‘This is the emission of electrons from a metal surface when the electromagnetic radiation of short wavelength falls on it, Consider an evacuated glass tube containing a metal plate, C maintained at negative terminal of the battery and another plate to the potential. ‘When the tube is kept in dark, the mA reads “O”. However, when a monochromatic radiation falls on C, current is detected by mA. This current arises from the collection of the emitted electrons from C. ‘When the polarity of the battery is reversed, the current drops because many of the emitted electrons will not reach the anode, A. tis only the electrons with k.e > eV, is the stopping potential that will reach the anode. ‘When the p.d. is varied, the current is observed to change until a certain point when the current is zero. ‘Many of the features of photoelectric emission cannot be explained by classical theory and these include; a) No electron is emitted if the frequency of the incident radiati threshold frequency, fy characteristic of the metal being illuminated. jon is below a certain OF scan itvonen camerb) The kinetic energy of the photo electrons ranging from zero to a maximum which increases with increasing frequency but is independent of the intensity of the radiation. ©) Photo current is proportional to the intensity of the incident radiations. d) No time lag between a radiation and irradiation of the electrons on surface. Explanation of the features of photo electric effect that cannot be explained by classical theory: ‘The successful explanation of photo electric effect was provided by magnetic radiation of frequency, f can be considered as a stream of photons each with energy, E. Einstein’s view was that a photon of incident light was so localized that it gives all its energy to a single electron. Electrons emitted from the surface of a metal therefore have a k.e given by ke=hf-o hf=o+ mv? where is the work function of a metal. This is the minimum energy required to remove abound electron from a metal surface. ‘Therefore, the observation of no emission of electrons when the frequency of the photon ‘energy being smaller or equal to the work function. If the energy of the incoming electron is not greater than the work function, the electrons will never be ejected from the surface regardless of the intensity of the radiations. 3. The independency of the maximum kinetic energy from the light intensity follows from that that the kinetic energy only depends on the frequency and work function of the metal. Change in the intensity only affects the number of photons emitted thus the photo current is proportional to the intensity. 4. The instantaneous emission is consistency with the particle theory of light in which the incident energy appears in small packets and there is one-to-one interaction between the photon and electrons. ‘The kinetic energy increases with increasing frequency follows from mv? = hf — © scanned wth OnENScnnerQuestion 1: ‘The work function of potassium is 2.24 eV if potassium metal is illuminated with an electromagnetic radiation of wavelength 480 nm, Find; i. The maximum kinetic energy of the photo electrons emitted ‘The cut-off wavelength Solution: i ke=hf- ef -19 =%-224x10 x10 862210 = 480107 = 4.1375 x 107? — 3.584 x 107 = 5.535 x 10-7 i, ke=hfy—o = 862210" x3 x10" 224x16x10> Ay = 3.2 Compton effect Tn 1923, Compton discovered that when photons interact with electrons in a material, the wavelength of the incident photon increases by the amount referred to as Compton shift. ‘Compton scattering provides an additional confirmation of the quantum nature of electromagnetic radiation. OF scan itvonen camerWhen a radiation is incident on matter, the scattered radiation has smaller frequency and the ‘change in frequency depends on the scattering angle. Suppose an electron receives a quantum of energy, hv from an incident radiation and emits a ‘quantum of energy hv’ of scattered rays in a direction making an angle 6 in direction of incident radiation, If E, is the kinetic energy of the electron after collision, from conservation of energy, E=E'+E, ay hv = hv! + me ( @ where y = 3 v is the velocity after collison. Applying the conservation of momentum in the x and y directions, for x-direction ho! me *Fcos0 + cos 8) 0 =F sing + Basing 4 ©) 6 a (8) ‘Squaring equations (8) and (7), and adding them AE 2A og = ve mie naa gr ap 088 =e oe o (10) © scanned ith OREN ScannerSquaring equation 10 Yow ete - 4 + 2meh (2 ay Subtracting a 9 from 11 Frese FE "+ 2m ch (F-F ait 1 2 (cos ~ 1) = ~2meh (3 ~ aoa Fe ~ 0086) = me (=) h(1 — cos6) = me(a’ — a) £1 - 0058) = When an incident radiation of wavelength, A is scattered by a free electron at angle, 8 the wavelength, 2’ of the scattered radiation is greater than that of the incident radiation by the factor 0.0243 (1 — cos @) A°. Angle, ¢ through which electrons are scattered, a coty ae me? tan = Questions: 1. A photon of a wavelength 0.1 nm collides with an electron at rest. After the collision, the wavelength of the photon charged to 0.115 nm. i, What is the kinetic energy of the electron after the collision? ii, If the emitted electron is suddenly stopped by a metal energy and emits the radiation, what is the minimum wavelength of the radiations emitted. Solutions: i. Using conservation of energy, Energy of the electron before collision = Energy after collision E+E, =E,+E' Ep is rest energy of the electron E, = hv —hv' + Ey e(G-3) +e" © scanned wth OnENScnnerE, = (6.62x 10x 3x10) (L- x 10° + (9.11 x 10% x3 x10") ii, Assuming that all energy is taken up by a photon, E = Rvmax 2. A photon with a wavelength 0.14 nm is scattered through an angle of 180° i, What is the wavelength of the scattered photon? ii How much energy is given to the electron? iii, What is the recoil speed of the electron? Solutions: i 2 -cos6) = @’- a) E, + hv’ = hv + Ep Answer: 11025607 ms"? 33 X-rays ‘These are electromagnetic radiations of short wavelength produced when a beam of high energy electrons is stopped by a metal target. ‘© X-rays are produced in an x-ray tube by heating the filament with a low voltage supply. ‘© The ejected electrons from the filament are accelerated by the high-tension voltage towards the anode. ° Hit this heat is carried away by the copper anode and exchanged as at the cooling fins. ing the anode (target) about 99% of the kinetic energy is converted into heat and © The remaining energy appears as x-rays. ‘The characteristic x-ray spectrum: ‘These are produced when the inner electron is knocked out. A knocked-out electron can either be completely removed or occupies any of the higher unfilled shells. This puts the atom in an excited state and the atom therefore becomes unstable. © scanned wth OnENScnnerElectron transition from higher shells to a vacancy left in a lower shell results into an ‘emission of an x-ray photon of energy equal proportional to the difference between the levels. If the electrons are knocked out from the K-subshell electrons from the higher energy falling into K-shell produce a series of lines known as the K-series. If the transition involves the L-shell, itis called the L-series. ‘The energy emitted by K-@ photon; E = hv pa = Bx — Ey ‘When a main electron atom is excited by a bombarding electron, a smooth background having a lower wavelength cut-off coresponding to a maximum voltage together with intense supplying are produced. 2.1 Bremsstrahlung ‘The bombarding electrons can interact with the atoms of the target in a number of ways. ‘The electrons can be accelerated by the positively charged nuclei. It produces a photon with energy, ft, = change in electron kinetic energy OF scan itvonen camer‘The radiation produced in this photon is the braking radiation, An electron in a beam of electrons may produce a number of such photons before coming to rest. The most energetic photon will occur when the electron loses all its energy in a single ‘encounter therefore produces x-rays with maximum frequency thus, the Bremsstrahlung process produces a radiation with a continuous spectrum with a cut-off frequency depending on the cut-off voltage. 21 Moseley’s law This law is an empirical law concerning the characteristics of the electromagnetic spectrum that is emitted or absorbed by atoms. During x-ray diffraction, Moseley found that the most intense short wavelength line in x-ray spectrum of a particular element was related to its atomic number. He expressed this relationship using a simple formular called Moseley’s law fr=A@—Z), ‘A and Z are constants depending on the particular transition being observed. 2.2 Absorption of x-ray and the absorption law Absorption of x-ray: When a beam of x-rays passes through a material, some of the photons may interact with the atoms of the material, causing the photons to be removed from the beam. ‘The process responsible for the reduction of the intensity include photo-electric effect, Compton scattering, ion pair production. ‘The intensity of the x-ray beam after it has penetrated a distance, x in a target material is given by; 1= he Where Ip is the intensity of the incident beam. 11 is the absorption coefficient which depend on the target atom and the energy of the x-ray photon. a fal t= f -ndx Inf = px+c © scanned wth OnENScnnerel = ext) em. Let Jo 1=e Ig 3.0 Nuclear structure 3.1 Rutherford’s model and alpha particle scattering: Rutherford’s model: Rutherford proposed a model of the atom similar to a solar system based on different postulates. ‘© He proposed that an atom consists of a massive positive center called a nucleus which is surrounded by negatively charged particles such that the whole atom is electrically neutral ‘© The electrons revolve around the nucleus in the orbits as the planets do around the sun, ‘© Most of the volume in the atoms is an empty space. The alpha seattering: A thin gold foil was bombarded with a thin high speed a-particle and the angle of scattering were measured. Observations: ‘* Majority of the particles passed through undeflected © Few were scattered at angles less than 90 © Very few were deflected at angles greater 90 ‘+ After a period of exposure to the beam, the gold foil was found to have a positive charge. From these observations, Rutherford formulated this structuring of an atom that would include the following features. The greatest portion of the atoms volume is empty space which accounts for the ‘observation of the most alpha particles passing through undeflected, © scanned wth OnENScnnerY The atom has a positively charged very small but extremely dense center of region called nucleus that contains all the positive charges. The reason why a positive a~ particle was deflected by a force of repulsion from this nucleus only when approached the nucleus very closely. Y Since very few particles were deflected in angle greater than 90, the nucleus must be ‘so small that most @-particles did not approach closely. Y Within this empty space there were a number of very light negatively charged electrons moving in orbits around the nucleus as the a-particles passed undeflected, they encounter an electron and capture it. The foil thus was ionized thus acquiring a Positive charge. Coulomb's seattering/ Rutherford’s scattering Suppose an a-particle of mass, m and initial velocity. Vp approaches the nucleus with charge, Z,. Mf the a-particle is scattered through angle 8, any point on the trajectory of the particle ‘maybe represented by the radial distance, r and the radial angle, yp. Non-relativistie mechanics maybe used since the speed of the a-particle are much smaller than the speed of light. From the conservation of energy; k.e.=imvg a mvz ay Where © andr are the radical and tangential components of velocity. From conservation of angular momentum before collision. mVgb =m (rt) r Q ay From equation (2) we make $ the subject OF scan itvonen camerar From equation (1) we express © in-terms of eto ay a Equation (1) becomes paid =i (SS) +02) |e m|() (CY + (8) +25 @) is twice the ratio of the initial k.e. and the potential energy of the a-particle at distance, b. azet Dividing equation (3) by ‘read fz (Gy e+3)4 The constant, to is evaluated by noting that as r — 60, yy + at 4 Sa'= mee ister ‘bel ©) © M © scanned wth OnENScnnerSubstituting io in equation (6) p—atsin™ pssin Making Fthe subject p-rsin=4] oe oy 7 Long after collision, as r + «9,2 = 0 J¥7 (sn hb + sin™* © scanned wth OnENScnner‘The value of y long after collision, it corresponds to the scattering angle of (10) Fora given ke. to the smaller b is the larger the scattering angle. ie. if b > 0 head on collision. @ + 180° Differential scattering cross section All a-particles that approach the nucleus at distance smaller than b will be scattered through Todegb ‘ae? angles greater than cot = ‘The cross section for scattering through angles > 6 is called 8 > ¢) is the area of the circle. Area of the cirele = mr? = mb? Substitute in for b in-terms of 6 the cross section for scattering is area of the ring, da. 2 eore\? da = 2nb%dp = SEL (2) (nec) \To For particles which hit inside the ring bounded by band, db is the area of the ring. Differentiating equation (10) es 29 ag — Tetteo —teosec? 26 = Bab He ao ab = Fe ae © scanned ith OREN ScannerThe differential cross section is given by $4 where by daw = 27 sin 6 d6. «is the solid angle da _ fend? a] do ~ 2esineas (en) at Question: Find the distance of closest approach 40 Wave Mechanics (Brief treatment of the concept) 4.1 Wave function and probability amplitude Probability amplitude is a complex valued number function which describes an uncertainty ‘This complex valued amplitude is the wave function and from it the probabilities of the possible measured can be derived. ‘The wave function therefore refers to a physical system by expanding it in-terms of other states of the same system. The wave function is often denoted as i which is a function of x and t, Poe) Al wave functions provide a complete description of the physical system. NB: is the wave function associated with the system is not uniquely determined by that system. In that many different wave functions may be used to describe the same system. What matters is the interpretation of the wave function. E.g, if the wave function associated with the particle is Yq) the complex square of the wave function is interpreted as |yxy|°. the probability density associated with the particle position and hence the probability a measurement of the particle’s position yields a value in the interval (a, b) is > J Weslax ‘This results into a normalization condition © scanned wth OnENScnner