First Year B.Tech.

Course Title: Applied Physics,

Course No : APS1110
(Common to All Branches)
(3L+ 1T) / Week
 Syllabus
UNIT-III:
• Particles and Waves: Mechanism of x- ray production (continuous
and characteristic x- rays, Duane- Hunt limit), Compton effect, Pair
production, Phase and group velocities, Uncertainty principle and
its applications.

• Quantum Mechanics: Introduction to quantum mechanics, Wave

function, Conditions necessary for physically acceptable
wavefunction, Probability density and probability, Schrödinger
equations: Time dependent and steady state (time independent)
forms, Eigen values and Eigen functions, Expectation values,
Particle in a box (infinite potential well) and Tunnel effect
(qualitative discussion only).

UNIT-IV:
• Statistical Mechanics: Statistical distributions, Maxwell–Boltzmann
statistics, Molecular energies in an ideal gas, Quantum statistics,
Specific heats of solids, Free electrons in a metal and Electron-
energy distribution.
TEXT BOOKS:

• Arthur Beiser, “Concepts of Modern Physics” 6th

edition (2003), Mc. Graw Hills Inc. International
Edition.

• M.R. Wehr, J.A. Richards Jr. and T.W. Adair III, “Physics of the
Atom” 4th edition (1984), Addison Wesley / Narosa.
 Unit III
Particles and Waves
3(a)
Mechanism of x-ray production
(continuous and characteristic x-rays,
Duane- Hunt limit), Compton effect, Pair
production, Phase and group velocities,
Uncertainty principle and its applications.
What are electromagnetic waves?

Coupled electric and magnetic oscillations

that propagates with the speed of light and
having the wave nature known as
electromagnetic waves.
What is electromagnetic spectrum ?
Range of frequencies/wavelength over which
an electromagnetic wave can be propagates
known as electromagnetic spectrum.
EM Waves:

Predicted by Maxwell in 1865

Produced by Hertz in 1888

Transmitted by JC Bose in 1895

• At the end of 19th Century the nature of light
seemed to be settled for ever.
• The energy is transmitted continuously in the
form of wave (classical theory).
• Hertz experiment
• The first sign that something was seriously amiss
came from attempts to understand the origin of
the radiation emitted by bodies of matter.
In Photo electric effect light photons
(in the form of UV/VIS/IR) can eject electrons (photo
electrons) from metal surface.
• Planck Radiation formula

• Quantum Theory of Light (1905)

• Dual nature of Light

• Reverse of this process is also true that K.E. of
moving electrons can be converted into photons (X-
Ray photons). Inverse photo-electric effect. This is
what is used in production of X-rays.

• X-rays were discovered by Wilhelm Roentgen in

1895. He was the first physicist to receive the Nobel
prize in physics in 1901 for the discovery of X-ray.
 Properties of X-rays
• Ranges from 0.1Å to 100Å (0.01-10 nm ).
• Electromagnetic wave v=c.
• Travel in straight line, cast shadow
• Not deviated by electric and magnetic field .
• Affect the photographic plate very intensely.
• They ionize the gas through which they pass.
• Cause fluorescence (zinc sulphide, barium
platino cyanide).
• Cause photoelectric effect.
• Undergo reflection, refraction, interference,
diffraction polarization.
Production of X-ray
• Filament is heated electrically and
hence it emits electrons by thermionic
emission.

• Target: A metal target with high atomic

number (Mo = 42 , W= 74) .

• V= 1000 kv. (of the order of Kilo volt)

• +ve polarity of the battery or target is at high
potential with respect to the filament because
the negative terminal is connected to the
filament and positive terminal is connected
to target with respect to the filament.
• Electrons emitted by filament are accelerated
by the potential difference V and hence hits
the target with very high speed or very high
kinetic energy.
• These energetic electrons by the target and
in the process X-Rays are emitted.
• Most of the Kinetic energy of the electrons which
are striking the target is converted into heat and
less than 1% is transformed into X-Rays.
• Let the electrons comes out of filament with
negligible speed . Therefore, K.E. of the electrons
when they hit the target = eV.
• The electrons before finally being stopped makes
several collisions with the atoms in the target .
• At each collision one of the process my
occur
1. Production of Continuous X-Ray.

2. Production of Characteristic X-Ray.

1. Production of Continuous X-Ray.

½ m v22

½ m v1 2
Fast moving electrons penetrate deep into

the interior of the atoms of the target and

are attracted by the attractive forces of their

nuclei. Due to these force, the electrons get

deflected from their original paths.

In this way, the electrons are decelerated i.e.

their velocity is reduced and this gives rise to

loss of energy. The loss of energy during

retardation is given off in the form of em

radiation i.e. x-rays of continuously varying

wavelengths.
The x-rays consist of continuous range of

frequencies upto maximum frequency vmax

or minimum wavelength λmin. This is called

a continuous spectrum.
We know that the kinetic energy of an

electron having charge e and accelerated by

a potential V is given by:

Let the velocity of an electron changes from
v1 to v2 due to deflection or due to collision.
If m be the mass of electron, then the energy
of the emitted photon due to the reduction
in velocity is given by:
when the electron moves very close to the
nucleus then it loses a greater amount of
energy and consequently releases a photon
of high frequency. Obviously when the
electron is completely brought to rest by the
forces, then the liberated photon has the
maximum frequency. For this case
From equations 1 and 2, we get
Duane-Hunt formula

λmin does not depend upon the target

material and is inversely proportional to the
applied voltage V.
2. Production of Characteristic X-Ray.
Few of the fast moving electrons having

velocity about one-tenth of the velocity of

light may penetrate the surface atoms of the

target material and knock out the tightly

bound electrons even from the innermost

shells like K, L or M etc of the atom.

The vacancy so created may be filled up by
the electrons from higher shells i.e. electrons
from higher shells jumps to fill up the
created vacancies. This electronic transition
takes place. The energy difference is
radiated in the form of x-rays of very small
but of definite wavelengths.
• The wavelength depend upon target

material.

• Due to this fact these are known as

characteristic x-rays
Find the shortest wavelength and maximum
frequency present in the radiation from an
x-ray machine whose accelerating potential
is 50,000 V.
Scattering of photon by an electron
When the incoming photon gives part of its
energy to the electron, then the scattered
photon has lower energy and according to
the Plank relationship has lower frequency
and longer wavelength The wavelength
change in such scattering depends only
upon the angle of scattering for a given
target particle.
Experimental demonstration and confirmation of Compton Effect. The greater
the scattering angle , the greater the wavelength change.
Arthur Compton treated the x-ray photons as particles and

applied conservation of energy and conservation of

momentum to the collision of a photon with a stationary

electron.
Compton Effect
• The scattering of photons from charged particles is called
Compton scattering after Arthur Compton who was the first
to measure photon-electron scattering in 1922. When the
incoming photon gives part of its energy to the electron, then
the scattered photon has lower energy and according to the
Plank relationship has lower frequency and longer
wavelength. The wavelength change in such scattering
depends only upon the angle of scattering for a given target
particle.
According to law of conservation of energy

ℎ𝜈 + 𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 = ℎ𝜈 ′ + 𝑘𝑒 + 𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2
Thus 𝑘𝑒 = ℎ𝜈 − ℎ𝜈 ′ ………(1)

According to law of conservation of momentum along x-axis

ℎ𝜈 ℎ𝜈′
+0= cos 𝜑 + 𝑝 cos 𝜃
𝑐 𝑐
Thus 𝑝𝑐 cos 𝜃 = ℎ𝜈 − ℎ𝜈′ cos 𝜑 ……………(2)
According to law of conservation of momentum along y-axis

ℎ𝜈′
0+0= sin 𝜑 − 𝑝 sin 𝜃
𝑐
Thus 𝑝𝑐 sin 𝜃 = ℎ𝜈′ sin 𝜑 ………….(3)

Squaring equation (2) & (3) and adding them we get

2
𝑝2 𝑐 2 = ℎ2 𝜈 2 − 2ℎ𝜈ℎ𝜈 ′ cos 𝜑 + ℎ2 𝜈 ′ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜑 + ℎ2 𝜈′2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜑
𝑝2 𝑐 2 = ℎ2 𝜈 2 − 2ℎ𝜈ℎ𝜈 ′ cos 𝜑 + ℎ2 𝜈′2 …………(4)
By relativistic formula we know that total energy of any particle
= KE + rest mass energy

𝐸 = 𝑘𝑒 + 𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 = 𝑝2 𝑐 2 + 𝑚𝑜2 𝑐 4
(𝑘𝑒 + 𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 )2 = 𝑝2 𝑐 2 + 𝑚𝑜2 𝑐 4
𝑘𝑒2 + 2𝑘𝑒 𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 + 𝑚𝑜2 𝑐 4 = 𝑝2 𝑐 2 + 𝑚𝑜2 𝑐 4
𝑝2 𝑐 2 = 𝑘𝑒2 + 2𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 𝑘𝑒
𝑝2 𝑐 2 = (ℎ𝜈 − ℎ𝜈 ′ )2 +2𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 (ℎ𝜈 − ℎ𝜈 ′ )
2
𝑝2 𝑐 2 = ℎ2 𝜈 2 − 2ℎ𝜈ℎ𝜈 ′ + 2
ℎ 𝜈 ′ + 2ℎ(𝜈 − 𝜈 ′ )𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2
…..(5)
Equating equation (4)&(5), we get

𝜈 − 𝜈 ′ 𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 − ℎ𝜈𝜈 ′ = −ℎ𝜈𝜈′ cos 𝜑

𝜈 − 𝜈 ′ 𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 = ℎ𝜈𝜈 ′ − ℎ𝜈𝜈 ′ cos 𝜑
𝜈 − 𝜈 ′ 𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 = ℎ𝜈𝜈′(1 − cos 𝜑)
ℎ𝜈𝜈 ′
𝜈 − 𝜈′ = 2
(1 − cos 𝜑)
𝑚𝑜 𝑐
𝜈 − 𝜈′ ℎ
= 2
(1 − cos 𝜑)
𝜈𝜈′ 𝑚𝑜 𝑐
 1 1 ℎ
− = 2
(1 − cos 𝜑)
𝜈′ 𝜈 𝑚𝑜 𝑐
𝜆′ 𝜆 ℎ
− = 2
1 − cos 𝜑
𝑐 𝑐 𝑚𝑜 𝑐
′
ℎ
𝜆 −𝜆 = (1 − cos 𝜑)
𝑚𝑜 𝑐
ℎ
Δ𝜆 = (1 − cos 𝜑)
𝑚𝑜 𝑐
Compton Shift
Compton Wavelength

= 2.426 x 10-12 m
= 2.426 pm
= 0.024 Å
Δ𝜆 = 𝜆𝑐 (1 − cos 𝜑)
Compton Effect not observed for visible light

• The change in wavelength due to Compton effect is given by:

• = 0.024 Å
• The maximum value of is 2 when ϕ = 180°, so that
the maximum wavelength change possible is 0.048 Å or roughly 0.05Å
only.
• This means that Compton effect can be detected
only for those radiations whose wavelength is
not greater than a few Å. For example, for λ=5Å,
there is a maximum wavelength-change of 1%,
while for λ=1Å there is a 5% change. For visible
light (λ≈5000Å) the maximum wavelength change
(0.05Å) is only about 0.001% of the initial
wavelength which is undetectable.
Kinetic energy of Scattered (recoil) electron:
From Eq. (1) we know that
𝑘𝑒 = ℎ(𝜈 − 𝜈 ′ )
𝜈′ 𝜆
= ℎ𝜈 1 − = ℎ𝜈(1 − ′ )
𝜈 𝜆
𝜆′ − 𝜆 Δ𝜆
= ℎ𝜈 ′
= ℎ𝜈
𝜆 𝜆 + Δ𝜆
 ℎ
ℎ𝜈 1 − cos 𝜑
𝑚𝑜 𝑐
𝑘𝑒 =
ℎ
𝜆+ 1 − cos 𝜑
𝑚𝑜 𝑐
ℎ
ℎ𝜈 1 − cos 𝜑
𝑚𝑜 𝑐𝜆
=
ℎ
1+ 1 − cos 𝜑
𝑚𝑜 𝑐𝜆
ℎ𝜈𝛼(1 − cos 𝜑)
𝑘𝑒 =
1 + 𝛼(1 − cos 𝜑)
Where,

ℎ ℎ𝜈
𝛼= =
𝑚𝑜 𝑐𝜆 𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2
If 𝜑 = 0, 𝐸 = 0
𝜋 ℎ𝜈𝛼
If 𝜑 = ,𝐸 =
2 1+𝛼
ℎ𝜈2𝛼
If 𝜑 = 𝜋 = 180, 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
1+2𝛼
Thus, the maximum energy that the photon can
2𝛼
transfer to the electron is ℎ𝜈 which is less
1+2𝛼
than ℎ𝜈, since 𝛼 is a positive quantity. Hence, the
incident photon cannot transfer its entire energy
to the electron.
Energy of Scattered photon:
The change in wavelength in Compton Scattering is given by,

ℎ
• Δ𝜆 = 𝜆′ −𝜆 = (1 − cos 𝜑)
𝑚𝑜 𝑐

𝑐 𝑐 ℎ
• − = (1 − cos 𝜑)
𝜈′ 𝜈 𝑚𝑜 𝑐
 𝜈 − 𝜈′ ℎ
𝑐 ′
= (1 − cos 𝜑)
𝜈𝜈 𝑚𝑜 𝑐
ℎ𝜈𝜈 ′
𝜈 − 𝜈′ = 2
(1 − cos 𝜑)
𝑚𝑜 𝑐
′
ℎ𝜈ℎ𝜈′(1 − cos 𝜑)
ℎ𝜈 − ℎ𝜈 =
𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2
Energy of incident photon ℎ𝜈 = 𝐸
Energy of the scattered photon ℎ𝜈 ′ = 𝐸 ′ , then
𝐸𝐸 ′ 1 − cos 𝜑
𝐸 − 𝐸′ =
𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2
𝐸𝐸′(1 − cos 𝜑)
′
𝐸=𝐸 +
𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2
𝐸(1 − cos 𝜑)
𝐸 = 𝐸′ 1 +
𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2
𝐸
𝐸′ =
𝐸 1 − cos 𝜑
1+
𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2
ℎ𝜈
𝐸′ =
1 + 𝛼(1 − cos 𝜑)
ℎ𝜈
𝐸′𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
1 + 2𝛼
Pair Production
• Pair production is a phenomenon of nature in
which energy is converted to mass. Since the
momentum of the initial photon must be absorbed
by something, pair production can not occur in
empty space out of a single photon, the nucleus is
needed to conserve both momentum and energy.
• Pair production is observed to occur when a
photon of energy ≥ 1.02 MeV passes near a heavy
nucleus.
• Rest mass energy of electron = 0.51 MeV
Pair Annihilation
• The inverse of pair production occurs when a
positron is near an electron and the two come
together under the influence of their opposite
electric charges. Both particles vanish
simultaneously, with the lost mass appearing as
energy in the form of two gamma ray photons.
Show that pair production can not
take place in empty space.

p
θ p cos θ

hν/c θ p cos θ

p
• For conservation of energy

hν = 2 m c2
Here hν is the photon energy and m c2 is the total
energy of each member of electron-positron pair. Fig.
shows a vector diagram of the linear momenta of the
photon, electron and positron. The angle θ is equal in
order that momentum be conserved in the transverse
direction. In the direction of motion of the photon, for
momentum to be conserved it must be true that:
hν/c = 2 p cos θ
Or hν = 2 pc cos θ
Since p=mv for electron and positron
• hν = 2 mvc cos θ
• hν = 2 mc2 (v/c)cos θ
• Because v/c ˂ 1 and cos θ ≤ 1
• hv ˂ 2 mc2
 Heisenberg Uncertainty
Principle
• Considering a moving particle as a wave group implies
that there are fundamental limits to the accuracy with
which we can measure such “particle” properties as
position and momentum.
• To make clear what is involved, let us look at the wave
group. The particle that corresponds to this wave group
may be located anywhere within the group at a given
time. Of course, the probability density |Ѱ|2is a
maximum in the middle of the group, so it is most
likely to be found there. Nevertheless, we may still find
the particle anywhere that |Ѱ|2 is not actually 0.
• The narrower its wave
group, the more precisely a
particle’s position can be
specified as shown in Fig.
However, the wavelength of
the waves in a narrow
packet is not well defined;
there are not enough waves
to measure λ accurately.
This means that since
λ=h/mν, the particle’s
momentum mν is not a
precise quantity. If we make
a series of momentum
measurements, we will find
a broad range of values.
• On the other hand, a wide
wave group, such as that in
Fig., has a clearly defined
wavelength. The momentum
that corresponds to this
wavelength is therefore a
precise quantity, and a series
of measurements will give a
narrow range of values. But
the width of the group is
now too great for us to be
able to say exactly where
the particle is at a given
time.
• This principle, which was
discovered by Werner Heisenberg
in 1927, is one of the most
significant of physical laws.
• It states that “It is impossible to
know both the exact position and
exact momentum of an object at
the same time”.
• Heisenberg has shown that if we
design even an ideal experiment to
measure simultaneously the position
x and momentum p of a particle,
there will be an uncertainty of ∆x in
the position and an uncertainty of
∆p in the momentum such that

∆x ∆p ≥ h/2π
• If one quantity is tried to be measured
exactly, the other will become completely
uncertain, and vice-versa. Let us illustrate
the principle by simple experiments:
 Determination of the position
of a particle by a Microscope
• Suppose we imagine to determine accurately
the position and momentum of an electron e
along the x-axis, using an ideal microscope
free from all mechanical and optical defects. If
the particle were completely isolated from
external influences, then the two
determinations of its exact positions at exactly
measured times would give its exact velocity
(and hence momentum).
• But a completely isolated particle can
not be detected. We must at least
illuminate it.

• Suppose we look at an electron using

light of wavelength λ as in Fig.
• Each photon of this light has the momentum
h/λ. When one of these photons bounces off
the electron (which must happen if we are to
“see” the electron), the electron’s original
momentum will be changed. The exact amount
of the change Δp cannot be predicted, but it
will be of the same order of magnitude as the
photon momentum h/λ. Hence
• …………………(1)

• The longer the wavelength of the

observing photon, the smaller the
uncertainty in the electron’s
momentum.
• Because light is a wave phenomenon as
well as a particle phenomenon, we cannot
expect to determine the electron’s location
with perfect accuracy regardless of the
instrument used. A reasonable estimate of
the minimum uncertainty in the
measurement might be one photon
wavelength, so that

• ……..(2)
• The shorter the wavelength, the
smaller the uncertainty in location.
However, if we use light of short
wavelength to increase the accuracy
of the position measurement, there
will be a corresponding decrease in
the accuracy of the momentum
measurement because the higher
photon momentum will disturb the
electron’s motion to a greater extent.
• Light of long wavelength will give a more
accurate momentum but a less accurate
position.
• Combining Eqs. (1) and (2) gives