i o and

t e l e v i s i o n n e tw o rk . L a v i s t a r e c e i v e d t h e d e g re e M a ste r

o f A p p l i e d A c o u s t i c a l Waves.
During h i s s t a y i n E uro pe, he a t t e n d e d s e v e r a l
c o u r s e s i n con te m p o ra ry m usic:
1. " I n t e r n a t i o n a l Course i n New M u s i c , " i n
D a r m s t a d t , Germany.
2. "Music and M a t h e m a t i c s , " w i t h Yannis X e n a k i s .
3. "Chance i n Contemporary M u s i c , " w i t h Henry
Pousseaur.
4. " C om p o sition and A n a l y s i s , " w i t h Henry
P o u s s e a u r and K a r l h e i n z S t o c k h a u s e n , a t t h e
R h e i n i s c h e M u s ik s c h u l e C o n s e r v a t o r i u m i n
Cologne, Germany.
L a v i s t a ha s r e c e i v e d commissions from t h e N a t i o n a l
I n s t i t u t e o f Fin e A r t s , t h e S o c i e t y o f A uth ors and Com­
p o s e r s o f Mexico, and from t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f Mexico.
He has c o o p e r a t e d w i t h v a r i o u s music m ag azines i n Mexico,
B r a z i l and S p a in . He i s c u r r e n t l y doing a s e r i e s o f
programs f o r U n i v e r s i t y Radio o f Mexico d e a l i n g w i t h

t e n d e n c i e s o f c o n te m p o r a r y music d u r i n g .the l a s t tw e n ty
years.
S i n c e 1969 he h a s b e en t h e a s s i s t a n t d i r e c t o r o f
t h e "Workshop i n C om p o sitio n " and p r o f e s s o r o f harmony,
s o l f e g e , a n a l y s i s and a c o u s t i c s a t t h e N a t i o n a l Con­
s e r v a t o r y o f Mexico.

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n of t h e co p y rig h t o w n er. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n prohibited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .

 83

(The p r e c e d i n g i s a t r a n s l a t i o n o f b i o g r a p h i c a l

i n f o r m a t i o n f u r n i s h e d by t h e c om p o ser.)
In Dos Ca nciones (Two S o n g s ) , L a v i s t a d i s p l a y s
many o f t h e v o c a l and k e y b o ar d i n n o v a t i o n s o f th e
tw en tieth century. The accompaniment i s w r i t t e n f o r
e i t h e r h arp sich o rd or piano. I n f l u e n c e s o f t h e tw e lv e -
t o n e sy s te m and e x p r e s s i o n i s t i c t e c h n i q u e s a r e e v i d e n t .
The t e x t s were w r i t t e n by t h e Mexican s u r r e a l i s t i c p o e t
Q c t a v i o ~ P a z , who " a p p e a r s as one o f t h e f o r e m o s t p o e t s
-[ T
o f h i s g e n e r a t i o n i n t h e S p a n ish l a n g u a g e . P a z i s
a c a r e e r d i p l o m a t , h a v i n g worked i n P a r i s and r e c e n t l y
i n I n d i a and Ceylon as Mexican Ambassador.
I n s t r u c t i o n s a r e g i v e n by Mario L a v i s t a a t t h e
b eginning f o r i n t e r p r e t i n g the unorthodox m usical

n otation.
Some o f t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s a r e t r a n s l a t e d h e r e :
1. When t h e r e i s no tim e s i g n a t u r e , t h e d u r a t i o n
o f a measure i s g i v e n below t h e s t a f f i n
a p p ro x i m a t e s e c o n d s .
2. G l i s s a n d o s a r e p l a y e d by t h e f i n g e r n a i l s o r
t h e f i n g e r t i p s on t h e s t r i n g s o f t h e p i a n o
or h a rp s ic h o rd . Glissandos fo r the voice
a r e sung on vowels and c o n s o n a n c e s .
3. When a c o n s o n a n t i s u n d e r l i n e d , t h e sound,
i s t o be s u s t a i n e d as i n d i c a t e d .

■'■^'Jos/ Durand, " O c ta v io P a z , " Mexican L i f e ,

V ol. XXXIX No. 1 1 , . (November 1 9 6 3 ) , p . 49.

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n of t h e co p y rig h t o w n er. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n prohibited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .

 Words w r i t t e n on t h e s t a f f a r e to be spoken
i n t h e n a t u r a l rhythm of t h e words.
The s q u a r e n o t e s a r e s u s t a i n e d as i n d i c a t e d
in seconds.
tenuto
Chord c l u s t e r s . P l a y a l l the
0 i|§
and ^ n o tes in clu d ed w ith in the nota-
■1 tion.

tenuto corto

G r a d u a l l y l i f t t h e p e d al
Ped. and l e t t h e sound d i e out,

S i n g t h e n o t e n o r m a l l y , t h e n r a i s e t h e tone
a p p r o x i m a t e l y o n e - q u a r t e r t o n e , and r e t u r n
i m m e d ia te l y t o th e o r i g i n a l p i t c h .

Sing t h e t o n e a q u a r t e r - t o n e lo w e r t h a n the
preceding n o t e .

Spoken s i n g i n g (spre chstim m e o r sp r e c h g e s a n g )

Pause w i t h i n t h e mea sure t h a t i s mea sured i n

seconds.

J A n o t e w i t h u n d e te r m i n e d r h y t h m i c v a l u e .

Of s p e c i a l n o t e i s t h e second song " R e v e r s i b l e ,

f o r i t s form d e r i v e s from i t s t i t l e . I t is reversib le
The music and t e x t p r o c e e d t o t h e m i d p o i n t o f the song
which i s on t h e word " e t c e t e r a " ; t h e n t h e y r e v e r s e

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n of t h e co p y rig h t o w n er. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n prohibited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .

 85

direction. The music and t e x t a re r e v e r s e d by p h r a s e ,

n o t by s t r i c t r e t r o g r a d e . In o t h e r w o r d s , t h e l a s t
p h r a s e i s t h e same as t h e f i r s t . Some o f t h e p h r a s e s
are s l i g h t l y a lte r e d m u sica lly . An o u t l i n e o f t h e form
i s g i v e n below. Each l e t t e r r e f e r s t o a p h r a s e o f m usic
and t e x t .
Example 37. L a v i s t a , R e v e r s i b l e , No. 2 o f Dos C an cio n es .

A B C D E F G " e t c e t e r a " G' F E D ' C' B A

In t h e f i r s t two m e t e r e d b a r s t h e r e i s a h i n t o f
i m i t a t i o n between t h e t r e b l e o f t h e p i a n o and t h e v o i c e .
Example 38. R e v e r s i b l e , meas. 3, A.

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n of t h e co p y rig h t o w n er. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n prohibited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .

 86

SUMMARY

Mexico h a s a r i c h m u s i c a l h e r i t a g e from p r e - C o n q u e s t

tim es. Music was an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f t h e Mexican I n d i a n

c i v i l i z a t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e numerous r e l i g i o u s r i t u a l s
and c e rem o n ies . P r i m i t i v e as i t w as, t h i s music was an
expression of the a b o rig in a l creed. This e x p r e s s i o n was

s u p r e s s e d by t h e S p a n i s h c o n q u e r o r s a f t e r 1521, and r e ­
p l a c e d by European i d e a l s . C h r i s t i a n i t y and i t s music
was f o r c e d upon t h e n a t i v e s by t h e Roman C a t h o l i c Church,
b u t remnants o f t h e e a r l i e r c u l t u r e s s t i l l s u r v i v e i n
remote a r e a s o f t h e c o u n t r y .
The I n d i a n s p r o v e d t o be w i l l i n g and c a p a b l e
s t u d e n t s o f W estern music and r e a d i l y a s s i m i l a t e d t h e
new a r t . During t h e c o u rs e o f more t h a n t h r e e c e n ­
t u r i e s , a h y b rid m usical c u lt u r e (m e s t i z o ) d e v e l o p e d
from I n d i a n and S p a n i s h e l e m e n t s . This c u l t u r a l m i x t u r e

pr o d u c e d v e r y l i t t l e c l a s s i c a l m usic which was n o t a

d i r e c t i m i t a t i o n o f European m o d e l s , even a f t e r Mexico
g a i n e d i t s in d ep e n denc e i n 1821. A c o n s i d e r a b l e amount
o f f o l k music from S p a n i s h p r o t o t y p e s a p p e a r e d and
rem ains t h e b a s i c m u s i c a l d i e t i n Mexico.

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n of t h e co p y rig h t o w n e r. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n prohibited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .

 I t a l i a n dominance i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h century-
r e s u l t e d i n numerous c o p i e s o f i t s o p e r a t i c s t y l e .
I n t h e l a t t e r p a r t o f t h e c e n t u r y F re n ch and German
i n f l u e n c e s were a p p a r e n t and e x t e n d e d i n t o t h e p r e ­
se n t century.
Mexican a r t songs d i d n o t e x i s t p r i o r t o t h e
tw entieth century. The f i r s t c o m p o s i t i o n s i n t h i s
g e n r e r e i t e r a t e d European song forms and s o n o r i t i e s ,
e s p e c i a l l y French im pressionism . The h e r i t a g e o f
f o r e i g n - b o r n composers was r e f l e c t e d i n t h e i r work,
e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e from S p a i n . These e a r l y t w e n t i e t h -
c e n t u r y composers a c h i e v e d l i t t l e to w a rd t h e d e v e l o p ­
ment o f o r i g i n a l Mexican m u s i c . For t h i s r e a s o n ,
t h e y may be c o n s i d e r e d c o n s e r v a t i v e .
N a t i o n a l i s m gave r i s e t o t h e o n l y t r u e
c l a s s i c a l Mexican m u s i c a l e x p r e s s i o n . N atio n alis­
t i c composers drew from t h e a b o r i g i n a l and c o l o n i a l
p a s t i n o r d e r t o c r e a t e a modern Mexican m u s i c a l
language. They p r o d u c e d works which e x h i b i t and
d e f i n e Mexicanism.
T w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y Mexican music d i s p l a y s a
v a r i e t y o f s t y l e s from t h e c o n s e r v a t i v e t o t h e
ultra-m odern. Contemporary Mexican composers

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n of t h e co p y rig h t o w n e r. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n prohibited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .

 88

a r e moving toward u n i v e r s a l i s m t h r o u g h a t o n a l , s e r i a l , and

e l e c t r o n i c m usic. T h is p a r a l l e l s modern t e n d e n c i e s i n t h e
U n i t e d S t a t e s and many o t h e r W este rn n a t i o n s . The a r t
songs o f Mexico a r e n o t w i d e l y known o u t s i d e i t s own
borders. T his may be d u e , t o some e x t e n t , to t h e l a c k
o f pho no g rap h r e c o r d i n g s .
I t i s hoped t h a t t h i s s u r v e y w i l l s t i m u l a t e i n ­
t e r e s t and r e s u l t i n more i n v e s t i g a t i o n and p e r f o r m a n c e
o f t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y Mexican a r t s o n g s .

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n o f t h e co p y rig h t o w n e r. F u r th e r re p r o d u c tio n proh ibited w ithout p e r m is s io n .

 89

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A p e l , P a u l H. "Music i n M e x ic o ." Music o f t h e . A m e r i c a s ,

N o r th and S o u t h , New York: Vantage P r e s s , 1958
pp. 167-178.
A p e l , W i l l i . H a r v a r d D i c t i o n a r y o f M u s i c , Second e d i t i o n ,
r e v i s e d and e n l a r g e d . Cambridge, M a s s a c h u s e t t s : .
The Belknap P r e s s o f H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1969.
A u s t i n , W i l l ia m W. Music i n t h e 2 0 th C e n t u r y , New York:
W. W. N o r t o n , 1966. 708 p .
B aker's B io g ra p h ic a l D ic tio n a ry o f M u s ic ia n s , F i f t h
e d i t i o n w i t h 1965 s u p p l e m e n t. New York: G.
S c h i r m e r , 1958.
Benjamin, G e r a l d R. " J u l i a n C a r r i l l o and 'S o nid o T r e c e ' . "
I n t e r - A m e r i c a n I n s t i t u t e f o r M u s ic a l R e se arch
Y e a r b o o k , Vol. I l l ( 1 9 6 7 ) , 53- 68.
Bueno, M i g u e l. E s t e t i c a Formal de l a M u s i c a , Mexico,
D. F . : Ciudad U n i v e r s i t a r i a , 1965. 185p.
Casanova, E n r i q u e G. "Resena d e - l a P o e s i a Mexicana d e l
S i g l o XX." Mexico en .el A r t e , Vol. X (1 95 0 ),
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■ A r t e s . 11-2 2.
C a s te lla n o s , Pablo. "A s p ec to s d e l N a c i o n a li s m o Musical
M e x i c a n o . " H e t e r o f o n i a - , Ano I , No. 2 (Septem ber,
1 9 6 8 ) , 1 9 -21.
_________. " A s p e c to s d e l N a c i o n a li s m o M u s ic a l Mexica no."
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_________ . " A s p e c to s d e l N a cio n a lism o M u s ic a l Mexica no."
H e t e r f o n i a , Ano I , No. 5 (March, 1 9 6 9 ) , 9-10.
C a t a l y n e , A l i c e Ray. "Music o f t h e S i x t e e n t h to
E ig h te e n th C enturies i n th e C athedral of Puebla,
M e x i c o . " I n t e r - A m e r i c a n I n s t i t u t e f o r M usic al
R e s e a r c h Yearbook. Vol. I I (1 9 6 6 ) , 75-79.

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m is s io n o f t h e cop y rig h t o w n e r. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n p rohib ited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .

 90

Chase, G i l b e r t . The American Composer S p e a k s , Baton

Rouge, L o u i s i a n a : Louisiana S ta te U n iv e rsity
P r e s s , 1966. 318p.
B i b l i o g r a p h y o f L a t i n American Folk Music,
T i b r a r y o f C o n g r e s s , Music D i v i s i o n , 1942. 145p.
_________ . A Guide t o L a t i n American M u s i c , Washington,
D. C7! L i b r a r y of C o n g re ss, Music D i v i s i o n , 1945.
274p.
______ . " L a t i n A m e r i c a . " A H i s t o r y o f Song, E d i t e d
Fy Denis S t e v e n s . New York: W. W. N o rto n , 1960.
p p. 304-322
"New Music o f t h e A m e r i c a s . " A m e ric as , Vol.
X I I I ( 1 9 61 ), 7-10.
_________ . A P a r t i a l L i s t o f L a t i n American Music
O b t a i n a b l e i n t h e U . S . , W ashington, D. C . : Pan
American Union, 19 41. 191p.
Ch/vez, C a rlo s. "The Music o f M e x ico ." American
Composers on American M u s ic , E d i t e d by Henry
Cowell. S ta n fo rd , C a lif o r n ia : S tan fo rd Univer­
s i t y P r e s s , 1933. pp. 167-172.
"Mexican M u s i c . " Mexican L i f e , XXXXII (May,
1 9 6 6 ) , 16-18.
_________ . "Mtlsica en M e x ic o ." Me'xico en e l A r t e ,
Vol. XI ( 1 9 5 0 ) , Mexico, El. F . : I n s t i t u t o Nacional
de B e l l a s A r t e s . 201-238.
, M u s ic a l T h o u g h t , Cambridge, M a s s a c h u s e t t s :
H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1961. 126p.
" C a r l o s C havez." Composers o f t h e A m e r i c a s , Vol. I I I .
W ash in g to n , D. C . : Pan American Union ( 1 9 6 0),
60 -82.
Co plan d, Aaron. " C a r l o s Chavez-Mexican Composer."
American Composers on American M u s i c , E d i t e d by
Henry Cowell. Stanford, C a lifo rn ia : Stanford
U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s ( 1 9 3 3 ) , pp. 102-106.

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n of t h e c o pyright ow n er. F u r th e r re p r o d u c tio n proh ibited w ithout p e r m is s io n .

 Durand, Jose^. " O c ta v io P a z . " A m e r i c a s , V o l. XV (1 9 63 ),
30-33.
"O ctavio Paz." Mexican L i f e , XXXIX (November,
: T963) , 25-26.
D ur eau, L. "Contemporary Music i n M e x i c o ." Mexican-
American Review ( A p r i l , 1 9 6 2 ) , 24-33.
Ewen, Da vid. American Composers T oday, New York: H.
W ilso n Co. , 1949. 26 5p.
F i e l d , M i c h a e l G r e e t . "Two-World Composer." A m /ricas,
Vol.’ V I I I (1955), 10 -1 4.
F r a s e r , Norman. " L a t i n A m e r i c a . " T w e n t i e t h - C e n t u r y
M u s i c , E d i t e d by R o l l o H. Myers. New York: The
O r io n P r e s s , 1968, pp. 267-280.
" B ias G a l in d o - D i m a s . " Composers o f t h e A m e r i c a s , V o l . XI.
W ash i n g t o n , D. C.: Pan American Union (1 9 6 5 ) , 35-46
G a r c i a , F r a n c i s c o M. Pequehas B i o g r a f i a s de Grandes
Mifsicos M e x ica n o s, Mexico, D. F . : E d i c i o n e s Framong
1966, 291p.
Gdmez. F i l i b e r t o . Rar^muri, Mdxico, D. F . : E dito rial
S. C. L . , 1948. 309p.
G r i a l , Hugo de. Musicos M e x i c a n o s , Me'xico, D. F. :
E d i t o r i a l Dia na, S. A , , 1965. 283p.
G r o v e 's D i c t i o n a r y o f Music and M u s i c i a n s . 9 V o l s .
F i f t h e d i t i o n . E d i t e d by E r i c Blom. New York:
S t . M a r t i n ' s P r e s s , 1954.
G r o v e 's D i c t i o n a r y o f Music and M u s i c i a n s . Vol. 10,
: S u p p le m e n ta r y volume t o t h e F i f t h e d i t i o n . New
York: S t . M a r t i n ' s P r e s s , 1961.
"Rodolfo H a l f f t e r . " Composers o f t h e A m e r i c a s , Vol. I I .
W a sh in g to n , D. C: Pan American Union (1 9 5 6 ) ,
83-89.

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m is s io n of t h e cop y rig h t o w n e r. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n prohibited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .

 92

H e r a s , J o a q u i n G. " M e x i c o 's Music i n T r a n s i t i o n . "

Mexican L i f e , XXXX (Se p tem b er, 1 9 6 4 ), 25-26.
" C a r l o s J i m d n e z - M a b a r a k . " Composers o f t h e A m e r i c a s ,
V ol. V I I I . W a sh in g to n , D. C . : Pan American
Union ( 1 9 6 2 ) , 94-101.
Lieberm an, C a ro l L. "Los Mifsicos de Moctezuma."
H e t e r o f o n i a , Ano I , No. 6 (May, 1 9 6 9 ) , 14-17.
Mayer-Serra, O tto. " S i l v e s t r e R e v u e l t a s and M u s i c a l
N a t i o n a l i s m i n M e x i c o . " M u s ic a l Q u a r t e r l y , Vol
XX WII, No. 2 ( A p r i l , 1 9 4 1 ) , 123-145.
_________ . The P r e s e n t S t a t e o f Music i n M e x i c o ,
T r a n s l a t e d by F r a n k J e l l i n e k . W ashing ton , D. C.:
Pan American U n ion , Music D i v i s i o n , 1946. 47p.
Mendoza, V i c e n t e T. El Romance E sp ah ol y El C o r r i d o
M e x ica n p , Mdxico, D. F . : U n i v e r s i d a d N a c i o n a l
Autdnoma, 1939. 329p.
_________ . L ^ r i c a N a r r a t i v a de Mexico; El C o r r i d o , Mexico,
D. F7"i I n s t i t u t o de I n v e s t i g a c i o n e s E s t d l i c a s ,
U n i v e r s i d a d N a c i o n a l Autdnoma de Mdxico, 1964.
418p.

M o r i l l o , Roberto G. C a r l o s Chavez: Vida y O b r a ,

Mexico, D. F . l Fondo de C u l t u r a Ecdnomica, 1960.
2 41 p .
Pena, C a r l o s G o nz ale z. H i s t o r y o f Mexican L i t e r a t u r e ,
R e v is e d E d i t i o n , T r a n s l a t e d by Gusta B. Nance and
F l o r e n c e J . D u n s ta n . D a l l a s : S o u t h e r n M e t h o d i s t
U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1943. 398p.
"Manuel M. P o n c e . " Composers o f t h e A m e r i c a s , Vol. I .
W ashin gto n, D. C .: Pan American Union ( 1 9 5 5 ) ,
6 0-70.
" S i l v e s t r e R e v u e l t a s . " Composers o f t h e A m e r i c a s , V o l. I .
W ash in g to n , D. C .l Pan American Union (1955) ,
71-76.
S a l a z a r , A d o l f o . Music i n Our Time, T r a n s l a t e d by
I s a b e l Pope"! New York: W. W. N o r t o n , 1946.
36 7p.

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n of t h e co p y rig h t o w n e r. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n prohibited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .

 .93

Salzman, E r i c , " L a t i n A m e r i c a . " T w e n t i e t h Centu ry

Music: An I n t r o d u c t i o n , Englewood C l i f f s , New
J e r s e y : P r e n t i c e - H a l l , I n c . , 1967. pp. 95-96.
"L u is S a n d i . " Composers o f t h e A m e r i c a s , Vol. XIV.
W ash in gto n, D. C .: Pan American Union ( 1 9 6 8 ] ,
147-151.
S c h o n b e rg , H a r o ld C. " I n Mexico, t h e Cry i s f o r
I n t e r n a t i o n a l i s m . " Mexican L i f e , XXXXV
( J a n u a r y , 19 6 9 ), '55-37.
S i l v a , A l b e r t o P. " E s t ^ t i c a M u s i c a l . " H e t e r o f o n i a ,
Affo I , Nos. 3-6 (Nov., 1968; J a n . , March, May,
1969).
S lo n i m s k y , N i c o l a s . Music o f L a t i n A m e ri c a , New York:
Thomas Y. C r o w e l l , 1945. 347p.
S t a n f o r d , Thomas. "A L i n g u i s t i c A n a l y s i s o f Music and
Dance Terms from Three S i x t e e n t h - C e n t u r y
D i c t i o n a r i e s o f M e x i c a n - I n d i a n L a n g u a g e s ."
I n t e r - A m e r i c a n I n s t i t u t e f o r M us ic a l R e s e a r c h ,
V o l. I I ( 1 9 6 6 ) , 101-159.
Stevens, C la ir e . "La Musica E n t r e Los A ntigu o s Mayas."'
H e t e r o f o n i a , Aflo I , No. 3 (November, 1 9 6 8 ) , 37-39.
________ . "Miisic,a y Danza de Los A n t i g u o s M e x ic a n o s."
H e t e r o f o n i a , Ano I , No. 1 ( J u l y , 19 68 ), 35-39.
S t e v e n s o n , R o b e r t . Music i n Mexico, A H i s t o r i c a l S u r v e y ,
New York: Thomas Y. C row e ll C o ., 1962. 300p.
_________ . Music i n A z t e c and I n c a T e r r i t o r y , B e r k e l e y and
Los A n g e l e s : U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a P r e s s , 1968.
3*7O—,
/ oy •

_________ . "A Newly D i s c o v e r e d Mexican S i x t e e n t h - C e n t u r y

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M u s i c a l R e s e a r c h Y e arb o o k , Vol. TI ( 1 9 6 6 ) , 91 -9 4.
Thomson, V i r g i l . " R e v u e l t a s . " Music Reviewed 1 9 4 0 - 1 9 5 4 ,
New York: V i n t a g e Books, 1954. pp. 38-39.

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n of t h e co p y rig h t o w n e r. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n prohibited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .

 94

Underwood, Edna W., T r a n s l a t o r . Anthology o f Mexican

P o e t s From t h e E a r l i e s t Times t o t h e P r e s e n t Day,
P o r t l a n d , Maine: The Mosher P r e s s , 1932. 332p.
Vega, A u r e l i o de l a . "New World Composers." Am ericas,
Vol. XVI ( 1 9 6 4 ) , 23-28.
W ein sto ck , H e r b e r t . " C a r l o s C h a v ez ." M u s ic a l Q u a r t e r l y ,
Vol. XXII, No. 4 ( O c t o b e r , 1 9 3 6 ) , 435-445.
W estru p, J . A. and F. L I. H a r r i s o n . The New C o l le g e
E n c y c l o p e d i a o f M usic , New York: W. W. N o r to n ,
1960.

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n of t h e co p y rig h t o w n er. F u r th e r re p r o d u c tio n prohibited w ithout p e r m is s io n .

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

ANNOTATED APPENDIX OF COMPOSITIONS

COMPOSER TITLE POET RANGE PUBL. DATE

Adomian, Lan Dos Nanas JuanR ejano EMM 1959C

1. N a n a i a-e" 1969P
2. Nana II a-f"

Aldana, M ario K uri- E sta s Cuatro A. Khoury EAM 1961C

1. Cuando Yo Muy g'-b^" 1964P
2. La Niffa Esta^Ronca o'-a"
3. Varita De Canela c'-a"
4. Min^al Tuffseh c'-a"

Ayala, Daniel Cuatro Canciones Juan Ramdn Jim enez ECIC 1932C
1. Nostalgia 1947P
2. A bril f'-g "
3. Otono Ultim o d^-g"
4. Soledad d'-f"

B al y Gay, Jesfis Cuatro P ieza s EMM 1941C

1. Cancidn E m ilio Prados d’-f#" 1947P
2. La Plenitud Juan Ramdn Jim enez e'-a"
3. Nana D el Nifio Malo Rafael A lberti d^-fTI
4. La Luna F eliz Juan Ram^n Jim enez f'-g"

VO
Cn
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

COMPOSER TITLE POET RANGE PUBL. DATE

Chdyez, C arlos Dos Canciones BH 1958P

1. Todo Ramdn L^pez Velarde 1932C
2. North Carolina B lues X avier V illaurrutia c'-f" 1942C

Although these songs w ere written ten y ea rs apart (1932 and 1942), they w ere published
for the fir s t tim e in 1958 with the title, Dos Canciones.

T res Poem as Para GS 1938C

Canto Y Piano 1942P
1. Segador C arlos P e llic e r f'-f#"
2. Hoy No Lucio La Salvador Novo c'-c#"
E strella De Tus Ojos
3. Nocturna Rosa X avier V illaurrutia d'-g"

"La Casada Infiei" F ed erico Garcia Lorca c'-e#" EMM 1941C*

1960P

♦R evised in 1957.

E lia s, A lfonso de Dos M adrigales DMA 1961P

1. Madrigal I F ran cisco de E lias d#'-f#" 1927C
2. Madrigal II Gustavo A. B^cquer e*~a" 1961C
to
"Madrigal I" com posed in 1927, "Madrigal II" com posed in
1961; published together as Dos M adrigales in 1961.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

COMPOSER TITLE POET . RANGE PUBL. DATE

Fuchs, Arno T res Canciones ECIC 1944C

1. C alles X avier Villaurrutia bb-e" 1945P
2. Me Gustas Cuando Pablo Neruda bb-d"
C allas
3. La Ddcima Pablo Neruda a-e"

Galindo, B ias T res Canciones AMP 1939C

1. Jicarita Alfonso del Rio d'-f#" 1947P
2. Mi Querer Pasaba E lia s Nandino f'-g"
El Rio
3. Paloma Blanca B ias Galindo e ’-e"

Dos Canciones EMM 1947P

1. A rrullo Alfonso del Rio d'-f" 1945C
2. Madre Mia, Cuando Ruben M. Campos e'-e" 1944C
Muera

"Fuensanta" Ramdn Ldpez Velarde f#'-f#" EMM 1954C

1968P

Halffter, Rodolfo Dos Sonetos Juana I. de la Cruz UME 1962P

~ Miro C elia Una Rosa bb-e" 1940C
2. F eliciano Me Adora d'-e"
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

COMPOSER TITLE POET RANGE PUBL. DATE

Halffter (cont'd) M arinero En La T ierra R afael A lberti RA 1963P

Que'Alto Los Balcones d'-g"
2. Casadita d'-g"
3. Siem pre Que Suefio f#'-f#"
Las Playas
4. Verano e ’-f#"
5. Gimiendo Por Ver a'-g"
El Mar

Lavista, Mario Dos Canciones Octavio Paz EMM 1966C

1. Palpar ab-f#" 1967P
2 . R eversib le ab~g"

Mabarak, C arlos J. "La Cancidn De La A lfonso Cravioto d^-eb" EH 1940C

Pilmama"

"E stancias Nocturnas" X avier V illaurrutia a-g" EH 1940C

S els Canciones C arlos L. Saenz RA 1962P

1. Din Don e ?- e b "
2. La Casa d'-g#"
3. La V ieja Ine's d’-g"

CD
00
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

COMPOSER TITLE POET RANGE PUBL. DATE

Mabarak (cont'd) 4. Ron Ron e'-f#"

5. El Nifio Azul c#*-f#"
6. El Alacr^n db i-f"

"Ronda" N icolds Guilldn e ’-a" EH 1963C

"Elegia" N icolas Guilldn c # ’-a" EH

*'No date on EH copy. According to catalogue of

com positions, it was com posed in 1963 or later.

Ponce, Manuel M. T res Poem as De Mariano Brull EMS 1931C

Mariano B rull 1932P
1. Granada eb ,-f"
2. Por E l Ir D el Rio f#'-e"
3. Verdehalago d'-f#"

T res Poem as De Mikhail Y. Lermontow UNC 1932C

Lermontow 1951P
1. L e s ^ to ile s e'-g"
2. L'Ange d!-f#"
3. La Boh'bmienne d'-a#"

Cuatro Poem as De F ran cisco A. de Icaza SMP 1936C

F ran cisco A. de Icaza 1952P
vo
VO
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

COMPOSER TITLE POET RANGE PUBL. DATE

Ponce (cont'd) 1. De Oro d’-e"

2. La Sombra e '-f
3. La Fuente e '-f 1937C
4. Camino Arriba e ’-f#" 1936C

S eis Canciones ECIC 1943P

(Poem as)* A rcaicas
♦Explained in text.
1. M^s Quiero M orir Juan del Encina e '-f'
... Por V eros
2. Zagaleja D el C asar Anonymous e'-g"
3. De Las S ierras Anonymous e f-g"
4. Sol, Sol, Gi, Gi Anonymous d’-g"
5. D esciende El Anonymous e'-g"
Valle
6. T res M orillas Anonymous c ’-f"

T res Poem as De Enrique G. Martmez ECIC 1943P

Enrique G. M artinez
1. Nocturno De Las R osas e'-f*
2. Onda c#'--e"
3. La Despedida c # ‘-e"

Canciones M exicanas Jose^D. F ria s PGH N. d.

Para Niftos

100
1. La Prim avera e'-e"
2. La Luna d#«-d#"
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

COMPOSER TITLE P O E T _____________ RANGE PUBL. DATE

y_
Ponce (cont'd) 3. La Aurora e '-f"
4. La Lluvia e'-e"

T hese four songs w ere published separately by Southern Music P ublishers

and are now out of print. They w ere combined la ter to form th is set.

Cantos Infantiles Para R osaura Zapata ESEP 1942P

Los Jardines De Ninos
1. Himno A! NiKo d'-e"
2. Himno A La Madre d'-c"
3. Hogar Limpio d '-b ?
4. Nuevo Hogar d'-c"
5. F rio c'-c"
6. Las F lo rista s d#'-c#"
7. H erreros f#'-d"
8. La M argarita d'-b'
9. Golondrinas V iajeras d'-c#"
10. Las Golondrinas Llegan e'-c"

P rieto, Marfa T. Odas C elestes EMM 1947C

1. Oda C eleste C arlos B. P rieto g#'-a^" 1952P
• / L
2. iCantad! Pajaros V icente A leizandre bD -a"
3. Mirando Las A lia s Marfa T. P rieto d’-g"
Cumbres

TOT
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

COMPOSER TITLE POET RANGE PUBL. DATE

P rieto (cont'd) 4. L es Peupliers C harles le Goffic d'-g"

De K^ranroux
5. Le Colibri G eorges Boutelleau f#'-f#"

Canciones Modales EMM 1963P

1. Si V es E l C iervo Juana I. de la Cruz d -f"
Herido
2. Sonatina Juana I. de la Cruz e '-f11
3. De Extremadura Alejandro Casona d'-f"
A Leon
4. E sta Verde Hierba Maria T. P rieto d'-a"
5. C risto En La Tarde Maria T. P rieto e'-a"
6. iQ uien Dijo A caso? Marfa T. Prieto o'-a"

R evueltas, S ilvestre "El Tecolote" Daniel Castafieda gb t nr!t SMP 1931C

1956P

"Ranas" D aniel Castaneda e'-g#" SMP 1931C

1956P

"Duo Para Pato Y Carlos' B arrera c'-a" SMP 1931C

Canario" 1962P

"Canto De Una Langston Hughes g—

-eRb " EMB 1938C
Muchacha Negra" 1948P

102
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

COMPOSER TITLE POET RANGE PUBL. DATE

R evueltas (cont'd) Dos Canciones ECIC 1940C

1. Amiga Que Te Vas Ramon Ldpez V elarde b-e" 1946P
2. Caminando N icolas Guillen d -f

Roldn, Josd^ Dibujos Sobre Un Puerto Jose^Gorostiza EMM 1968P

1. El Alba c'-g"
2. La Tarde d'-f»
3. Noctujmo d'-g"
4. E legia c '-a '
5. C autarcillo d'-g"
6. El Faro d'-g"
7. Oracion d'-g"

Sandi, Luis D iez Hai Kais Jostf Juan Tablada EMM 1933C
1. E l Pavo Real eb '-f" 1947P
2. Las Abejas d'-c"
3. El Sauz g'-e"
4. El A bejorro d'-d"
5. Las Toninas f'-g#"
6. Caballo D el Diablo f'-f"
7. El Caimtfn f'-f"
8. La Mariposa c'-e"
9. P ec es Voladores g#'-bb"
10. El Bam btf f#'-f#"

103
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

COMPOSER TITLE POET RANGE PUBL. DATE

Sandi (cont'd) Cuatro Canciones De Am or EMM 1954P

1. La Hora Tranquila Anonymous d^'-a^"
2. La B atalla Anonymous g'-a^"
3. Y P en sar que p u dim os.. . Ramdn Ldpez V elarde d'-a^"
4. Pregdn Submarino Rafael A lberti f#'-g#"

Poem as D el A m or y Omar Khayyam EMM 1966P

De La Muerte
1. Quien no ha amado nunca,
2. B ien am ada., .
3. Aquf^ con un pedazo
de p a n .. .
4. iQud^mezquino el
co ra z d n .. . !
5. R od op is,....
6. iAh, g o c e m o s .. . !
7. Vine al m undo,. . .
8. i Ah llenad la s copasl
9. Todo e s un a je d r e z .. .
10. Un instante de r e p o s o .. .
11. 'lOh, lu n a!. . .
12. Cuando hayamos m uerto.
 105

KEY TO ABBREVIATIONS IN APPENDIX

Symbols:

c One o c ta v e below m id d le C.

c’ Middle C.
c" Cr-i' o c ta v e above m id d le C.
C A i ~ar y e a r , i n d i c a t e s d a t e of composition.
P A fte r y e a r , i n d ic a te s date of p u b lic a tio n .

Publishers:

AMP Arrow Music P r e s s , I n c . , 250 W. 57t h S t .

New York, New York.
BH Boosey and Hawks, P. 0. Box 418
Lynbrook, Long I s l a n d , New York.
DMA Dib ujos M u s ic a le s A m b r i z . , G a r i b a l d i 1566,
G u a d a l a j a r a , J a l i s c o , Mexico.
EAM E d i t o r i a l A g r e n t i n a de Mi/sica, Bartolome M i t r e
1568, Buenos A i r e s , A r g e n t i n a .
EBM Edward B. Marks Music C o r p o r a t i o n , RCA B u i l d ­
i n g , Radio C i t y , New York.
ECIC E d i t o r i a l C o o p e r a t i v a I n t e r a m e r i c a n a de
C o m p o s i t o r e s , M o n t i v i d e o , Uraguay.
EH E d i c i d n H e l i o g r a t i c a CHelio gra phic r e p r o d u c t i o n
of the m an u scrip t). P r o p e r t y o f th e composer,
A n te n o r S a l a 2 7 - 4 , Me*xico, D. F.
EMM E d i c i o n e s Mexicanas de Miisica, A. C .,
Avenida J u a r e z 18, Desp. 206, Mdxico, D. F.

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n of t h e co p y rig h t o w n er. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n prohibited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .

 10.6

EMS E d i t i o n s Ma urice S e n a r t , 20 Rue du Dragon,

P a r i s , France.
ESEP E d i c i o n e s de l a S e c r e t a r i a de E d u caci^n P i f b l i c a ,
Mexico, D. F.
GS G. S c h i r m e r , 3 E a s t 43 rd. St.-,
New York, New York 10017’.
PGH Pefia G i l Hermanos, Avenido J u a r e z 46, A p a r t a
de P o s t a l 1014, MdScico, D. F.
RA R i c o r d i A m ericana,
Buenos A i r e s , A r g e n t i n a .
SMP S o u t h e r n Music P u b l i s h i n g Company, I n c .
1619 Broadway, New York, New York.
UME Unio*n M u s i c a l E s p a n o la , E d i t o r e s , C a r r e r a de
San J e r d n i m o , 26 y A r e n a l , 18, M a d rid , Espafla.
UNC U n i v e r s i d a d N a c i o n a l de Cuyo
Buenos A i r e s , A r g e n t i n a .

R e p r o d u c e d with p e r m i s s io n of t h e co p y rig h t o w n e r. F u r th e r r e p r o d u c tio n prohibited w ith o u t p e r m is s io n .