Chapter 1

Electric Charges and Fields

Electrostatics
Electrostatics deals with the study of forces, fields and potentials arising
from static charges.
Frictional electricity
The electricity produced by rubbing suitable bodies is called frictional
electricity.
On rubbing electrons are transferred from one body to the other. The body,
which loses electrons, will become positively charged and which gains
electrons becomes negatively charged.
Electric Charge
From simple experiments on frictional electricity, it is inferred that there
are two types of charges in nature-Positive and Negative .
Like charges repel and unlike charges attract.
• When a glass rod is rubbed with silk, glass rod becomes positively
charged and silk negaitive.
• When a plastic rod is rubbed with fur, plastic rod becomes negatively
charged and fur positive.
1. Good conductors like copper cannot be charged by friction because any
charge produced on it can easily flow through the rod through our body and
to the ground.
2. Insulators like plastic, ebonite, glass etc can be easily charged by friction
because the charges will stay on them.
3. Electrostatic experiments cannot be performed in moist climate because
moist air is slightly conducting. So the static charges will get conducted away
from the charged body.

How is frictional electrification caused?

The number of protons inside the nucleus of an atom is equal to the number
of electrons outside the nucleus. When a body is rubbed with another, due to
friction, some electrons from one body gets transferred to the other body.
The body, which loses electrons, will become positively charged and which
gains electrons becomes negatively charged. The two bodies thus acquire
opposite charges and they are equal in magnitude. This is the reason for
frictional electricity.
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Seema Elizabeth, HSST physics, MARM GHSS Santhipuram

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Gold Leaf Electroscope
A simple apparatus to detect charge on a body is called a gold-leaf
electroscope.
The apparatus consists of a vertical metal rod placed in a box. Two thin
gold leaves are attached to its bottom end as shown in figure.

Working
When a charged object touches the metal knob at the top of the rod, charge
flows on to the leaves and they diverge. The degree of divergence is an
indicator of the amount of charge.
Conductors and Insulators
Conductors
Conductors are those substances which allow passage of electricity through
them. Eg. Metals, human and animal bodies and earth are conductors.
• They have electric charges (electrons) that are comparatively free to
move inside the material.
• When some charge is transferred to a conductor, it readily gets
distributed over the entire surface of the conductor.
▪ Metals cannot be charged by friction,because the charges transferred
to the metal leak through our body to the ground as both are
conductors of electricity.
Insulators
The substances which offer high resistance to the passage of electricity
through them are called Insulators .Eg. glass, porcelain, plastic, nylon, wood.
▪ If some charge is put on an insulator, it stays at the same place. So
insulators gets electrified on combing dry hair or on rubbing,
Earthing (or) Grounding
When a charged body is brought in contact with
earth, all the excess charge pass to the earth
through the connecting conductor. This process of
sharing the charges with the earth is called
grounding or earthing. Earthing provides
protection to electrical circuits and appliances.

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Methods of Charging
A body can be charged in different ways
1)Charging by friction
2)Charging by conduction
3)Charging by induction

1) Charging by friction
When two bodies are rubbed each other, electrons in one body (in which
electrons are held less tightly) transferred to second body (in which
electrons are held more tightly)
When a glass rod is rubbed with silk, some of the electrons from the glass
are transferred to silk. Hence glass rod gets +ve charge and silk gets -ve
charge.
2) Charging by conduction
Charging a body with actual contact of another body is called charging by
conduction. If a neutral conducting body (A) is brought in contact with
positively charged conducting body (B), the neutral body gets positively
charged.
3)Charging by induction
When a charged body is brought near to an uncharged conductor (without
touching), that end of the uncharged conductor which is near to the charged
body gets oppositely charged and the farther end is charged with the same
type of charge.

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Charging a metal sphere positively without touching it

Properties of electric charges

1.Electric charges are of two kinds – positive and negative.
2.Like charges repel and unlike charges attract each other.
3. Quantization of charge : According to quantisation of electric charge,
charge of a body is an integral multiple of a basic charge, which is the
electronic charge.
Charge on a body, q=± ne ; where, n=1,2,3.........
e is the electronic charge. e=1.602 x 10−19 C
4. Charge is conserved: It means that total charge of an isolated system
remains constant. It also implies that electric charges can neither be created
nor destroyed. If an object loses some charge, an equal amount of charge
appears somewhere else.
5.Charge is a scalar quantity.
6. Additivity of charge: The total charge on a surface is the algebraic sum of
individual charges present on that surface.
If q1 , q 2 , q 3 ....................., q n are the charges on a surface, then total or net
charge,
𝒒 = 𝒒𝟏 + 𝒒𝟐 + 𝒒𝟑 +.................. + 𝒒𝒏
Example 1
How many electronic charges form 1 C of charge?
q=±ne,
𝑞
n=
𝑒
1
n=
1.602 x 10−19

=6.25 x1018

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Example 2
A comb drawn through person’s hair causes 1022 electrons to leave the
person’s hair and stick to the comb. Calculate the charge carried by the
comb. q= ne,
q = 1022 x 1.602 x 10−19 C
= −1.602 x 103 C
As the comb gains electrons it gets negatively charged.
Coulomb’s Law
The force of attraction or repulsion between two stationery electric charges
is directly proportional to the product of the charges and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them.
𝟏 𝐪𝟏 𝐪𝟐
If charges are placed in free space, 𝐅 = 𝟒𝛑𝛆
𝟎 𝐫𝟐
𝟏 𝐪𝟏 𝐪𝟐
If charges are placed in a medium, 𝐅 = 𝟒𝛑𝛆
𝟎 𝛆𝐫 𝐫𝟐

Definition of coulomb
𝟏 𝐪𝟏 𝐪𝟐
𝐅 = 𝟒𝛑𝛆
𝟎 𝐫𝟐

Coulomb’s Law in vector form

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Super position principle
Force on a charge due to a number of charges is the vector sum of forces
due to individual charges.For a system of n charges.

Electric Field
Electric field is the region around a charge where its effect can be felt.
Intensity of electric field at a point is the force per unit charge.
𝐅
𝐄=
𝐪

Electric field due to a point charge

1 q1 q 2
By Coulomb’s law, F=
4πε0 r2
F
E=q
0
𝟏 𝐪
𝐄 = 𝟒𝛑𝛆 𝟐
𝟎𝐫

Electric field due to a system of charges

Electric field at a point due to a system of charges is the vector sum of the
electric fields at the point due to individual charges.

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Electric Field Lines
An electric field line is a curve drawn in such a way that the tangent to it at
each point is in the direction of the net field at that point.

▪ Electric Field lines start from positive charge, end at negative charge.
▪ Electric field lines of a positive charge are radially outwards and
that of a negative charge is radially inwards
▪ Electric field lines do not form closed loops.
▪ In a charge free region field lines are continuous.
▪ Two field lines never intersect.( Two directions for electric field is
not possible at a point)
▪ Field lines are parallel ,equidistant and in same direction in
uniform electric field.

Positive Charge Negative Charge

Two positive Charges

Dipole - Positive and Negative charge

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Electric Flux

𝛟 = ∫ 𝐄 ⋅ ⅆ𝐒
𝛟 = ∫ 𝐄 ⅆ𝐒 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛉 ( 𝛉 𝐢𝐬 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐥𝐞 𝐛𝐞𝐭𝐰𝐞𝐞𝐧 𝐄 𝐚𝐧ⅆ 𝐧𝐨𝐫𝐦𝐚𝐥 𝐭𝐨 ⅆ𝐒)

Electric Dipole
An electri dipole is a pair of equal and opposite charges separated by a
distance

The total charge of the system is +q + -q =0

⃗)
Electric Dipole moment (𝐩

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Electric Field due to a Dipole along the Axial Line

The electric field at P due to +q

1 𝑞
𝐸+𝑞 = 4𝜋𝜀 (𝑟−𝑎)2
(in the direction of dipole moment 𝑝)
0
The electric field at Pdue to -q
1 𝑞
𝐸−𝑞 = 4𝜋𝜀 (𝑟+𝑎)2
(opposite to the direction of dipole moment 𝑝)
0
Toal field, E =𝐸+𝑞 − 𝐸−𝑞
1 𝑞 1 𝑞
𝐸 = 4𝜋𝜀 (𝑟−𝑎)2
− (𝑟+𝑎)2
0 4𝜋𝜀0
Thus the total electric field at P is
𝑞 1 1
𝐸= [( )2
−( ]
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟−𝑎 𝑟+𝑎)2
Simplifying
𝑞 4𝑎𝑟
𝐸 = 4𝜋𝜀 [(𝑟 2 −𝑎2 )2 ]
0
For r≫ 𝑎 ,we get
1 4𝑞𝑎
𝐸 = 4𝜋𝜀 [ 𝑟 3 ]
0
2qa=𝑝 (dipole moment)
𝟏 ⃗
𝟐𝒑
⃗𝑬
⃗ = [ 𝟑]
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓

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Electric Field due to a Dipole along the Equatorial Line

The magnitude of electric field at P due to +q

1 𝑞
𝐸+𝑞 = 4𝜋𝜀 ----------------(1)
0 𝑟 2 + 𝑎2
The magnitude of electric field at P due to -q
1 𝑞
𝐸−𝑞 = 4𝜋𝜀 ------------------(2)
0 𝑟 2 + 𝑎2
The vertical componennts cancel each other and horizontal components add up
Total electric field at P,
E =𝐸+𝑞 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝐸−𝑞 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
But , 𝐸+𝑞 = 𝐸−𝑞
E =2𝐸+𝑞 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 --------------(3)
𝑎 𝑎
Cos𝜃= 2 2 = 2 2 1⁄ -----------------(4)
√𝑟 +𝑎 (𝑟 +𝑎 ) 2
Substituting eq(1) and (4) in eq(3)
1 𝑞 𝑎
E =2 𝑥 2 2 𝑥 1
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 +𝑎 (𝑟 2 +𝑎2 ) ⁄2
p=2qa (dipole moment)
1 𝑝
𝐸= [( ]
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2 +𝑎2 )3/2
For r≫ 𝑎 ,we get
𝟏 ⃗
𝒑
⃗𝑬
⃗ = [ 𝟑]
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓
Relation connecting Axial field and Equatorial field of a Dipole
1 2𝑝
Axial field, 𝐸⃗ = [ 3]
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
1 𝑝
Equatorial field , 𝐸⃗ = [ ]
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 3
Axial field = 2 x Equatorial field

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Dipole in a Uniform External field
In a uniform electric field there will be a net torque on the dipole, but the net
force will be zero. Due to the torque ,the dipole rotates. There will be no
translatory motion as the net force is zero.

Torque on a Dipole in a Uniform External field

Torque, τ = one of the forces x perpendicular distance between them.

τ = qE x 2a sinθ
τ =pE sinθ
𝛕=𝐏 ⃗ ×𝐄 ⃗
• When p and E are in the same direction or opposite direction( θ=0 or180 )
τ =pE sin0 =0
• Torque is maximum , when p and E are perpendicular. (θ=90)
τ =pE sin90 =pE

Dipole in a non uniform electric field

In a non uniform electric field the dipole experiences a net force as well as a
net torque in general .

Case 1 -when p is parallel to E

when p is parallel to E, the dipole has a net force in the direction of

increasing field.
But the net torque will be zero τ =pE sin0 =0

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Case 2-When p is antiparallel to E.

When p is antiparallel to E, the net force on the dipole is in the direction of

decreasing field.
But the net torque will be zero, τ =pE sin 180 =0

Continuous Charge Distribution

Linear charge density

The linear charge density λ of a wire is

defined as
𝛥𝑞
𝜆=
𝛥𝑙
𝒒
𝝀= 𝒍
The unit of λ is C/m
Line charge q = 𝝀𝒍

Surface charge density

The surface charge density 𝜎 of a area
element is defined as
𝛥𝑞
𝜎=
𝛥𝑆
𝒒
𝝈=𝑺
The units for σ is C/𝑚2
Surface charge, q= 𝝈𝑺

Volume charge density

The volume charge density ρ of a volume
element is defined as
𝛥𝑞
ρ=
𝛥𝑉
𝒒
𝛒=𝑽
The units for ρ is C/𝑚3
Volume charge , q= 𝛒𝑽

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Gauss’s Theorem
Gauss’s theorem states that the total electric flux through a closed surface is
𝟏
equal to times the total charge enclosed by the surface.
𝜺𝟎
𝒒
𝝓 = ∮ 𝑬 ⋅ ⅆ𝑺 = 𝜺
𝟎
The surface over which we calculate the flux is called Gaussian surface.

Proof

Consider a sphere of radius r enclosing a point charge q. the

electric flux through the surface dS
ϕ = ∫ E ⋅ dS
ϕ = ∫ E dS cos0 = ∫ E dS =𝐸∫ dS
ϕ = ES
1 q
ϕ = x 4πr 2
4πε0 r2
𝐪
𝛟=𝛆
𝟎
Features of Gauss’s Law
• Gauss’s law is true for any surface irrespective of the size and shape.
• The charge includes the sum of all charges enclosed by the surface.
• The surface that we choose for the application of Gauss’s law is called
the Gaussian Surface.
• Gauss’s law is applicable to both symmetric and asymmetric system,
but it will be much easier if the system has some symmetry.
• Gauss’s law is base on inverse square dependence on distance
contained in the Coulomb’s law.

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c) field inside the shell
ϕ = ES (1)
Inside the shell q=0

ES=0 (S≠ 𝟎)

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Example
Find the electric field due two plane sheets of charge in regions I ,II and III

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 Chapter 2
Electrostatic Potential and Capacitance

Electrostatic Potential Energy

Electrostatic potential energy difference between two points
Electric potential energy difference between two points in an electric field ,
can be defined as the work done by an external force in moving (without
accelerating) charge q from one point to another in the electric field .
P
∆U = UP − UR = − ∫R F . dr

• The work done by an electrostatic field in moving a charge from one

point to another depends only on the initial and the final points and is
independent of the path taken to go from one point to the other.
Electrostatic Potential Energy at a point
Electric potential energy at a point P in an electric field is defined as the
work done by the external force in bringing the charge q from infinity to
that point.
UP∞ = UP − U∞ = UP − 0 = UP
𝐏
𝐔𝐏 =− ∫∞ 𝐅 . ⅆ𝐫
Electrostatic Potential (V)
W
V=
q
W=qV
Unit of potential is J/C or volt (V)

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Electrostatic Potential difference between two points
Electrostatic Potential difference between two points in an electric field is
the work done by an external force in bringing a unit positive charge from
one point to other in that field.
W
VP − VR = RP
q
P
− ∫R F .dr
VP − VR =
q
F=qE
P
− ∫R qE .dr
VP − VR =
q
𝐏
𝐕𝐏 − 𝐕𝐑 = − ∫𝐑 𝐄 . ⅆ𝐫

Electrostatic Potential at a point P

Electrostatic Potential at a point P in an electric field is the work done by an
external force in bringing a unit positive charge from infinity to that point.
𝐏
𝐕𝐏 = − ∫∞ 𝐄 . ⅆ𝐫

Potential due to a Point Charge

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Variation of potential V with r and
Electric field with r for a point
charge Q

Example
(a) Calculate the potential at a point P due to a charge of 4 × 10−7 C,located
9 cm away
(b) Hence obtain the work done in bringing a charge of 2 × 10−9 C from
infinity to the point P. Does the answer depend on the path along which
the charge is brought?
1 𝑄
(a) V =
4πε0 𝑟
4 𝑥 10−7
= 9 × 109 x
0.09
𝟒
V = 𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 V
(b) W= qV
= 2 𝑥 10−9 x 4 𝑥 104
W = 𝟖 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 J
No, work done will be path independent. Any arbitrary infinitesimal path
can be resolved into two perpendicular displacements: One along r and
another perpendicular to r. The work done corresponding to the later will be
zero.

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Potential due to an Electric Dipole

𝟏 𝟏 𝟐 𝐚 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛉
−𝐫 =
𝐫𝟏 𝟐 𝐫𝟐
𝐪 𝟐 𝐚 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛉
V=
𝟒𝛑𝛆𝟎 𝐫𝟐
𝟏 𝐩 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛉
𝐕 = 𝟒𝛑𝛆
𝟎 𝐫𝟐

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Potential due to a System of Charges
By the superposition principle, the potential at a point due to a system of
charges is the algebraic sum of the potentials due to the individual charges.

V = V1 + V2 + ⋯ + Vn
1 q1 1 q2 1 qn
V = + + ……………+
4πε0 r1 4πε0 r2 4πε0 rn

𝟏 𝐪 𝐪𝟐 𝐪𝐧
𝐕 =
𝟒𝛑𝛆𝟎
(𝐫𝟏 + 𝐫𝟐
+ ……………+
𝐫𝐧
)
𝟏

Potential due to a uniformly charged spherical shell

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a)The potential at a distance r, from the shell ,where r≥ R
(R-radius of sphere)
For a uniformly charged spherical shell, the electric field outside the shell is
as if the entire charge is concentrated at the centre
𝟏 𝐪
V= 𝟒𝛑𝛆 (r≥ R)
𝟎 𝐫
b) Inside the shell
Inside the shell the electric field is zero. This implies that the potential is
constant inside the shell ,which is equal to the value of potential at the
surface
𝟏 𝐪
V= 𝟒𝛑𝛆
𝟎 𝐑
Example
Two charges 3 𝑥 10−8 C and –2 𝑥 10−8 C are located 15 cm apart. At what
point on the line joining the two charges is the electric potential zero? Take
the potential at infinity to be zero.
Let P lies between O and A at a distance x from O,

Potential at P due to charge 3 𝑥 10−8 C

1 3 𝑥 10−8
𝑉1 =
4πε0 𝑥

Potential at P due to charge −2 𝑥 10−8 C

1 −2 𝑥 10−8
𝑉2 =
4πε0 15−x

Total potential at P , V=𝑉1 + 𝑉2 =0

1 3 𝑥 10−8 1 2 𝑥 10−8
− =0
4πε0 𝑥 4πε0 15−x
1 3 𝑥 10−8 2 𝑥 10−8
[ − ] =0
4πε0 𝑥 15−x
3 2
[ − ] =0
x 15−𝑥
3 2
=
x 15−𝑥

45-3x=2x
45=5x
x=9cm
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If P lies on the extended line OA,

1 3 𝑥 10−8 1 2 𝑥 10−8
- =0
4πε0 𝑥 4πε0 x−15
3 2
=
x 𝑥−15

3x-45=2x
x=45cm
Thus, electric potential is zero at 9 cm and 45 cm away from the positive
charge on the side of the negative charge.
Equipotential Surfaces
An equipotential surface is a surface with a constant value of potential at all
points on the surface.
• As there is no potential difference between any two points on an
equipotential surface, no work is required to move a test charge on the
surface.
• For any charge configuration, equipotential surface through a point is
normal to the electric field at that point

Equipotential surfaces for a single point charge

For a single charge q, the potential is
1 q
V=
4πε0 r
V is a constant if r is constant .
Thus, equipotential surfaces of a single point charge are concentric spherical
surfaces centred at the charge.

Equipotential surfaces for a uniform electric field.

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Equipotential surfaces for a dipole

Equipotential surfaces for two identical positive charges.

Relation between electric field and potential

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b)For a system of three charges

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Potential energy of a dipole in an external field

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Electrostatics of conductors
1.Inside a conductor, electrostatic field is zero
A conductor has free electrons. In the static situation, the free charges have
so distributed themselves that the electric field is zero everywhere inside.
2. At the surface of a charged conductor, electrostatic field must be normal
to the surface at every point.
3. The interior of a conductor can have no excess charge in the static
situation.
4. Electrostatic potential is constant throughout the volume of the
conductor and has the same value (as inside) on its surface.
σ
5.Electric field at the surface of a charged conductor E =
ε0

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6.Electrostatic shielding
The electric field inside a cavity of any conductor is zero. This is known as
electrostatic shielding. All charges reside only on the outer surface of a
conductor with cavity.
The effect can be made use of in protecting sensitive instruments from
outside electrical influence.
Why it is safer to be inside a car during lightning?
Due to Electrostatic shielding, electricfield E=0 inside the car.
So it is safer to sit inside a car than standing outside during lightening.

Dielectrics and polarisation

Dielectrics
Dielectrics are non-conducting substances. In contrast to conductors, the
Dielectric substances may be made of polar or non polar molecules.
Non polar molecules

In a non-polar molecule, the centres of positive and negative charges

coincide. The molecule then has no permanent (or intrinsic) dipole moment.
Eg: oxygen (O2 ) , hydrogen (H2 )
In an external electric field, the positive and negative charges of a nonpolar
molecule are displaced in opposite directions. The non-polar molecule thus

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develops an induced dipole moment. The dielectric is said to be polarised by
the external field
Polar molecules

In polar molecules, the centres of positive and negative charges are

separated (even when there is no external field). Such molecules have a
permanent dipole moment.
Eg: HCl , H2 O

In the absence of any external field, the different permanent dipoles are
oriented randomly ; so the total dipole moment is zero. When an external
field is applied, the individual dipole moments tend to align with the field. A
dielectric with polar molecules also develops a net dipole moment in an
external field.
Polarisation(P)
The dipole moment per unit volume is called polarisation .
For linear isotropic dielectrics,
𝐏 = 𝛘𝐞 𝐄
where χe is the electric susceptibility of the dielectric medium.

Capacitor
A capacitor is a system of two conductors separated by an insulator.
Capacitor is a charge storing device.

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Capacitance
The potential difference, V between the two conductors is proportional to
the charge , Q.
Q∝V
Q=CV
𝐐
𝐂=
𝐕
The constant C is called the capacitance of the capacitor.
C is independent of Q or V.
The capacitance C depends only on the geometrical configuration (shape,
size, separation) of the system of two conductors .
SI unit of capacitance is farad.
1 farad =1 coulomb volt −1
1 F = 1 C V −1
Other units are,
1 μF = 10 -6 F , 1 nF = 10 -9 F , 1 pF = 10-12 F, etc.

Symbol of capacitor
Fixed capacitance Variable capacitance

Q
• C= . For large C, V is small for a given Q. This means a capacitor
V
with large capacitance can hold large amount of charge Q at a relatively
small V
• High potential difference implies strong electric field around the
conductors. A strong electric field can ionise the surrounding air and
accelerate the charges so produced to the oppositely charged plates,
thereby neutralising the charge on the capacitor plates, at least partly.
• The maximum electric field that a dielectric medium can withstand
without break-down (of its insulating property) is called its dielectric
strength; for air it is about 3 × 106 V𝑚−1
The parallel plate capacitor
A parallel plate capacitor consists of two large plane parallel conducting
plates separated by a small distance.

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Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor

Capacitance can be increased,

• By increasing the area of the plates.
• By decreasing the distance between the plates.
• By introducing a dielectric medium between the plates.
Effect of dielectric on capacitance
The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor when the medium between the
plates is air,
ε0 A
Cair =
d

When dielectric medium of dielectric constant K is placed between the

plates, the capacitance ,
Kε0 A
Cmed =
d

The capacitance increases K times, where K is the dielectric constant.

𝐂𝐦𝐞ⅆ =K 𝐂𝐚𝐢𝐫
Definition of dielectric constant in terms of capacitance
Kε0 A
Cmed d
= ε0 A =K
Cair
d
𝐂𝐦𝐞ⅆ
K= 𝐂𝐚𝐢𝐫
The dielectric constant of a substance is the factor by which the capacitance
increases from its vacuum value, when a dielectric is inserted between the
plates.

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Combination of Capacitors
Capacitors In Series

In series combination the charge Q is same and potential drop is different in

each capacitor. The total potential drop V across the combination is
V = V1 + V2
Q
V1 =
C1
Q
V2 =
C2
𝐐 𝐐
𝐕= + ---------(1)
𝐂𝟏 𝐂𝟐
If the two capacitors are replaced by a single capacitor of capacitance C with
the same charge Q and potential difference V.
𝐐
𝐕= ------------ (2)
𝐂
Q Q Q
Equating eq (1) & = +
C C1 C2

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= +
𝐂 𝐂𝟏 𝐂𝟐
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
▪ For n capacitors in series, = + + ……….. +
𝐂 𝐂𝟏 𝐂𝟐 𝐂𝐧
▪ If all the capacitors have the same value, C1 = C2 = ……………= Cn = C
1 n 𝐂
=C , 𝐂′ = 𝐧
C′
eg:- If C=1μF n=10
C 1μF
C′ = = = 0. 1μF
n 10
The effective capacitance decreases when capacitors are connected in series.
In series combination the effective capacitance will be smaller than the
smallest among individual capacitors.

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Example
Find the effective capacitance of the combination.

1 1 1 1
= + +
C C1 C2 C3
1 1 1 1 8
= + + =
C 2F 5F 10F 10F
10F
C= =1.25F
8
Capacitors In Parallel

In parallel connection, the same potential drop across both the capacitors,
but the charges are different.
Q = Q1 + Q 2
Q1 = C1 V
Q 2 = C2 V
𝐐= 𝐂𝟏 V + 𝐂𝟐 V ------------ (1)
If the two capacitors are replaced by a single capacitor of capacitance C with
the same charge Q and potential difference V.
Q=CV ------------------ (2)
From eq(1) & (2) CV = C1 V + C2 V
C = 𝐂𝟏 + 𝐂𝟐
▪ For n capacitors in parallel , C = 𝐂𝟏 + 𝐂𝟐 + 𝐂𝟑 +……..+ 𝐂𝐧
▪ If all the capacitors have the same value, C1 = C2 = C3 =….....= Cn = C
𝐂 ′ = nC

Eg: If C=1μF n=10

C ′ = nC = 10 x 1μF = 10μF

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The effective capacitance increases when capacitors are connected in
parallel. In parallel combination the effective capacitance will be greater
than the greatest among individual capacitors.

Example
Find the effective capacitance of the combination.

C = C1 + C2 + C3
C =0.1 μF + 0.2 μF + 0.3 μF
C =0.6 μF

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Downloaded from www.hssreporter.com
Energy Stored in a Capacitor
1 2

This work is stored as potential energy in the electric field between the
plates.
𝐐𝟐
Energy 𝐔 =
𝟐𝐂

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Energy stored in a capacitor can also be expressed as

U
u=
Ad

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 Chapter 3
Current Electricity
Charges in motion constitute an electric current. Such currents occur
naturally in many situations. Lightning is one such phenomenon in which
charges flow from the clouds to the earth through the atmosphere. The flow
of charges in lightning is not steady, but in our everyday life we see many
devices where charges flow in a steady manner. A torch and a cell-driven
clock are examples of such devices.
Electric Current
When current steady ,
The rate of flow of charge through any cross-section of a conductor is
called electric current flowing through it.
𝐪
𝐈= 𝐭
coulomb
Unit of electric current = =C/s =ampere (A)
second

When current is not steady,

The current at time t across the cross-section of the conductor is defined as
the ratio of ∆Q to ∆t in the limit of ∆t tending to zero,
𝚫𝐐 ⅆ𝐐
I= 𝐥𝐢𝐦 =
𝚫𝐭→𝟎 𝚫𝐭 ⅆ𝐭

Electric Currents in Conductors

When no electric field is present:-
The electrons will be moving due to thermal motion . During motion
electrons collide with the fixed ions. The direction of its velocity after the
collision is completely random. The average velocity of electrons will be
zero. So, there will be no net electric current.

When an electric field is present:-

The electrons will be accelerated due to this field towards +Q. They will thus
move to neutralise the charges and constitute an electric current. Hence
there will be a current for a very short while and no current thereafter.
To maintain a steady electric field in the body of the conductor we use cells
or batteries.

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Ohm’s Law
A basic law regarding flow of currents was discovered by G.S. Ohm in 1828.
At constant temperature ,the current flowing through a conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference between the ends of the conductor.
V∝I
V = RI
𝐕
𝐑=
𝐈
The constant of proportionality R is called the resistance of the conductor
The SI units of resistance is ohm and is denoted by the symbol Ω.

Conductance
The reciprocal of resistance is called Conductance.
Conductance
𝐈
𝐂=
𝐕
−1 −1
Unit of conductance is ohm (Ω or mho) or =siemens
Ohm’s Law : Experimental verification

Voltage –Current Graph (V-I Graph)

AB
Slope =
BC
𝐕
Slope = = R
𝐈
Slope of V-I graph gives Resistance.
Its reciprocal gives conductance.
Which material has more resistance?

Slope of V-I graph gives Resistance. Slope of A is greater than that of B.

So material A has more resistance than B.

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Factors on which the Resistance of a Conductor Depends:-
1)The material of the conductor
2)The dimensions of the conductor
a)Length of the conductor
The resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to
length l of the conductor.
𝐑∝𝒍
b) The area of cross section of the conductor
The resistance of a conductor is inversely proportional to the cross-
sectional area, A.
𝟏
𝐑∝
𝐀
Resistivity of a Conductor
The resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to length 𝑙 of the
conductor and inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area, A.
𝑙
R∝
A
𝛒𝒍
𝐑= 𝐀
where the constant of proportionality ρ is called resistivity.
Resistivity depends on the material of the conductor but not on its
dimensions.
𝐑𝐀
𝛒= 𝒍
Ωm2
Unit of resistivity = = Ωm
m

Ohm’s Law in Vector Form

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Drift of Electrons and the Origin of Resistivity
Drift Velocity
The average velocity attained by electrons in a conductor due to an electric
field is called Drift velocity.
The force acting on the electron due to the electric field,
F = qE = −eE
The acceleration of the electron,
F −eE
a= =
m m
If t is the time between two successive collissions, v = at
−eEt
Then the velocity gained by an electron, v =
m
eE
Drift velocity , vd = − (t)average
m
𝐞𝐄
𝐯ⅆ = − 𝐦 𝛕
The average time interval between two successive collisions is called
relaxation time(𝛕)
𝐯ⅆ ∝ 𝛕
Relation connecting Drift Velocity and Current

Distance Travelled by an electron in time Δt = vd Δt

Volume of conductor = A vd Δt
Let n be the number of electrons per unit volume of conductor
The number of electrons in the conductor= n A vd Δt
Total charge of electrons in the conductor , q= n e A vd Δt
q
Current I =
Δt
n e A vd Δt
I=
Δt
I= n e A 𝐯ⅆ
Current density
I= n e A vd
eE
vd = τ
m
eE
I= n e A τ
m
ne2 AτE
I=
m
I
j=
A
𝐧𝐞𝟐 𝛕𝐄
𝐣=
𝐦

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Conductivity
Comparing with, j = σE
𝐧𝐞𝟐 𝛕
𝛔= 𝐦
Mobility
Conductivity arises from mobile charge carriers.
In metals, these mobile charge carriers are electrons.
In an ionised gas, they are electrons and positive charged ions.
In an electrolyte, these can be both positive and negative ions.
Mobility µ defined as the magnitude of the drift velocity per unit electric
field.
eE
𝐯ⅆ τ
m
𝛍= =
𝐄 E
𝐞𝐄
𝛍= 𝛕
𝐦
Limitations of Ohm’s Law
Ohmic Conductors
Conductors which obey Ohm’s law are called Ohmic
conductors.The Voltage – Current graph of such
conductors will be linear .
Eg:- metals ,Nichrome

Non - Ohmic Conductors

The materials and devices used in electric circuits which do not obey Ohm’s
law are called Non – Ohmic conductors. So V-I grapis not linear.
Eg:- Semi conductors, Diodes , Transistors.

The deviations broadly are one or more of the following types:

a) The value of V stops to be proportional to I.
b) The value of current changes when we reverse the direction of V.
c) The relation between V and I is not unique, i.e., there is more than one value of V
for the same current I.

Resistivity of Various Materials

The materials are classified as conductors, semiconductors and insulators
depending on their resistivities, in an increasing order of their values.

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 ▪ Metals have low resistivities in the range of 10−8 Ωm to 10−6 Ωm.
▪ Insulators like ceramic, rubber and plastics having resistivities 1018
times greater than metals or more.
▪ In between the two are the semiconductors
Temperature Dependence Of Resistivity
The resistivity of a material is found to be dependent on the temperature.
The resistivity of a metallic conductor is approximately given by,
𝛒𝐓 = 𝛒𝟎 [𝟏 + 𝛂(𝐓 − 𝐓𝟎 )]
Where ρ0 is the resistivity at a reference temperature T0 .
ρT is the resistivity at a temperature T
α is called the temperature co-efficient of resistivity
ρT
= [1 + α(T − T0 )]
ρ0
ρT
− 1 = α(T − T0 )
ρ0
ρT −ρ0
= α(T − T0 )
ρo
𝛒𝐓 −𝛒𝟎
𝛂= 𝛒𝐨 (𝐓−𝐓𝟎 )

The dimension of α is [Temperature]−1 and unit is K −1 .

When temp increases, if the resistivity increases, then α is positive
When temp increases, if the resistivity decreases, then α is negative

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Resistors
Commercially produced resistors for domestic use or in laboratories are of
two major types: wire bound resistors and carbon resistors.
▪ Wire bound resistors are made by winding the wires of an alloy, viz.,
manganin, constantan, nichrome or similar ones.
▪ Resistors in the higher range are made mostly from carbon. Carbon
resistors are compact, inexpensive and thus find extensive use in
electronic circuits. Carbon resistors are small in size and hence their
values are given using a colour code.
Colour Code of Resistors

▪ The first two bands from the end indicate the first two significant figures of the
resistance in ohms.
▪ The third band indicates the decimal multiplier .
▪ The last band stands for tolerance .Sometimes, this last band is absent and that
indicates a tolerance of 20%.

- 10x 101 ± 5%
- 22x 102 ± 5%

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 ▪ For n of resistors ,the equivalent resistance is , R = 𝐑 𝟏 + 𝐑 𝟐 +… … + 𝐑 𝐧
▪ If n resistors have same resistance equal to R, the equivalent resistance is ,
𝐑′ = 𝐧𝐑

Resistors in Parallel

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
▪ For 2 of resistors ,the equivalent resistance is , = +
𝐑 𝐑𝟏 𝐑𝟐
𝐑𝟏 𝐑𝟐
𝐑=
𝐑𝟏 +𝐑𝟐
▪ For n of resistors ,the equivalent resistance is
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + + ⋯………+
𝐑 𝐑𝟏 𝐑𝟐 𝐑𝐧
▪ If n resistors have same resistance equal to R, the equivalent resistance is,
𝐑
𝐑′ =
𝐧

Electrical Energy, Power

Electrical Energy

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Power

Cells, Emf, Internal Resistance

Cell

A simple device which maintain a steady current in an electric circuit is the

electrolytic cell.
Basically a cell has two electrodes, called the positive (P) and the
negative(N) .They are immersed in an electrolytic solution. The electrodes
exchange charges with the electrolyte.
Internal resistance of a cell (r)
Resistance offered by the electrolytes to the flow of current through it is
called internal resistance of the cell

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E.M.F -Electro Motive Force (ε)
The emf ε is the potential difference between the positive
and negative electrodes of a cell in an open circuit, i.e.,
when no current is flowing through the cell.
Note that ε is, actually, a potential difference and not a
force.
Voltage (V)
The Voltage (V) is the potential difference between the
positive and negative electrodes of a cell in a closed circuit,
i.e., when current is flowing through the cell.

Relation connecting emf and Voltage

emf
Current I =
Total Resistance
𝛆
𝐈=
𝐑+𝐫
ε = I (R + r)
ε = IR + Ir
ε = V + Ir
𝐕 = 𝛆 – Ir

Cells in Series and Parallel

Cells in Series

VAC = εeq − I req

𝛆𝐞𝐪 = 𝛆𝟏 + 𝛆𝟐
𝐫𝐞𝐪 = 𝐫𝟏 + 𝐫𝟐
For n cells in series,
εeq = ε1 + ε2 +………+εn
req = r1 + r2 +………..+rn

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Cells in parallel

VAC = εeq − I req

1 1 1
= +
req r1 r2
εeq ε1 ε2
= +
req r1 r2

For n cells in parallel

1 1 1 1
= + +…………+
req r1 r2 rn
εeq ε1 ε2 εn
= + +………….+
req r1 r2 rn

Kirchhoff’s Rules
(a)Kirchhoff’s First Rule - Junction Rule:
At any junction, the sum of the currents entering the junction is equal to the
sum of currents leaving the junction . ∑ I = 0 .

I1 + I2 + I4 = I3 + I5
I1 + I2 − I3 + I4 − I5 =0
∑I = 0

Kirchhoff’s junction rule is in accordance with law of conservation of charge.

(b)Kirchhoff’s Second Rule –Loop Rule

The algebraic sum of changes in potential around any closed loop is
zero. ∑ ΔV = 0

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 For Loop ABCDA
ε1 −IR1 − ε2 − IR 2 =0

Kirchhoff’s Loop rule is in accordance with Law of conservation of energy.

Example

Applying Junction rule at junction ‘a’

I3 = I1 + I2

Applying Loop rule for the loops ‘ahdcba’ ,

–30 I1 + 45– 1 I3 −40 I3 = 0

Applying Loop rule for the loop ‘ahdefga’,

–30 I1 + 20 I2 +1 I2 – 80 = 0.

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Wheatstone Bridge

For a balanced Wheatstone’s bridge , the resistors are such that the current
through th galvanometer Ig = 0.
Apply Kirchhoff’s junction rule to junctions B
𝐈𝟐 = 𝐈𝟒 -------------(1)
Apply Kirchhoff’s junction rule to junctions D
𝐈𝟏 = 𝐈𝟑 -------------(2)
Apply Kirchhoff’s loop rule to closed loop ABDA
- I2 R 2 + I1 R1 =0
𝐈𝟏 𝐑 𝟏 = 𝐈𝟐 𝐑 𝟐 ----------------(3)
Apply Kirchhoff’s loop rule to closed loop CBDC
I4 R 4 − I3 R 3 =0
𝐈𝟑 𝐑 𝟑 = 𝐈𝟒 𝐑 𝟒 ---------------(4)
eq (3) I1 R1 I R
eq (4)
----- = I2 R2
I3 R3 4 4
R1 R
= R2
R3 4
𝐑𝟐 𝐑
= 𝐑𝟒
𝐑𝟏 𝟑

This is the balance condition for the galvanometer to give zero or null
deflection.

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Meter Bridge
Meter Bridge is an electrical device to measure an unknown resistance.
It works on the principle of balanced Wheatstone Bridge.

By Wheatstone’s principle, when the bridge is balanced,

R2 R
= R4
R1 3

The resistivity of the wire

RA
ρ=
L
𝐑𝛑𝐫 𝟐
𝛒=
𝐋
R= resistance of the wire
r= radius of the wire
L= length of the wire
Example
In a metre bridge the null point is found at a distance of 33.7 cm from A. If
now a resistance of 12Ω is connected in parallel with S, the null point occurs
at 51.9 cm. Determine the values of R and S.
From the first balance point, we get
33.7 𝑅
= ---------(1)
66.3 𝑆
After S is connected in parallel with a resistance of 12Ω , the resistance
across the gap changes from S to 𝑆𝑒𝑞
12 𝑆
𝑆𝑒𝑞 =
12+𝑆
51.9 𝑅 𝑅
= = 12 𝑆
48.1 𝑆𝑒𝑞
12+𝑆
51.9 (12+𝑆)𝑅
=
48.1 12 𝑆
Substituting from eq(1)
51.9 (12+𝑆) 33.7
= x
48.1 12 66.3
S = 13.5Ω.
Using eq(1), R = 6.86 Ω.
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Potentiometer
A potentiometer is a long piece of uniform wire of few meters in length
across which a standard cell is connected.

Principle of Potentiometer
The potential difference between two points of a current carrying conductor
of uniform thickness is directly proportional to the length of the wire
between the points
𝛆∝𝒍

Potentiometer is used,
1. to compare the emf of two cells
2. to measure the internal resistance of a cell

1.Comparison of emf ’s of two cells

The primary key is closed.

Let l1 be the balancing length for for cell ε1 .
ε1 ∝ 𝑙1
Let l2 be the balancing length for for cell ε2 .
ε2 ∝ 𝑙2
𝛆𝟏 𝒍
= 𝒍𝟏
𝛆𝟐 𝟐

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2.Measurement of internal resistance of a cell

The primary key K1 is closed and K 2 is open,

𝛆 ∝ 𝒍𝟏 ------------(1)

Now K 2 is closed,
V ∝ 𝑙2
V=IR
ε
I=
r+R
εR
V=
r+R
𝛆𝐑
∝ 𝒍𝟐 -----------(2)
𝐫+𝐑
(1) ε 𝑙1
eq −−− εR =
(2) 𝑙2
r+R
r+R 𝑙1
=
R 𝑙2
r 𝑙1
+1 =
R 𝑙2
r 𝑙1
= -1
R 𝑙2
r 𝑙1−𝑙2
=
R 𝑙2
𝑹(𝒍𝟏− 𝒍𝟐 )
𝐫= 𝒍𝟐

Why potentiometer is preferred over voltmeter for accurate measurement

of emf of a cell?
As potentiometer uses null deflection method, it does not draw current from
the cell at the balance point. Therefore, potentiometer measures the actual
emf of the cell. The voltmeter always draws current from the cell and
measures the terminal voltage of the cell and not the emf. So potentiometer
is preferred over voltmeter for accurate measurement.

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 Chapter 4
Moving Charges and Magnetism
Introduction
Christian Oersted discovered that moving charges or currents produce a
magnetic field in the surrounding space. The direction of the magnetic field
depends on the direction of current.

The magnetic field due to a straight long current-carrying wire. The wire is
perpendicular to the plane of the paper. A ring of compass needles surrounds the wire.
The orientation of the needles is shown when
(a) the current emerges out of the plane of the paper,
(b) the current moves into the plane of the paper.
(c) The arrangement of iron filings around the wire.
*The darkened ends of the needle represent north poles.
*A current or a field (electric or magnetic) emerging out of the plane of the
paper is depicted by a dot (.)
*A current or a field going into the plane of the paper is depicted by a cross (⊗ ).

Magnetic Force
Sources and fields
A static charge q is the source of electric field(E) .
Moving charges or currents produces a magnetic field (B), in addition to
electric field(B).
▪ Magnetic field is a vector field.
▪ It obeys the principle of superposition: the magnetic field of several
sources is the vector addition of magnetic field of each individual
source.
Lorentz Force
The total force acting on a charge q moving with a velocity v in presence of
both the electric field E and the magnetic field B is called Lorentz force.
F = Felectric + Fmagnetic
𝐅 = 𝐪𝐄 ⃗ + 𝐪(𝐯⃗ × ⃗𝐁
⃗)
𝐅=𝐪[𝐄 ⃗ + (𝐯⃗ × 𝐁
⃗⃗ )]
Electric Lorentz force
𝐅 = 𝐪𝐄⃗

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Magnetic Lorentz force
⃗)
𝐪(𝐯⃗ × 𝐁
𝐅 = qvBsinθ where θ is the angle between v and B
(i) Magnetic Lorentz force depends on q, v and B (charge of the
particle, the velocity and the magnetic field). Force on a negative
charge is opposite to that on a positive charge.
(ii) The magnetic force ⃗F = qvBsinθ
If velocity and magnetic field are parallel (θ =0 )
or anti-parallel(θ =180), F =0.
(iii) The direction of magnetic force is perpendicular
to both the velocity and the magnetic field.
Its direction is given by the screw rule or
right hand rule.
(iii) The magnetic force is zero if charge is not moving (v= 0).
Only a moving charge feels the magnetic force.

Unit of B
F = qvB sinθ
F
B=
qv
𝐧𝐞𝐰𝐭𝐨𝐧 𝐬𝐞𝐜𝐨𝐧ⅆ
Unit of B = =tesla (T)
𝐜𝐨𝐮𝐥𝐨𝐦𝐛 𝐦𝐞𝐭𝐫𝐞

tesla is a large unit. A smaller unit (non-SI) called gauss is also often used.
1 gauss = 10−4 tesla
1 G = 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 T
The earth’s magnetic field is about 3.6 × 10−5 T

Magnetic force on a current-carrying conductor

Consider a rod of a uniform cross-sectional area A and length 𝑙 .
The total number of mobile charge carriers in it is nA 𝑙
Let e be the charge on each charge carrier .
Then q=neA 𝑙
Let each mobile carrier has an average drift velocity vd .

𝐅 = 𝐪 (𝐯⃗ × 𝐁⃗⃗ )
vd × ⃗𝐁
𝐅 = neA𝑙 ( ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ )
𝐅 = (ne A vd ) 𝑙 × ⃗𝐁
⃗ (neAvd =I)
⃗⃗ )
𝐅 = I (𝒍 × 𝐁

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Fleming’s left hand rule
Stretch the fore finger , middle finger and thumb of left hand in three
mutually perpendicular directions, such that fore finger in the direction of
magnetic fileld, the middle finger in the direction of current ,then the thumb
gives the direction of force.

Example
1 A straight wire of mass 200 g and length 1.5 m carries a current of 2 A. It is
suspended in mid-air by a uniform horizontal magnetic field B . What is the
magnitude of the magnetic field?

There is an upward force F, of magnitude I 𝑙 B,. For mid-air suspension,

this must be balanced by the force due to gravity:
m g = I 𝑙B
mg 2 x 9.8
B= = = 0.65 T
I𝑙 2 x1.5
Example
The magnetic field is parallel to the positive y-axis and the charged particle
is moving along the positive x-axis ( which way would the Lorentz force be
for (a) an electron (negative charge),
(b) a proton (positive charge).

The velocity v of particle is along the x-axis, while B, the magnetic field is
along the y-axis, so 𝐯⃗ × 𝐁⃗⃗ is along the z-axis (screw rule or right-hand
thumb rule).
(a) for electron it will be along –z axis.
(b) for a positive charge (proton) the force is along +z axis.

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Motion of a charged particle in a Magnetic field
Case 1 - When θ =00 or θ =1800
i.e. the charge is moving in the same direction or opposite direction
of magnetic field (parallel or antiparallel)
F = qvB sin 0 =0
F = qvB sin 180 =0
Thus there is no magnetic force on the charge and
the charge moves undeflected.

Case 2 - When θ =900

i.e. the charged particle entering perpendicular to a magnetic field.
F = qvB sin 90
F = qvB
The perpendicular force, F=q v B, acts as a centripetal force and
produces a circular motion perpendicular to the magnetic field.
The particle will describe a circle if v and B are perpendicular to each
other

𝐦𝐯 𝟐
= 𝐪𝐯𝐁
𝐫
𝐪𝐁𝐫
𝐯=
𝐦
v qB
angular frequency, ω = =
r m

𝟐𝛑 𝟐𝛑
Period 𝐓 = = 𝐪𝐁
𝛚
𝐦

𝟐𝛑𝐦
𝐓= 𝐪𝐁
𝟏
Frequency ν =
𝐓
𝐪𝐁
𝛎 =𝟐𝛑𝐦

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Case 3- When θ between 00 and 900
i.e. when the charged particle moves at an arbitrary angle 𝜃
with the field direction, it undergoes helical path.

Here velocity has one component along B, and the other perpendicular to B.
The motion in the direction of field is unaffected by magnetic field, as the
magnetic force is zero. The motion in a plane perpendicular to B is circular ,
thereby producing a helical motion.

The distance moved along the magnetic field in one rotation is called pitch p.
p =vparallel x T
𝐪𝐁
P= 𝐯
𝟐𝛑𝐦 𝐩𝐚𝐫𝐚𝐥𝐥𝐞𝐥

Motion Fields in Combined Electric and Magnetic Fields

Velocity Selector

A charge q moving with velocity v in presence of both electric and magnetic

fields experiences a force.
𝐅=𝐪[𝐄 ⃗ + (𝐯⃗ × ⃗𝐁
⃗ )]
Let the charge is moving in x-direction , electric field along y-direction and
magnetic field along z-direction. Then electric and magnetic forces will be in
opposite directions.
F = q E – qvB
Now adjust the value of E and B such that magnitude of the two forces are
equal. Then, total force on the charge is zero and the charge will move in the
fields undeflected.
q E = qvB
𝐄
v=
𝐁
The crossed E and B fields serve as a velocity selector. Only particles with
E
speed pass undeflected through the region of crossed fields.
B

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This method was employed by J J Thomson to measure e/m ratio of an electron.This
principle is also employed in Mass Spectrometer-a a device that separates charged
particles.

Cyclotron
The cyclotron is a machine to accelerate charged particles or ions to high
energies. It was invented by E.O. Lawrence and M.S. Livingston in 1934 to
investigate nuclear structure.
The cyclotron uses crossed(perpendicular) electric and magnetic fields in
combination to increase the energy of charged particles. Cyclotron uses the
fact that the frequency of revolution of the charged particle in a magnetic
field is independent of its energy.
Costruction and working

Cyclotron consists of two semicircular disc-like metal containers, D1 and D2 ,

which are called dees . A high frequency alternating voltage is applied to the
dees. Inside the dees there is no electric field, but the magnetic field inside
the dees is perpendicular .There is a source of positive ions at P . A positive
ion is emited at an instant D1 is positive and D2 negative . Then the ion is
accelerated towards D2 and moves in a semi circular path inside D2 on
account of a uniform perpendicular magnetic field B. The frequency νa of the
applied voltage is adjusted so that the polarity of the dees is reversed in the
same time that it takes the ions to complete one half of the revolution. When
the positive ions arrive at the edge of D2 , D1 is at negative polarity. Then the
ions are accelerated towards D1 and moves in a semicircular path inside D1 .
Each time the ion accelerates, the radius of their path increases and each
time their kinetic energy increases. When they attain the required energy,
they are then deflected by a magnetic field and leave the system via exit port
The whole assembly is evacuated to minimise collisions between the ions
and the air molecules.

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Cyclotron Frequency
Centripetal force = magnetic Lorentz force
𝐦𝐯 𝟐
= 𝐪𝐯𝐁 ------------(1)
𝐫
𝐪𝐁𝐫
𝐯= ------------(2)
𝐦
v=ωr
v qB
Angular frequency, ω = =
r m
𝟐𝛑 𝟐𝛑
Period 𝐓 = = 𝐪𝐁
𝛚
𝐦
𝟐𝛑𝐦
𝐓= ------------(3)
𝐪𝐁
The time for one revolution of an ion is independent of its speed or radius of
its orbit.
𝟏
Frequency, νc =
𝐓
𝐪𝐁
𝛎𝐜 =𝟐𝛑𝐦 -----------(4)
The cyclotron frequency(νc ) should be equal to the applied frequency
(νa )and this is called resonance condition.

The kinetic energy of the ions

1
KE = mv 2
2
Substituting from eq(2)
1 𝐪𝐁𝐫 2
KE = mv ( )
2 𝐦
𝐪𝟐 𝐁𝟐 𝐫 𝟐
KE = --------------(5)
𝟐𝐦
Uses
The cyclotron is used to bombard nuclei with energetic particles, so accelerated
by it, and study the resulting nuclear reactions. It is also used to implant ions into
solids and modify their properties or even synthesise new materials. It is used in
hospitals to produce radioactive substances which can be used in diagnosis and
treatment.

Example
A cyclotron’s oscillator frequency is 10 MHz. What should be the operating
magnetic field for accelerating protons? If the radius of its ‘dees’ is 60 cm, w
hat is the kinetic energy (in MeV) of the proton beam produced by the
accelerator.
(e =1.60 × 10−19 C, mp = 1.67 × 10−27 kg, 1 MeV = 1.6 × 10−13 J).

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The oscillator frequency should be same as proton’s cyclotron frequency.
𝐪𝐁
νc =
𝟐𝛑𝐦

𝟐𝛑𝐦νc
B=
𝐪
𝟐 𝐱 𝟑.𝟏𝟒 𝐱1.67 × 10−27 x 10 x106
=
1.6 × 10−19
B = 0.66T

(1.6 × 10−19 )2 0.662 (0.6)2

KE =
2x1.67 × 10−27
= 0.12 x 10−11 J
0.12 x 10−11 J
=
1.60 × 10−13
KE = 7.5 MeV

Magnetic Field due to a Current Element – Biot-Savart Law

The magnetic field due to a small element of a current carrying conductor is

directly proportional to the current (I) ,the length of the element 𝑑𝑙 , sine of
the angle between 𝑑𝑙 and r and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance r.
𝛍 𝐈 ⅆ𝒍 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝛉
ⅆ𝐁 = 𝟒𝛑𝟎 𝐫𝟐
μ0 = permeability of free space
μ0 = 4π x 10−7 Tm/A
μ0
= 10−7 Tm/A
4π
𝐈𝐧 𝐯𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐨𝐫 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐦 𝐁𝐢𝐨𝐭 − 𝐒𝐚𝐯𝐚𝐫𝐭 𝐥𝐚𝐰 𝐜𝐚𝐧 𝐛𝐞 𝐰𝐫𝐢𝐭𝐭𝐞𝐧 𝐚𝐬
𝐈ⅆ𝒍̅×𝐫̅
⃗ = 𝛍𝟎
ⅆ𝐁 ⃗ =
d𝐵
μ0 𝐼𝑑𝑙 sinθ
𝟒𝛑 𝐫𝟑 4π r2
̅ r̂
μ0 Id𝑙 ×
⃗ =
d𝐵
4π r2
r̅
r̂ =
r
̅ r̅
μ0 Id𝑙 ×
⃗ =
d𝐵
4π r3

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Comparison between Coulomb’s law and Biot -Savart’s law
1 q1 q2 μ0 I d𝑙 sinθ
(i)Coulombs law F = . Biot-Savart law dB =
4πε0 r2 4π r2
(ii) Both are long range. The principle of superposition applies to both fields.
(iii) The electrostatic field is produced by a scalar source, i.e., the electric
charge. The magnetic field is produced by a vector source i.e., current
element Idl.
(iv) The electrostatic field is along the displacement vector joining the
source and the field point. The magnetic field is perpendicular to the plane
containing the displacement vector r and the current element Idl.
(v)There is an angle dependence in the Biot-Savart law which is not present
in the electrostatic case.

Applications of Biot-Savart law

Magnetic Field on the Axis of a Circular Current Loop

μ0 Id𝑙 sin 90
dB =
4π r2
μ0 Id𝑙
dB =
4π r2
r 2 = x 2 + R2
μ0 Id𝑙
dB = ----------------(1)
4π x2 +R2
Total field B =∫ dB cos θ ----------------(2)
R R
cos θ = = (x2 2 )1/2
r +R
Substituting for dB and cos θ
μ0 Id𝑙 R
B =∫ ----------(3)
4π x2 +R2 (x2 +R2 )1/2
μ0 IR
B= (x +R2 )3/2
2 ∫ d𝑙
4π
μ0 IR
B= (x2 +R2 )3/2
x2πR
4π
𝛍𝟎 𝐈𝐑𝟐
B= 𝟐(𝐱 𝟐 +𝐑𝟐 )𝟑/𝟐

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Magnetic field at the centre of the loop
At the centre x=0
μ0 IR2
B=
2R3
𝛍𝟎 𝐈
B= 𝟐𝐑

The direction of the magnetic field is given by right-hand thumb rule .

Curl the palm of your right hand around the circular wire with the fingers
pointing in the direction of the current. The right-hand thumb gives the
direction of the magnetic field.

The upper side of the loop(current is anticlockwise) may be thought of as

the north pole and the lower side(current is clockwise) as the south pole of
a magnet.

Ampere's Circuital Law

The line integral of magnetic field over a closed loop is equal to μ0 times the
total current passing through the surface.
The closed loop is called Amperian Loop.
∮ ⃗⃗⃗
𝐁. ⅆ𝒍 = 𝛍𝟎 𝐈

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Applications of Ampere's Circuital Law
1.Magnetic field due to a straight infinite current-carrying wire

By Ampere's Circuital Law

∮ ⃗⃗⃗
B. 𝑑𝑙 = μ0 I
∮ Bd𝑙 cos 0 = μ0 I
B∮ d𝑙 = μ0 I
B x 2πr = μ0 I
𝛍𝟎 𝐈
𝐁=
𝟐𝛑𝐫

A plot of the magnitude of B with distance r from the centre of the wire having radius a

Right-hand rule
There exists a simple rule to determine the direction of the magnetic field
due to a long wire ,called the right-hand rule. Grasp the wire in your right
hand with your extended thumb pointing in the direction of the current.
Your fingers will curl around in the direction of the magnetic field.

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Solenoid
A solenoid consists of a long wire wound in the form of a helix where the
neighbouring turns are closely spaced. The field between two neighbouring
turns vanishes and the field at the interior mid-point P is uniform. The field
outside the solenoid approaches zero.

2.Mangnetic field due to a Solenoid

∮ ⃗⃗⃗
B. 𝑑𝑙 =∮ ⃗⃗⃗
B. 𝑑𝑙 +∮ ⃗⃗⃗
B. 𝑑𝑙 +∮ ⃗⃗⃗
B. 𝑑𝑙+∮ ⃗⃗⃗
B. 𝑑𝑙 ------------- (1)
abcd ab bc cd da

⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑙 = ∮ B d𝑙 cos 0 = ∮ B d𝑙 = B ∮ d𝑙 = B𝑙
∮ B.
ab ab ab ab
∮ ⃗⃗⃗
B. 𝑑𝑙 = ∮ab B d𝑙 cos 90 = 0
bc
∮ ⃗⃗⃗
B. 𝑑𝑙 = 0 (since B = 0 outside)
cd
∮ ⃗⃗⃗
B. 𝑑𝑙 = ∮ab B d𝑙 cos 90 = 0
da

Substituting in eqn (1)

∮ ⃗⃗⃗
B. 𝑑𝑙 = B𝑙 + 0 + 0 + 0
abcd
∮ ⃗⃗⃗
B. 𝑑𝑙 = B𝑙 -------------(2)
abcd
By Ampere's Circuital Law for N turns of solenoid
∮ B. 𝑑𝑙 = μ0 NI ---------------(3)
From eqns (2) and (3)
B𝑙 =μ0 NI
μ NI
B= 0
𝑙
𝐍
𝐁 =𝛍𝟎 𝐧𝐈 where n= 𝑙
N=number of turns of solenoid
𝑙= length of solenoid
n=number of turns per unit length of solenoid

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(3)Magnetic field due to a Toroid
A Toroid is a long solenoid bend in the form of a circle. Or A Toroid is a
hollow circular ring on which a large number of turns of a wire are closely
wound. The magnetic field is present only within the toroid

By Ampere's Circuital Law for N turns,

∮ ⃗⃗⃗
B. 𝑑𝑙 = μ0 NI
∮ B d𝑙 cos 0 = μ0 NI
B∮ d𝑙 = μ0 NI
B x 2πr = μ0 NI
μ NI
B= 0
2πr
𝐍
𝐁 = 𝛍𝟎 𝐧𝐈 where 𝐧 = 𝟐𝛑𝐫

Example
A solenoid of length 0.5 m has a radius of 1 cm and is made up of 500 turns.
It carries a current of 5 A. What is the magnitude of the magnetic field inside
the solenoid?
N
The number of turns per unit length , n=
𝑙
500
= = 1000
0.5
B = μ0 nI
= 4π × 10−7 x1000x5
=6.28 ×10−3 T

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Force between Two Parallel Current Carrying Condutors

Two long parallel conductors a and b separated by a distance d and carrying

(parallel) currents Ia and Ib , respectively.
Magnetic field produced by conductor a along the conductor ‘b’
μ 0 Ia
Ba =
2πd

Force acting on conductor b due to this field Ba ,

𝐅= I(𝑙 × ⃗𝐁
⃗ )
Fba = Ib LBa
μ I
Fba = Ib L 0 a
2πd
μ I I L
Fba = 0 a b
2πd
The force Fba per unit length,
𝛍𝟎 𝐈𝐚 𝐈𝐛
𝐟𝐛𝐚 = 𝟐𝛑ⅆ

Similarly the force on ‘a’ due to ‘b’

Fab = −Fba
▪ Biot-Savart law and the Lorentz force yield results in accordance with
Newton’s third Law.
▪ Parallel currents attract, and antiparallel currents repel.
Definition of ampere
μ 0 Ia Ib
fba =
2πd

If Ia = Ib = 1A
and , d=1m
μ0 4π x 10−7
fba = = =2 x 10−7 N/m
2π 2π

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The ampere is that current which, when flaws through two very long,
straight, parallel conductors placed one metre apart in vacuum, would
produce a force equal to𝟐 𝐱 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 N/m on each other.

Torque on Current Loop, Magnetic Dipole

Torque on a rectangular current loop in a uniform magnetic field

A rectangular loop carrying a steady current I is placed in a uniform

magnetic field B,which is applied in the plane of the loop.
Force on AD and BC is zero
Force on BC , F=IaBsin0=0
Force on AD , F=IaBsin 180=0

Force on AB =Force on CD = IbB sin 90=IbB

Forces on AB and CD are equal and oppsite. So the coil does not experience a
net force, but it experiences a torque.
Torque , τ =Force x perpendicular distance
τ =IbB x a =IabB
τ = IAB
where A = ab is the area of the rectangle.
When the plane of the loop, makes an angle with the magnetic field. We take
the angle between the field and the normal to the coil to be angle θ.

τ = IbB x asin θ
τ = IAB sinθ
For N turns of the coil
τ = NIAB sinθ

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We define the magnetic moment of the current loop as, m = I A
For N turns, m=NIA
Unit of magnetic moment is Am and dimensions are AL2
2

⃗ = mB sinθ
𝝉
⃗ =𝒎
𝝉 ⃗⃗⃗ × ⃗𝑩
⃗
Circular current loop as a magnetic dipole
Magnetic field on the axis of circular loop
μ0 IR2
B=
2(x2 +R2 )3/2
μ0 IR2
For x >> R , B=
2x3
A = πR2
μ0 IA
B=
2πx3
μ0 2𝐦
B= 4π x3

Comparing with electric field along the axial line of a an electric dipole
1 2𝐩
E= 3
4πε0 x
1
μ0 →
ε0
m→ p (electrostatic dipole moment)
B → E (electrostatic field)
The magnetic dipole moment of a revolving electron

The electron of charge (–e) (e = + 1.6 × 10−19 C) performs uniform circular

motion around a stationary heavy nucleus of charge +Ze. This constitutes a
current I, where,
q e
I= =
t T
2πr
T=
v
r=radius of orbit, v=orbital velocity
ev
I=
2πr
For circulating current magnetic moment is represented as μ𝑙
μ𝑙 = IA
ev evr
μ𝑙 = πr 2 =
2πr 2

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 e
μ𝑙 = (mvr)
2m
𝐞
𝛍𝒍 = 𝒍
𝟐𝐦
𝑙=orbital angular momentum of the electron about the central nucleus.
𝛍𝒍 𝐞
= 𝟐𝐦
𝒍
This ratio is called the gyromagnetic ratio and is a constant.
Its value is 8.8 × 1010 C /kg for an electron.

Bohr Magneton
By Bohr’s postulates,the angular momentum,
nh
𝑙= where n=1,2,3……
2π
For first orbit ,n=1
e h
μ𝑙 =
2m 2π
eh
μ𝑙 =
4πm

This value is called the Bohr magneton.

The Moving Coil Galvanometer

The moving coil galvanometer(MCG) consists of a coil, with many turns, free
to rotate about a fixed axis , in a uniform radial magnetic field. There is a
cylindrical soft iron core which not only makes the field radial but also
increases the strength of the magnetic field.
When a current flows through the coil, a torque acts on it.
τ = NI AB--------------(1)

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The magnetic torque NIAB tends to rotate the coil. A spring Sp provides a
counter torque.
τ = kϕ -----------------(2)
where k is the torsional constant of the spring; i.e. the restoring torque per
unit twist.
ϕ is the deflection is indicated on the scale by a pointer attached to the
spring.
In equilibrium,
kϕ = NI AB -------------(3)
𝐍 𝐀𝐁
𝛟=( )𝐈
𝐤
The quantity in brackets is a constant for a given galvanometer.
𝛟 ∝I
Thus the deflection produced in the coil is directly proportional to the
current through the coil.

Current Sensitivity of the Galvanometer

Current sensitivity of the galvanometer is defined as the deflection per unit
current.
𝛟 𝐍 𝐀𝐁
=( )
𝐈 𝐤
A convenient way for the manufacturer to increase the sensitivity is to
increase the number of turns N.

Voltage sensitivity of the galvanometer

Voltage sensitivity of the galvanometer is defined as the deflection per unit
voltage.
ϕ N AB I N AB 1
=( ) =( )R
V k V k
𝛟 𝐍 𝐀𝐁 𝟏
=( )𝐑
𝐕 𝐤
Increasing the current sensitivity may not necessarily increase the voltage
sensitivity.
If N → 2N, i.e., we double the number of turns, then current sensitivity,
ϕ 2N AB ϕ
=( ) →2
I k I
Thus, the current sensitivity doubles.

If N → 2N, then R → 2R then the voltage sensitivity,

ϕ 2N AB 1 N AB 1 ϕ
=( ) =( ) =
V k 2R k R V
Thus, the voltage sensitivity remains unchanged..

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Conversion of Galvanometer to Ammeter
To convert a Galvanometer to an Ammeter a small resistance , called shunt
resistance S ,is connected in parallel with the galvanometer coil.

Ig G = (I − Ig )S
𝐈𝐠 𝐆
S=
𝐈−𝐈𝐠
Conversion of Galvanometer to Voltmeter
To convert a Galvanometer to a volteter a high resistance , R is connected in
series with the galvanometer coil.

V = Ig (R + G)
V
R+G=
Ig
𝐕
R = –G
𝐈𝐠
Example
A galvanometer with coil resistance 12Ω shows full scale deflection for a
current of 2.5mA. How will you convert it into an ammeter of range
0 – 7.5 A?
Ig G
S=
I−Ig
2.5 x 10−3 x 12 2.5 x 10−3 x 12
S= −3 = =4 x 10−3 Ω
7.5−2.5 x 10 7.5−0.0025
−3
A resistance of 4 x 10 Ω is to be connected in parallel to the galvanometer
coil to convert it into an ammeter.
Example
A galvanometer with coil resistance 12Ω shows full scale deflection for a
current of 3mA. How will you convert it into a voltmeter of range 0 – 18V?
V
R = –G
Ig
18
R = −3 – 12 =6x 103 -12 =6000-12 =5988 Ω
3 x 10
A resistance of 5988 Ω is to be connected in seriesl to the galvanometer coil
to convert it into a voltmeter.

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 Chapter 5
Magnetism and Matter
Some of the commonly known ideas regarding magnetism are:
▪ The earth behaves as a magnet with the magnetic field pointing
approximately from the geographic south to the north.
▪ When a bar magnet is freely suspended, it points in the north-south
direction. The tip which points to the geographic north is called the
north pole and the tip which points to the geographic south is called the
south pole of the magnet.
▪ Similar poles repel and opposite poles attract.
▪ We cannot isolate the north, or south pole of a magnet. If a bar magnet
is broken into two halves, we get two similar bar magnets with
somewhat weaker properties. Unlike electric charges, isolated magnetic
north and south poles known as magnetic monopoles do not exist.
▪ It is possible to make magnets out of iron and its alloys

The Bar Magnet

The magnet has two poles similar to the positive and negative charge of an
electric dipole -one pole is designated the North pole and the other, the
South pole. When suspended freely, these poles point approximately
towards the geographic north and south poles, respectively.

The arrangement of iron filings surrounding a bar

magnet. The pattern mimics magnetic field lines.
The pattern suggests that the bar magnet is a
magnetic dipole. A similar pattern of iron filings is
observed around a current carrying solenoid.

The Magnetic Field Lines

▪ The magnetic field lines of a magnet (or a solenoid) form continuous
closed loops.
(This is unlike the electric dipole where these field lines begin from
a positive charge and end on the negative charge or escape to infinity.)
▪ The tangent to the field line at a given point represents the direction
of the net magnetic field B at that point.
▪ The larger the number of field lines crossing per unit area, the
stronger is the magnitude of the magnetic field B.
▪ The magnetic field lines do not intersect.
(If they intersect, there would be more than one direction for
magnetic field at the point of intersection,which is not possible)

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 The Magnetic field lines of
(a) a bar magnet, (b) a current-carrying finite solenoid and (c) electric dipole

Note:-The magnetic field lines can not be called as magnetic lines of force. Unlike
electrostatics (F =qE) the field lines in magnetism do not indicate the direction of the
force on a moving charge(F=q(vxB))

Bar magnet as an equivalent solenoid

The resemblance of magnetic field lines for a bar magnet and a solenoid
suggest that a bar magnet may be thought of as a large number of circulating
currents in analogy with a solenoid.

The dipole in a uniform magnetic field

A small compass needle of magnetic moment m and moment of inertia I is

allowed it to oscillate in a magnetic field B.
The restoring torque on the needle ,
τ⃗ = m ⃗⃗⃗ × ⃗B
τ⃗ = mBsinθ-------------(1)
The deflecting torque ,
τ⃗= Iα
d2 θ
τ⃗ = I -------------(2)
dt2
In equilibrium,
d2 θ
I = − mBsinθ
dt2

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Negative sign implies that restoring torque is in opposition to deflecting
torque.
For small values of θ in radians, sin θ ≈ θ
d2 θ
I = − mBθ
dt2

d2 θ mB
+ θ=0
dt2I
This represents a simple harmonic motion.
d2 θ
Comparing with general expression for SHM, + ω2 θ=0
dt2
mB
ω2 =
I
mB
𝛚=√
I
2π 2π
Period, T = =
ω mB
√
I

𝐈
T =𝟐𝛑√𝐦𝐁
𝟒𝛑𝟐 𝐈
𝐁=
𝐦𝐓 𝟐
Example
A magnetic needle has magnetic moment 6.7 × 10−2 Am2 and moment of
inertia I = 7.5 × 10−6 kg m2 . It performs 10 complete oscillations in 6.70 s.
What is the magnitude of the magnetic field?
6.7
T= =0.67s
10
𝟒𝛑𝟐 𝐈
𝐁=
𝐦𝐓 𝟐
𝟒 𝐱 (𝟑.𝟏𝟒)𝟐 𝐱7.5 × 10−6
𝐁= =0.01 T
6.7 × 10−2 𝐱(0.67)𝟐

Magnetic potential energy

𝐔𝐦 = ∫ 𝛕 ⅆ𝛉
𝐔𝐦 = ∫ mBsinθd𝛉 = −mBcosθ
𝐔𝐦 = −m. B

Example
(a) What happens if a bar magnet is cut into two pieces:
(i) transverse to its length, (ii) along its length?
In either case, one gets two magnets, each with a north and south pole.

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(b) A magnetised needle in a uniform magnetic field experiences a torque
but no net force. An iron nail near a bar magnet, however, experiences a
force of attraction in addition to a torque. Why?
No force if the field is uniform. The iron nail experiences a non uniform field
due to the bar magnet. There is induced magnetic moment in the nail,
therefore, it experiences both force and torque. The net force is attractive
because the induced south pole (say) in the nail is closer to the north pole of
magnet than induced north pole.

(c) Must every magnetic configuration have a north pole and a south pole?
What about the field due to a toroid
Not necessarily. True only if the source of the field has a net non zero
magnetic moment. This is not so for a toroid or even for a straight infinite
conductor.

(d) Two identical looking iron bars A and B are given, one of which is
definitely known to be magnetised. (We do not know which one.) How
would one ascertain whether or not both are magnetised? If only one is
magnetised, how does one ascertain which one? [Use nothing else but the
bars A and B.]
Try to bring different ends of the bars closer. A repulsive force in some
situation establishes that both are magnetised. If it is always attractive, then
one of them is not magnetised.
In a bar magnet the intensity of the magnetic field is the strongest at the two
ends (poles) and weakest at the central region. This fact may be used to
determine whether A or B is the magnet. In this case, to see which one of the
two bars is a magnet, pick up one, (say, A) and lower one of its ends; first on
one of the ends of the other (say, B), and then on the middle of B. If you
notice that in the middle of B, A experiences no force, then B is magnetised.
If you do not notice any change from the end to the middle of B, then A is
magnetised.

The electrostatic analog

1 1 μ0
⃗E → ⃗B, ⃗ →m
p ⃗⃗⃗ , → μ0 , →
ε0 4πε0 4π
The magnetic field along the axial line of a bar magnet,
𝛍𝟎 𝟐𝐦
⃗⃗⃗
Axial fileld ,𝐁𝐀 =
𝟒𝛑 𝐫 𝟑
The magnetic field along the equatorial l line of a bar magnet,
𝛍𝟎 𝐦
⃗⃗⃗
Equatorial field ,𝐁𝐄 =
𝟒𝛑 𝐫 𝟑

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The Dipole Analogy
Electrostatics Magnetism
1 μ0
ε0
Dipole moment ⃗
p ⃗m
⃗⃗
Axial Field for a short dipole 1 2p ⃗ μ0 2m ⃗⃗⃗
4πε0 r 3 4π r 3
Equatorial Field for a short 1 p ⃗ μ0 m ⃗⃗⃗
dipole 4πε0 r 3 4π r 3
Torque in an external field ⃗ × ⃗E
τ⃗ = p τ⃗ = m ⃗⃗⃗ × ⃗B
Energy in an external field ⃗U = −p ⃗ . ⃗E ⃗U = −m ⃗⃗⃗ . ⃗B
Example
What is the magnitude of the equatorial and axial fields due to a bar magnet
of length 5 cm at a distance of 50 cm from its mid-point? The magnetic
moment of the bar magnet is 0.40 A m2 ,
μ0 m 10 −7 x 0.40
BE = = =3.2 x10 −7 T
4π r3 (0.5)3
μ0 2m
BA = =2x 3.2 x10 −7 =6.4 x10 −7 T
4π r3

Magnetism and Gauss’s Law

Gauss’s law for magnetism states that the net magnetic flux through any
closed surface is zero.
𝛟 = ∮𝐁 ⃗⃗ ⋅ ⅆ𝐬 = 𝟎
The difference between the Gauss’s law of magnetism and that for
electrostatics is due to the fact that isolated magnetic poles (also called
monopoles) do not to exist.
There are no sources or sinks of B; the simplest magnetic element is a dipole
or a current loop.

For the Gaussian surfaces represented by i or ii , the number of

magnetic field lines leaving the surface is balanced by the number of
lines entering it. The net magnetic flux is zero for both the surfaces.

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Example
(a) Magnetic field lines show the direction (at every point) along which a
small magnetised needle aligns (at the point). Do the magnetic field lines
also represent the lines of force on a moving charged particle at every point?
No. The magnetic force is always normal to B (remember magnetic force =
qv × B). It is misleading to call magnetic field lines as lines of force.

(b) Magnetic field lines can be entirely confined within the core of a toroid,
but not within a straight solenoid. Why?
If field lines were entirely confined between two ends of a straight solenoid,
the flux through the cross-section at each end would be non-zero. But the
flux of field B through any closed surface must always be zero. For a toroid,
this difficulty is absent because it has no ‘ends’.

(c) If magnetic monopoles existed, how would the Gauss’s law of magnetism
be modified?
By Gauss’s law for magnetism
𝛟 = ∮𝐁 ⃗⃗ ⋅ ⅆ𝐬 = 𝟎
If monopoles existed, the right hand side would be equal to the monopole
(magnetic charge) 𝑞𝑚 enclosed by S.
𝛟 = ∮𝐁 ⃗⃗ ⋅ ⅆ𝐬 = 𝛍𝟎 𝒒𝒎
q
{Analogous to Gauass law in electrostatics , ϕ = ∮ ⃗E ⋅ ds = ε }
0

(d) Does a bar magnet exert a torque on itself due to its own field? Does one
element of a current-carrying wire exert a force on another element of the
same wire?
No. There is no force or torque on an element due to the field produced by
that element itself. But there is a force (or torque) on an element of the same
wire. (For the special case of a straight wire, this force is zero.)

(e) Magnetic field arises due to charges in motion. Can a system have
magnetic moments even though its net charge is zero
Yes. The average of the charge in the system may be zero. Yet, the mean of
the magnetic moments due to various current loops may not be zero. We
will come across such examples in connection with paramagnetic material
where atoms have net dipole moment through their net charge is zero

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The Earth’s Magnetism
Dynamo effect
Earth’s magnetic field arise due to electrical currents produced by
convective motion of metallic fluids (consisting mostly of molten iron and
nickel) in the outer core of the earth. This is known as the dynamo effect.

The magnetic field lines of the earth resemble that of a (hypothetical)

magnetic dipole located at the centre of the earth. The axis of the dipole does
not coincide with the axis of rotation of the earth but is presently titled by
approximately 11.3º with respect to the later.

The location of the north magnetic pole is at a latitude of 79.74º N and a

longitude of 71.8º W, a place somewhere in north Canada. The magnetic
south pole is at 79.74º S, 108.22º E in the Antarctica.

Ng =geographic north pole Nm =North magnetic pole

Sg =geographic south pole Sm =South magnetic pole

The pole near the geographic north pole of the earth is called the north
magnetic pole. Likewise, the pole near the geographic south pole is called
the south magnetic pole. The magnetic north was the direction to which the
north pole of a magnetic needle pointed; the north pole of a magnet was so
named as it was the north seeking pole. Thus, in reality, the north magnetic
pole behaves like the south pole of a bar magnet inside the earth and vice
versa.

Geographic meridian
Geographic meridian at a place is the vertical plane passing through the
place and the geographic poles.

Magnetic meridian
The magnetic meridian of a place is the vertical plane passing through the
magnetic north and the south poles.

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The elements of the earth’s magnetic field.
Three quantities are needed to specify the magnetic field of the earth on its
surface .
1. Magnetic Declination(D)
2. Magnetic Dip or Inclination (I)
3. The horizontal component (HE )
These are known as the elements of the earth’s magnetic field.

Magnetic Declination (D)

Declination at a place is the angle between geographic meridian and
magnetic meridian at that place.
The declination is greater at higher latitudes and smaller near the equator.

Dip or Inclination (I)

Thus Dip or inclination is the angle that the total intensity of earth’s
magneticfield(BE ) at the place makes with the horizontal(HE )).
(Or) Dip is the angle between BE and HE .

BE - Total magnetic field of earth

HE - horizontal component
ZE - vertical component

The value of dip is 900 at magnetic poles and 00 at magnetic equator. At all
other places dip angle lies between 00 and 900 .

Horizontal component ( 𝐇𝐄 )
It is the horizontal component of the total Intensity of Earth’s magnetic field
at the place.

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 𝐇𝐄 = 𝐁𝐄 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝐈-------(1)
𝐙𝐄 = 𝐁𝐄 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐈-------(2)

𝐞𝐪(𝟐) 𝐙𝐄
---- 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝐈 =
𝐞𝐪(𝟏) 𝐇𝐄

√HE2 +ZE2 = √BE2 cos 2 I + BE2 sin2 I

= √BE2 (cos2 I + sin2 I)
= √BE2 = BE

𝐁𝐄 = √𝐇𝐄𝟐 +𝐙𝐄𝟐
Example
In the magnetic meridian of a certain place, the horizontal component of the
earth’s magnetic field is 0.26G and the dip angle is 600 . What is the magnetic
field of the earth at this location?
𝐇𝐄 = 𝐁𝐄 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝐈
𝐇
𝐁𝐄 = 𝐄
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝐈
𝟎.𝟐𝟔 𝟎.𝟐𝟔
𝐁𝐄 = =
𝐜𝐨𝐬 600 𝟏/𝟐
=0.52 G

Magnetisation and Magnetic Intensity

Magnetisation(M)
The net magnetic dipole moment developed per unit volume of a material is
called Magnetisation(M).
𝐦𝐧𝐞𝐭
𝐌= 𝐕
Magnetisation is a vector quantity, its unit is Am−1 ,dimensions AL−1

Consider a long solenoid of n turns per unit length and carrying a current I.
If the interior of the solenoid is filled with a material with non-zero
magnetisation, the total field inside the solenoid will be
B = B0 + Bm ---------------(1)
Here B0 is the field due to the current in the solenoid and Bm is the field
contributed by the material core which is proportional to the magnetisation
M of the material.

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 B0 = μ0 nI
Bm = μ0 M
B = μ0 nI + μ0 M
B = μ0 H + μ0 M
B = μ0 (H + M) ------------(2)
Here M is called magnetisation and H is called magnetic intensity

The total magnetic field inside the sample has two parts: one, due to external
factors such as the current in the solenoid. This is represented by H. The
other is due to the specific nature of the magnetic material, namely M.

Magnetic intensity(H)
The magnetic intensity can be defined as
𝐁
𝐇=𝛍 −𝐌
𝟎
B = μ0 (H + M)
B
=H+M
μ0
B
H= −M
μ0
H has the same unit and dimensions as M .Its unit is Am−1 ,dimensions AL−1

Magnetic Susceptibility(𝛘)
The magnetisation can be influenced by external factors(H which is equal to
nI). This influence is mathematically expressed as
M = χH
𝐌
𝛘= 𝐇
where χ is a dimensionless quantity called as magnetic susceptibility. It is a
measure of how a magnetic material responds to an external field.
▪ χ is large and positive for ferromagnetic materials.
▪ χ is small and positive for paramagnetic materials.
▪ χ is small and negative for diamagnetic materials. For diamagnetic
materials M and H are opposite in direction.

Relation connecting Susceptibility and permeability

B = μ0 (H + M)
B = μ0 (H + χH)
B = μ0 (1 + χ)H) --------------(1)
B = μ0 μr H -----------------(2)
𝐁 = 𝛍𝐇

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 From (1) and (2)
𝛍𝐫 = 𝟏 + 𝛘
𝛘 = 𝛍𝐫 − 𝟏
μr is a dimensionless quantity called the relative magnetic permeability of
the substance.
The magnetic permeability of the substance is µ can be written as
μ = μ0 μr =μ0 (𝟏 + 𝛘)

Magnetic permeability
B= μH
𝐁
𝛍=𝐇
Example
A solenoid has a core of a material with relative permeability 400. The
windings of the solenoid are insulated from the core and carry a current of
2A. If the number of turns is 1000 per metre, calculate (a) H, (b) M, (c) B
a) H =nI=1000x2 =2000 A/m
b) M = χH=(μr − 1)H
=(400-1)2000=399x2000
=7.98x105 ≅8x105 A/m
c) B = μ0 μr H =4π x 10−7 x400 x 2000
=100.48 x10−2 T=1T

Magnetic Properties of Materials

In terms of the susceptibility χ , a material is diamagnetic if χ is negative,
para- if χ is positive and small, and ferro- if χ is large and positive.

Diamagnetism
▪ Diamagnetic substances are those which get weakly magnetised
opposite to the direction of external magnetic field.
▪ Diamagnetic substances move from stronger to the weaker part of the
external magnetic field, i.e.,a magnet would repel a diamagnetic
substance.
▪ Susceptibility 𝛘 is small and negative for diamagnetic materials.
–1 ≤ χ < 0

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 ▪ Susceptibility of a diamagnetic material is independent of temperature.
▪ Relative permeability , μr is positive and less than one for diamagnetic
materials.
0 ≤ μr < 1
▪ When a diamagnetic material is placed in an external magnetic field, the
field lines are repelled or expelled and the field inside the material is
reduced.

▪ The resultant magnetic moment of an individual atom of a diamagnetic

substance is zero.
▪ When a magnetic field is applied, the diamagnetic substance develops a
net magnetic moment opposite to the direction of applied field and
hence repulsion.
▪ Some diamagnetic materials are bismuth, copper, diamond, gold, lead,
mercury,silver, silicon, nitrogen (at STP), water and sodium chloride.
▪ Super coductors exhibits perfect diamagnetism. Here the field lines are
completely expelled. χ = –1 and μr = 0.
Super conductors
These are metals, cooled to very low temperatures which exhibits both
perfect conductivity and perfect diamagnetism. Here the field lines are
completely expelled. χ = –1 and μr = 0. The phenomenon of perfect
diamagnetism in superconductors is called the Meissner effect.

Paramagnetism
▪ Paramagnetic substances are those which get weakly magnetised in the
direction of external magnetic field.
▪ Paramagnetic substances move from a region of weak magnetic field to
strong magnetic field, i.e., they get weakly attracted to a magnet.
▪ Susceptibility 𝛘 is small and positive for paramagnetic materials.
0<χ<ε
▪ Susceptibility of a paramagnetic material is inversely proportional to the
absolute temperature T.
μ
χ=C 0
T
This is known as Curie’s law, after its discoverer Pieree Curie . The
constant C is called Curie’s constant.
▪ Relative permeability is positive and greater than one for diamagnetic
materials.
1< μr < 1+ ε

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▪ When a paramagnetic material placed in an external field , the field lines
gets concentrated inside the material, and the field inside is enhanced.

▪ The individual atoms of a paramagnetic material possess a permanent

magnetic dipole moment of their own.
▪ When a magnetic field is applied, the individual atomic dipole moments
align in the same direction and a net magnetic moment in the direction
of applied field and hence attraction.
▪ Some paramagnetic materials are aluminium, sodium, calcium,
chromium, lithium , magnesium, oxygen (at STP) ,copper chloride,
platinum, tungsten, niobium.
Ferromagnetism
▪ Ferromagnetic substances are those which gets strongly magnetised
when placed in an external magnetic field.
▪ Ferromagnetic substances have strong tendency to move from a region
of weak magnetic field to strong magnetic field, i.e., they get strongly
attracted to a magnet.
▪ Susceptibility 𝛘 is large and positive for ferromagnetic materials.
χ >> 1
▪ The ferromagnetic property depends on temperature. At high enough
temperature, a ferromagnet becomes a paramagnet. The temperature of
transition from ferromagnetic to paramagnetic is called the Curie
temperature Tc . Above the Curie temperature, susceptibility,
c
χ= where T>Tc
T−Tc
This is known as Curie’s law, after its discoverer Pieree Curie . The
constant C is called Curie’s constant.
▪ Relative permeability is greater than one and large.
µr >> 1
▪ When a ferromagnetic material placed in an external field , the field lines
gets highly concentrated inside the material, and the field inside is
enhanced.

▪ The individual atoms (or ions or molecules) in a ferromagnetic material

possess a dipole moment as in a paramagnetic material.

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 ▪ When a magnetic field is applied, the individual atomic dipole moments
align in the same direction and a net magnetic moment in the direction
of applied field and hence attraction.
▪ Some ferromagnetic materials are iron, cobalt, nickel, gadolinium,Fe2 O3 .

Hard ferromagnets and Soft ferromagnets

The ferromagnetic materials in which the magnetisation persists, ,even
when the external field is removed are called hard magnetic materials or
hard ferromagnets. Such materials are used to make permanent magnets.
Eg: Alnico(an alloy of iron, aluminium, nickel, cobalt
and copper),lodestone
The ferromagnetic materials in which the magnetisation disappears on the
removal of the external field are called soft ferromagnetic materials.
Eg: Soft iron .
Hysteresis
Ferromagnetic materials have large χ and are characterised by non-linear
relation between B and H. They show the property of hysteresis.

The phenomenon of lagging of magnetic field, B behind the magnetic

intensity, H when a ferromagnetic material is subjected to a cycle of
magnetisation is called hysteresis.

The magnetic hysteresis loop is the B-H curve for ferromagnetic materials

▪ An unmagnetised material is placed in a solenoid and increase the

current through the solenoid. The magnetic field B in the material rises
and saturates . It is represented by the curve Oa.
▪ Now, we decrease H and reduce it to zero. At H = 0, B ≠ 0. This is
represented by the curve ab. The value of B at H = 0 is called retentivity
or remanence(The value of B corresponding to b).

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 ▪ Next, the current in the solenoid is reversed and slowly increased until
B=0. This is represented by the curve bc. The value of H at B=0 is called
coercivity (The value of H corresponding to c).
▪ As the reversed current is increased in magnitude, we once again obtain
saturation. This is represented by the curve cd.
▪ Next, the current is reduced (curve de) and reversed (curve ea). The
cycle repeats itself.
The curve Oa does not retrace itself as H is reduced. B always lags behind H.
This phenomenon is called hysterisis. The word hysterisis means lagging
behind.
▪ The area of hysteresis curve will be equal to the energy dissipation in
one cycle of magnetisation.

Permanent Magnets and Electromagnets

Permanent Magnets
Substances which at room temperature retain their ferromagnetic property
for a long period of time even after the removal of magnetising field are
called permanent magnets.
An efficient way to make a permanent magnet is to place a ferromagnetic
rod in a solenoid and pass a current. The magnetic field of the solenoid
magnetises the rod.
The material used to make permanent magnets should have
▪ High retentivity
▪ Strong and high coercivity
▪ High permeability.
▪ Wide hysteresis curve
Eg: Steel , alnico, cobalt steel and ticonal.

Electromagnets
Substances which lose their ferromagnetic property immediately on the
removal of magnetising field are called electromagnets.
The material used to make electromagnets should have,
▪ low retentivity
▪ low coercivity
▪ high permeability.
▪ Narrow hysteresis curve
Eg: Soft iron
Electromagnets are used in electric bells,transformers, loudspeakers and
telephone diaphragms. Giant electromagnets are used in cranes to lift
machinery, and bulk quantities of iron and steel

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 Chapter 6
Electromagnetic Induction
Introduction
In the early decades of the nineteenth century, experiments on electric
current by Oersted, Ampere and a few others established the fact that
electricity and magnetism are inter-related. They found that moving electric
charges produce magnetic fields.

Is the converse effect possible?

The experiments of Michael Faraday in England and Joseph Henry in USA,
demonstrated that electric currents were induced in closed coils when
subjected to changing magnetic fields. The pioneering experiments of
Faraday and Henry have led directly to the development of modern day
generators and transformers.
Electromagnetic Induction
The phenomenon in which electric current is generated by varying magnetic
fields is appropriately called electromagnetic induction.
The Experiments of Faraday and Henry
Experiment 1
A coil 𝐶1 is connected to a galvanometer G.

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Observations
▪ When the North-pole of a bar magnet is pushed towards the coil, the
pointer in the galvanometer deflects, indicating the presence of electric
current in the coil.
▪ The deflection lasts as long as the bar magnet is in motion.
▪ The galvanometer does not show any deflection when the magnet is
held stationary.
▪ When the magnet is pulled away from the coil, the galvanometer shows
deflection in the opposite direction, which indicates reversal of the
current’s direction.
▪ Moreover, when the South-pole of the bar magnet is moved towards or
away from the coil, the deflections in the galvanometer are opposite to
that observed with the North-pole.
▪ Further, the deflection (and hence current) is found to be larger when
the magnet is pushed towards or pulled away from the coil faster.
▪ When the bar magnet is held fixed and the coil C1 is moved towards or
away from the magnet, the same effects are observed.
Conclusion
It shows that it is the relative motion between the magnet and the coil that is
responsible for generation (induction) of electric current in the coil.
Experiment 2
The bar magnet is replaced by a second coil C2 connected to a battery. The
steady current in the coil C2 produces a steady magnetic field.

Observations
▪ As coil C2 is moved towards the coil C1 , the galvanometer shows a
deflection. This indicates that electric current is induced in coilC2 .
▪ When C2 is moved away, the galvanometer shows a deflection in the
opposite direction.
▪ The deflection lasts as long as coil C2 is in motion.

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 ▪ When the coil C2 is held fixed and C1 is moved, the same effects are
observed.
Again, it is the relative motion between the coils that induces the electric
current.

Experiment 3
Two coils C1 and C2 are held stationary. Coil C1 is connected to galvanometer
G while the second coil C2 is connected to a battery through a tapping key K.

▪ The galvanometer shows a momentary deflection when the tapping

key K is pressed. The pointer in the galvanometer returns to zero
immediately.
▪ If the key is held pressed continuously, there is no deflection in the
galvanometer.
▪ When the key is released, a momentory deflection is observed again,
but in the opposite direction.
▪ It is also observed that the deflection increases dramatically when an
iron rod is inserted into the coils along their axis.
Magnetic Flux

Magnetic flux through a plane of area A placed in a uniform magnetic field B

can be written as
𝝓𝑩 = B . A = BA cos θ
where θ is angle between B and A.
The SI unit of magnetic flux is weber (Wb) or tesla meter squared (T m2 ).
Magnetic flux is a scalar quantity.
The flux can be varied by changing any one or more of the terms B, A and θ .

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Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction
The magnitude of the induced emf in a circuit is equal to the time rate of
change of magnetic flux through the circuit.
ⅆ𝛟𝐁
𝛆=− ⅆ𝐭
The negative sign indicates the direction of ε and hence the direction of
current in a closed loop.
In the case of a closely wound coil of N turns, the total induced emf ,
ⅆ𝛟
𝛆 = −𝐍 𝐁
ⅆ𝐭
The induced emf can be increased by increasing the number of turns N of a
closed coil.
Lenz’s Law
German physicist Heinrich Friedrich Lenz deduced a rule, known as Lenz’s
law which gives the polarity of the induced emf .
The statement of the law is: The polarity of induced emf is such that it tends
to produce a current which opposes the change in magnetic flux that
produced it.
When North-pole of a bar magnet is moved towards the coil, a
current is induced in the coil in such a direction that it opposes
the increase in flux. That means the face of coil (towards
magnet) should have North-polarity .So current in that face
will be anti clockwise (counter- clockwise) .

When North-pole of a bar magnet is moved away from the coil,

a current is induced in the coil in such a direction that it
opposes the decrease in flux. That means the face of coil
(towards magnet) should have South-polarity.So current in
that face will be clockwise.

When South-pole of a bar magnet is moved towards the coil,

the face of coil (towards magnet) should have South-polarity.
So current in that face will be clockwise.

When South-pole of a bar magnet is moved away from the

coil, the face of coil (towards magnet) should have North-
polarity .So current in that face will be anti clockwise
(counter- clockwise) .

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Lenz’s Law and Conservation of Energy
If the induced current was in the same direction changing magnetic flux, the
front face of coil gets South polarity ,when the north pole of bar magnet is
pushed into the coil .The bar magnet will then be attracted towards the coil
at a increasing acceleration and kinetic energy will continuously increase
without expending any energy. This violates the law of conservation of
energy and hence can not happen.
The current induced in the coil is opposite to the direction of changing
magnetic flux. Then the bar magnet experiences a repulsive force due to the
induced current. Therefore, a person has to do work in moving the magnet.
This energy(work) is dissipated by Joule heating produced by the induced
current.Thus Lenz’s law is in accordance with law of conservation of energy.
Motional Electromotive Force
When a conducting rod is moved through a constant magnetic field, an emf
is developed between the ends of the rod. This emf is known as Motional
Emf.

Consider a straight conductor moving in a uniform and time independent

magnetic field.The magnetic flux Φ enclosed by the loop PQRS,
ϕ= 𝐵𝑙𝑥
Since x is changing with time, the rate of change of flux Φ will induce an emf
given by:
dϕ d
ε = − B = (𝐵𝑙𝑥)
dt dt

𝑑𝑥
𝜀 = −𝐵𝑙
𝑑𝑡
− dx
v= is the speed of the conductor
dt
𝜺 = 𝑩𝒍𝒗
The induced emf Blv is called motional emf.

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Eddy Currents
When bulk pieces of conductors are subjected to changing magnetic flux,
induced currents are produced in them. These currents are called eddy
currents. This effect was discovered by physicist Foucault.

A copper plate is allowed to swing like a simple pendulum between the pole
pieces of a strong magnet. Eddy currents are generated in the copper plate,
while entering and leaving the region of magnetic field. It is found that the
motion is damped and in a little while the plate comes to a halt in the
magnetic field.

Cutting slots in the copper plate reduces the area of plates and hence
reduces the effect of eddy currents. Thus, the pendulum plate with holes or
slots reduces electromagnetic damping and the plate swings more freely.
Disadvantage of Eddy Current
Eddy currents are undesirable in the metallic cores of transformers and
electric motors since they heat up the core and dissipate electrical energy in
the form of heat.
Eddy currents are minimised by using laminated
metal sheets to make a metal core. The laminations
are separated by an insulating material like lacquer.
The plane of the laminations must be arranged
parallel to the magnetic field, so that they cut across
the eddy current paths. This arrangement reduces
the strength of the eddy currents.

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Advantages of Eddy currents
1. Magnetic breaking in Trains
Strong electromagnets are mounted in trains to induce eddy currents in
the rails. When these electromagnets are activated, the eddy currents
formed on the rails opposes the motion of the train causes the breaking
effect.
2.Electromagnetic Damping
The coil of certain galvanometers is wound on a metallic core. When the
coil oscillates, eddy currents generated in the core oppose the motion of
the coil and it comes to rest quickly.
3.Induction Furnace
Induction furnace can be used to produce high temperatures and can
be utilised to prepare alloys, by melting the constituent metals. A high
frequency alternating current is passed through a coil which surrounds
the metals to be melted. The eddy currents generated in the metals
produce high temperatures sufficient to melt it
4.Electric power meters
The shiny metal disc in the electric power meter (analogue type) rotates
due to the eddy currents. Electric currents are induced in the disc by
magnetic fields produced by sinusoidally varying currents in a coil.

Inductance
An electric current can be induced in a coil by flux change produced by the
same coil or a flux change produced by a neighbouring coil .These
phenomenon are respectively called self induction and mutual induction. In
both the cases, the flux through a coil is proportional to the current.
𝜙αI
𝝓 =L I
The constant of proportionality, in this relation, is called inductance.
Inductance is a scalar quantity. It has the dimensions of [M L2 T–2 A–2] .
The SI unit of inductance is henry and is denoted by H

Self-Inductance
The phenomenon of production of induced emf in an isolated coil by
varying current through the same coil is called self-induction.
The flux linked with the coil is proportional to the current through the coil.
𝜙α I
𝝓=LI
For N turns of the coil, N𝝓 = LI -------------(1)

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where constant of proportionality L is called self-inductance of the coil. It is
also called the coefficient of self-induction of the coil.
When the current is varied, the flux linked with the coil also changes and an
emf is induced in the coil.
dNϕ
For N turns, ε=−
dt
dLI
ε=−
dt
ⅆ𝐈
𝛆 = −𝐋 ⅆ𝐭 -----------(2)
Thus, the self-induced emf always opposes any change (increase or
decrease) of current in the coil.
Self-Inductance of a Long Solenoid
Consider a solenoid of crosssectional area A and length l, having n turns per
unit length.
The total flux linked with the solenoid ,
𝜙=𝐵𝐴
𝑵𝜙 = 𝑁𝐵 𝐴
B = 𝜇0 n I
N=n𝑙
𝑁𝜙 = 𝑛𝑙 (𝜇0 n I ) 𝐴
𝑁𝜙 = 𝜇0 n2 A𝑙I ------------(1)
But, N𝜙 = LI -----------------(2)
From eq (1) and (2)
LI = 𝜇0 n2 A𝑙I
L= 𝝁𝟎 𝐧𝟐 𝐀𝒍 -----------(3)
If we fill the inside of the solenoid with a material of relative permeability 𝜇𝑟
(for example soft iron, which has a high value of relative permiability), then,
L=𝝁𝒓 𝝁𝟎 𝐧𝟐 𝐀𝒍-----------(4)
The self-inductance depends on geometry of coil and on the
permeability of the medium.

Back emf
The self-induced emf is also called the back emf as it opposes any change in
the current in a circuit. Physically, the self-inductance plays the role of
inertia. Self inductance is the electromagnetic analogue of mass in
mechanics. So, work needs to be done against the back emf (ε ) in
establishing the current. This work done is stored as magnetic potential
energy.

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Energy stored in an inductor
dW
= |ε|I
dt
dI
But, |ε| = L
dt
dW dI
= LI
dt dt
I dI
W = ∫ dW=∫0 LI
dt
𝟏
W = 𝐋𝐈𝟐
𝟐
1
This expression is analogous to mv 2 , kinetic energy of a particle of mass m,
2
and shows that L is analogus to m (i.e., L is electrical inertia and opposes
growth and decay of current in the circuit).
Mutual inductance
The phenomenon of production of induced emf in a coil by varying the
current through a neighbouring coil is called mutual-induction.
The flux linked with the coil is proportional to the current through the
neighbouring coil.
ϕαI
ϕ=MI
For N turns of the coil, N𝛟 = MI
where constant of proportionality M is called mutual-inductance of the coil.
It is also called the coefficient of mutual-induction of the coil.
When the current in the nighbouring coil is varied, the flux linked with the
first coil changes and an emf is induced in the coil.
ⅆ𝐈
𝛆 = −𝐌 ⅆ𝐭
Mutual inductance of two co-axial solenoids

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Two long co-axial solenoids of same length 𝑙.
Inner solenoid 𝑆1 of radius 𝑟1 and the number of turns per unit length 𝑛1 .
Outer solenoid 𝑆2 of radius 𝑟2 and the number of turns per unit length 𝑛2 .

The current 𝐼2 in 𝑆2 sets up a magnetic flux in 𝑆1 .

𝜙 =BA
𝑁1 𝜙1 = 𝑁1 𝐵2 𝐴1
𝐵2 = 𝜇0 𝑛2 𝐼2
𝑁1 =𝑛1 𝑙
𝐴1 = 𝜋𝑟12
𝑁1 𝜙1 = (𝑛1 𝑙) (𝜇0 𝑛2 𝐼2 ) (𝜋𝑟12 )
𝑁1 𝜙1 = 𝜇0 𝑛1 𝑛2 𝜋𝑟12 𝑙𝐼2 -------------(1)
But, 𝑁1 𝜙1 = 𝑀12 𝐼2 -------------(2)
From eq(1) and (2)
𝑀12 𝐼2 = 𝜇0 𝑛1 𝑛2 𝜋𝑟12 𝑙𝐼2
𝑴𝟏𝟐 = 𝝁𝟎 𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐 𝝅𝒓𝟐𝟏 𝒍
Similarly we get
𝑴𝟐𝟏 = 𝝁𝟎 𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐 𝝅𝒓𝟐𝟏 𝒍
(The flux due to the current I1 in S1 can be assumed to be confined solely inside S1 since the solenoids are very
long. So we can take A= πr12 itself)

𝑴𝟏𝟐 = 𝑴𝟐𝟏 = 𝑴
Instead, If a medium of relative permeability 𝜇𝑟 is introduced inside the
solenoid , the mutual inductance would be
M =𝝁𝒓 𝝁𝟎 𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐 𝝅𝒓𝟐𝟏 𝒍

AC Generator

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An ac generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. . It
consists of a coil which is mechanically rotated in the uniform magnetic field
by some external means. The rotation of the coil causes the magnetic flux
through it to change, so an emf is induced in the coil.
The magnetic flux at any time t is
ϕ = BA cos θ = BA cos ωt
From Faraday’s law, the induced emf for the rotating coil of N turns is
dϕ
ε = −N
dt
d
ε = −N BA cos ωt
dt
d
ε = −NBA cos ωt
dt

ε = NBAω sinω t
ε = 𝛆𝟎 sin𝛚 t
where ε0 =NBAω is the maximum value of the emf.

ω = 2πν , ν=frequency of revolution of the generator’s coil

The direction of the current changes periodically and therefore the current
is called alternating current (ac).

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 Chapter 7
Alternating Current
Introduction

The electric mains supply in our homes and offices is a voltage that varies
like a sine function with time. Such a voltage is called alternating voltage (ac
voltage) and the current driven by it in a circuit is called the alternating
current (ac current)

Today, most of the electrical devices we use require ac voltage. This is

mainly because most of the electrical energy sold by power companies is
transmitted and distributed as alternating current. The main reason for
preferring use of ac voltage over dc voltage is that ac voltages can be easily
and efficiently converted from one voltage to the other by means of
transformers. Further, electrical energy can also be transmitted
economically over long distances.
Representation of ac current and voltage by rotating vectors —
phasors
In order to show phase relationship between voltage and current in an AC
circuit, we use the notion of phasors.
A phasor is a vector which rotates about the origin in anticlockwise
direction with angular speed ω.

▪ The length of each phasor represents the amplitude or peak value of

the voltage or current.
▪ The projection of each phasor on the vertical axis gives the
instantaneous value of the quantity that the phasor represents.
▪ The rotation angle of each phasor is equal to the phase of alternating
quantity at that instant t.
▪ The angle between two phasors will give you the phase difference
between the corresponding quantities

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AC Voltage Applied to a Resistor

Apply Kirchhoff’s Loop rule ,Σε(t) = 0

vm sin ωt- i R = 0
vm sin ωt= iR
v
i = m sin ωt
R
𝐯
𝐢 =𝐢𝐦 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐭 where 𝐢𝐦 = 𝐦
𝐑
im is called amplitude of current

Graph of voltage and current across a pure resistor versus 𝛚𝐭

In a pure resistor, the voltage and current are in phase. The minima, zero
and maxima occur at the same.
Phasor diagram for the circuit

Power Dissipated in the Resistor

The ac current varies sinusoidally and has corresponding positive and
negative values during each cycle. Thus, the sum of the instantaneous
current values over one complete cycle is zero, and the average current is
zero.The fact that the average current is zero, however, does not mean that
the average power consumed is zero and that there is no dissipation of
electrical energy.

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The instantaneous power dissipated in the resistor i
p = 𝑣𝑖
p = vm sin ωt im sin ωt
p = vm im sin2 ωt
Avearage power consumed over one complete cycle
p̅ = < vm im sin2 ωt >
p̅ = vm im < sin2 ωt >
1
< sn2 ωt > =
2
1
p̅ = vm im
2
vm i m
P=( ) ( )
√2 √ 2
𝐏 = 𝐕𝐈
Where 𝐈 𝐨𝐫 𝐈𝐫𝐦𝐬 is called rms current and V 𝐨𝐫 𝐕𝐫𝐦𝐬 is called rms voltage.

The rms current ( Root Mean Square Current) or Effective Current

1
To express AC power p̅ = vm im in the same form as dc power P = VI ,
2
a special value of current is defined and used. It is called, root mean square
(rms) or effective current and is denoted by 𝐈𝐫𝐦𝐬 or I.
I= √⟨i2 ⟩
I= √⟨(im sin ωt)2 ⟩
I= im √⟨sin2 ωt⟩
1
I=im √
2
𝐢𝐦
𝐈= = 0.707 𝐢𝐦
√𝟐

The rms current is the equivalent dc current that would produce the same
average power loss as the alternating current.

Similarly ,rms voltage or Effective voltage

𝐯
V= 𝐕𝐫𝐦𝐬 = 𝐦
√𝟐
𝐯𝐦
V= = 0.707 𝐯𝐦
√𝟐

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Why a shock from 220V ac is more fatal than that from 220Vdc?
The household line voltage of 220 V is an rms value.
V = 220V
Its peak voltage vm = √2 V
= 1.414 x 220 V
= 311 V
At some instant peak value of ac may reach upto 311V .So a shock from 220V
ac is more fatal than that from 220Vdc.

Example
A light bulb is rated at 100W for a 220 V supply. Find
(a) the resistance of the bulb
(b) the peak voltage of the source
(c) the rms current through the bulb.

AC Voltage Applied to an Inductor

Apply Kirchhoff’s Loop rule ,Σε(t) = 0

di
vm sin ωt- L =0
dt
di
vm sin ωt= L
dt
di vm sin ωt
=
dt L
vm
di= sin ωt dt
L
vm
i= ∫ sin ωt dt
L

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 vm −cos ωt
i= x
L ω
v
i = − m cos ωt
ωL
i = −im cos ωt

𝛑 𝐦 𝐯
𝐢 = 𝐢𝐦 𝐬𝐢𝐧 (𝛚𝐭 − 𝟐) where 𝐢𝐦 = 𝛚𝐋
In a pure inductor, the current lags the voltage by π/2 or one-quarter (1/4)
cycle.

Inductive Reactance (𝐗 𝐋 )
vm
The current amplitude, im =
ωL
vm
im =
XL
The quantity ω L is analogous to the resistance and is called inductive
reactance, denoted by X L
𝐗 𝐋 = 𝛚L =𝟐𝛑𝐟𝐋
▪ The dimension of inductive reactance is the same as that of resistance
and its SI unit is ohm (Ω).
▪ The inductive reactance limits the current in a purely inductive circuit
in the same way as the resistance limits the current in a purely
resistive circuit.
▪ The inductive reactance is directly proportional to the inductance and
to the frequency of the current.
▪ For DC , f=0 and so 𝐗 𝐋 =0 i.e., an inductor offers an easy path to DC.
▪ The value of 𝐗 𝐋 increases as frequency is increased, hence offers a
resistive path to AC.

Graph of v and i versus ωt

𝐯 = 𝐯𝐦 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐭
𝛑
𝐢 = 𝐢𝐦 𝐬𝐢𝐧 (𝛚𝐭 − )
𝟐

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Phasor diagram

The current lags the voltage by π/2 .

Power Dissipated in the Inductor

Instantaneous power p=iv
p= −im cos ωt x vm sin ωt
p= −im vm cos ωt sin ωt
i v
p= − m m 2cos ωt sin ωt
2
im vm
p= − sin( 2ωt)
2
The average power over a complete cycle
im vm
p̅ = P = ⟨− sin( 2ωt )⟩
2
im vm
P=− ⟨sin( 2ωt )⟩
2
⟨sin( 2ωt )⟩ =0
P=0
The average power supplied to an inductor over one complete cycle
is zero.
Example
A pure inductor of 25.0 mH is connected to a source of 220 V. Find the
inductive reactance and rms current in the circuit if the frequency of the
source is 50 Hz.
Inductive reactance, 𝐗 𝐋 = 𝛚𝐋 = 𝟐𝛑𝐟𝐋
= 2x 3.14x50x25x𝟏𝟎−𝟑
= 7.85Ω
𝐕
The rms current in the circuit is, 𝐈 =
𝐗𝐋
𝟐𝟐𝟎
𝐈= = 28A
𝟕.𝟖𝟓

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AC Voltage Applied to a Capacitor

Applying Kirchhoff’s Loop rule Σε(t) = 0

q
vm sin ωt- = 0
C
q
vm sin ωt =
C
q = C vm sin ωt
d
i = (C vm sin ωt)
dt
d
i = C vm (sin ωt)
dt
i = C vm ω cos ωt
i = ωC vm cos ωt
i = im cos ωt
𝛑
𝐢 = 𝐢𝐦 𝐬𝐢𝐧 (𝛚𝐭 + 𝟐)
where 𝐢𝐦 =
𝛚𝐂 𝐯𝐦
𝝂𝒎
or 𝒊𝒎 = 𝟏
(𝝎𝑪)

In a purely capacitive circuit, the current leads the voltage by π/2 or one-
quarter (1/4) cycle.

Capacitive Reactance
𝛎𝐦 𝛎𝐦
Current amplitude, 𝐢𝐦 = 𝟏 =
(𝛚𝐂) 𝐗𝐂
𝟏
The quantity ( ) is analogous to the resistance and is called capacitive
𝛚𝐂
reactance, denoted by 𝐗 𝐂
𝟏 𝟏
𝐗𝐂 = =
𝛚𝐂 𝟐𝛑𝐟𝐂

▪ The dimension of capacitive reactance is the same as that of resistance

and its SI unit is ohm (Ω).
▪ The capacitive reactance limits the amplitude of the current in a purely
capacitive circuit in the same way as the resistance limits the current in
a purely resistive circuit.

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 ▪ Capacitive reactance is inversely proportional to the frequency and the
capacitance.
▪ For DC , f=0 and hence X C = infinite i.e., the capacitor blocks DC.
▪ For AC, as the frequency increases, X C decreases and hence capacitor
allows AC to flow through it.

Graph of v and i versus ωt

v = vm sin ωt
π
i = im sin (ωt + )
2

Phasor diagram

Power Dissipated in the Capacitor

P=iv
p= im cos ωt x vm sin ωt
i v
p= m m sin( 2ωt)
2
The average power over a complete cycle
i vm
p̅ = P = ⟨ m sin( 2ωt )⟩
2
im vm
P= ⟨sin( 2ωt )⟩
2
⟨sin( 2ωt )⟩ =0
P=0
The average power supplied to a capacitor over one complete cycle is zero.

Example
A 15.0 μF capacitor is connected to a 220 V, 50 Hz source. Find the
capacitive reactance and the current (rms and peak) in the circuit. If the
frequency is doubled, what happens to the capacitive reactance and the
current?

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 𝟏
The capacitive reactance 𝐗 𝐂 =
𝛚𝐂
𝟏
=
𝟐𝛑𝐟𝐂
𝟏
= =212Ω
𝟐𝐱 𝟑.𝟏𝟒𝐱𝟓𝟎𝐱𝟏𝟓𝐱𝟏𝟎−𝟔

𝐕
The rms current is , 𝐈 =
𝐗𝐂
𝟐𝟐𝟎
𝐈= =1.04A
𝟐𝟏𝟐

The peak current is 𝐢𝐦 = √𝟐 𝐈

= 𝟏. 𝟒𝟏𝟒 x1.04 =1.47A
If the frequency is doubled, the capacitive reactance is halved , and
consequently, the current is doubled.
Example
A light bulb and an open coil inductor are connected to an ac source through
a key as shown in Figure.

The switch is closed and after sometime, an iron rod is inserted into the
interior of the inductor. The glow of the light bulb
(a)increases; (b) decreases; (c) is unchanged, as the iron rod is inserted.
Give your answer with reasons.
Solution:
As the iron rod is inserted, the magnetic field inside the coil magnetizes the
iron increasing the magnetic field inside it. Hence, the inductance of the coil
increases. Consequently, the inductive reactance of the coil increases. As a
result, a larger fraction of the applied ac voltage appears across the inductor,
leaving less voltage across the bulb. Therefore, the glow of the light bulb
decreases.
Example
An electric bulb B and a parallel plate capacitor C are connected in series as
shown in figure.

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The bulb glows with some brightness. How will the glow of the bulb affected
on introducing a dielectric slab between the plates of the capacitor? Give
reason in support of your answer
When a dielectric slabis introduced between the plates the capacitance
increases. Then capacitive reactance decreases. As a result, a smaller
fraction of the applied ac voltage appears across the capacitor, leaving large
voltage across the bulb. Therefore, the glow of the light bulb increases.

AC Voltage Applied to a Series LCR Circuit

Applying Kirchhoff’s Loop rule Σε(t) = 0

di q
vm sin ωt − iR − L − =0
dt C
ⅆ𝐢 𝐪
𝐯𝐦 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐭 = 𝐢𝐑 + 𝐋 +
ⅆ𝐭 𝐂
Phasor-diagram solution
Since L,C and R are in series the ac current i in each element is the same.
Let the current be 𝐢 = 𝐢𝐦 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝛚𝐭 + ɸ)
Further, let VR , VL , VC , and V represent the voltage phasors across the
resistor, inductor , capacitor and the source, respectively.
For resistor , 𝐕𝐑 and 𝐈 𝐚𝐫𝐞 𝐢𝐧 𝐩𝐡𝐚𝐬𝐞.
For inductor , 𝐕𝐋 𝐥𝐞𝐚ⅆ𝐬 𝐈 𝐛𝐲 π/2.
For capacitor , 𝐕𝐂 𝐥𝐚𝐠𝐬 𝐈 𝐛𝐲 π/2.

To find the value of im

𝐯𝐦𝟐 = 𝐯𝐑 𝟐 + (𝐯𝐂 − 𝐯𝐋 )𝟐
𝐯𝐦𝟐 = (𝐢𝐦 𝐑)𝟐 + (𝐢𝐦 𝐗 𝐂 − 𝐢𝐦 𝐗 𝐋 )𝟐

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 𝐯𝐦𝟐 = 𝐢𝐦𝟐 [(𝐑)𝟐 + (𝐗 𝐂 − 𝐗 𝐋 )𝟐 ]
𝐯𝐦𝟐
𝐢𝐦𝟐 = (𝐑)𝟐 +(𝐗 𝐂 −𝐗 𝐋 )𝟐
𝐯𝐦
𝐢𝐦 =
√(𝐑)𝟐 +(𝐗 𝐂 −𝐗 𝐋 )𝟐
𝐯𝐦
𝐢𝐦 =
𝐙
The quantity √(𝐑)𝟐 + (𝐗 𝐂 − 𝐗 𝐋 )𝟐 is analogous to resistance and is called
impedance Z in an ac circuit.

Impedance, 𝐙 = √(𝐑)𝟐 + (𝐗 𝐂 − 𝐗 𝐋 )𝟐
SI unit of Z is Ohm

The phase difference ϕ between voltage and current is ,

v −v
tanϕ = Cm Lm
vRm
im XC −im XL
tanϕ =
im R
XC −XL
tanϕ =
R
𝐗 𝐂 −𝐗 𝐋
𝛟 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 𝐑

Impedance diagram

The phase difference ϕ can be obtained using impedance diagram.

XC −XL
tanϕ =
R
𝐗 𝐂 −𝐗 𝐋
𝛟 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 𝐑
Example
A resistor of 200 Ω and a capacitor of 15.0 μF are connected in series to a
220 50 Hz ac source.
(a) Calculate the current in the circuit
(b)Calculate the voltage (rms) across the resistor and the capacitor.
Is the algebraic sum of these voltages more than the source voltage?
If yes, resolve the paradox.

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a) R = 200Ω , C =15.0 μF =15x 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 F , V = 220 V, 𝐟 =50Hz

Z = √R 2 + X C 2

1
Z = √R2 + ( )2
2πfC
1
Z = √2002 + ( )2
2x3.14x50x15x 10−6
Z = √2002 + 212.32
𝐙 = 291.5Ω
The current in the circuit is
V
I=
Z
𝟐𝟐𝟎
𝐈= =0.755A
𝟐𝟗𝟏.𝟓

(b) The current is the same throughout the circuit.

VR = IR =0.755 Ax200 Ω =151V
VC = IX C =0.755 A x 212.3 Ω =160.3V
Algebraic sum of VR and VC =151V+160.3V=311.3V
This is more than source voltage and is not possible.
There is a phase difference of 900 betweenVR and VC . Therefore, the total
of these voltages must be obtained using the Pythagorean theorem.

V= √𝐕𝐑 𝟐 + 𝐕𝐂 𝟐 =√𝟏𝟓𝟏𝟐 + 𝟏𝟔𝟎. 𝟑𝟐 =220V

Resonance
A system oscillating with its natural frequency is driven by an energy source
at a frequency that is near the natural frequency, the amplitude of oscillation
is found to be large. This phenomenon is called resonance.
A familiar example of this phenomenon is a child on a swing. If the child
pulls on the rope at regular intervals and the frequency of the pulls is almost
the same as the frequency of swinging, the amplitude of the swinging will be
large.

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Condition for resonance in an LCR circuit
For an LCR circuit the current amplitude is given by
vm vm
im =
Z
= √(R)2+(X 2
−X C L)

For resonance to happen impedance should be minimum and current

maximum. So the condition for resonance is,
𝐗𝐂 = 𝐗𝐋

Impedance at resonance
Z = √(R)2 + (X C − X L )2
Z = √(R)2 + 02
Z= R
Impedance is minimum at resonance.

Current Amplitude at Resonance

𝐯𝐦
𝐢𝐦 =
𝐙
𝐯𝐦
𝐢𝐦𝐚𝐱
𝐦 = 𝐑
Current amplitude is maximum at resonance.

Resonant Frequency
The condition for resonance ,𝐗 𝐂 = 𝐗 𝐋
𝟏
=𝛚𝟎 L
𝛚𝟎 𝐂
𝟏
𝛚𝟐𝟎 =
𝐋𝐂
𝟏
𝛚𝟎 =
√𝐋𝐂
𝛚𝟎 is called Resonant frequency

Variation of 𝐢𝐦 with 𝛚

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Example
Figure shows the variation of i m with ω in a RLC series circuit with
L = 1.00 mH, C = 1.00 nF for two values of R:
(i) R = 100 Ω and (ii) R = 200 Ω. For the source applied vm = 100 V.

For R = 100 Ω
𝐯 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝐢𝐦 = 𝐦 =
𝐑 𝟏𝟎𝟎
= 𝟏A

For R = 200 Ω
𝐯 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝐢𝐦 = 𝐦 =
𝐑 𝟐𝟎𝟎
= 𝟎. 𝟓A

Tuning of a radio or TV
Resonant circuits have a variety of applications, for example, in the tuning
mechanism of a radio or a TV set. The antenna of a radio accepts signals of
dfferent frequencies from many broadcasting stations . But to hear one
particular radio station, we tune the radio. In tuning, we vary the
capacitance of a capacitor in the tuning circuit such that the resonant
frequency of the circuit becomes nearly equal to the frequency of the radio
signal received. When this happens, the amplitude of the current with the
frequency of the signal of the particular radio station in the circuit is
maximum.

Resonance phenomenon is exhibited by a circuit only if both L and C are

present .Only then do the voltages across L and C cancel each other.
We cannot have resonance in RL and RC circuit.

Bandwidth
𝐯
At resonant frequency 𝛚𝟎 , current is maximum 𝐢𝐦𝐚𝐱 𝐦 = 𝐦
𝐑
For values of ω other than 𝛚𝟎 the amplitude of the current is less than the
maximum value.
Let 𝛚𝟏 and 𝛚𝟐 be two frequencies on either side of 𝛚𝟎 the current
1
amplitude is times its maximum value. At this value, the power dissipated
√2
by the circuit becomes half.

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 𝛚𝟏 = 𝛚𝟎 + Δω
𝛚𝟐 = 𝛚𝟎 – Δω
𝛚𝟏 - 𝛚𝟐 = 2Δω
The difference 𝛚𝟏 - 𝛚𝟐 = 2Δω is often called the bandwidth of the circuit.

Sharpness of resonance(S)
The Sharpness of resonance is given by
𝟎 𝛚
S=𝟐𝚫𝛚
The smaller the bandwidth, the sharper or narrower is the resonance and
the selectivity is high.

The expression for Δω is given by

𝐑
Δω=𝟐𝐋
ω0 𝛚𝟎
= 𝐑
2Δω (𝐋)
𝛚𝟎 𝛚𝟎 𝐋
= --------(1)
𝟐𝚫𝛚 𝐑

Quality Factor(Q)
𝛚𝟎 𝐋
The ratio is also called Quality factor.
𝐑
𝛚𝟎 𝐋 𝟏
𝐐= 𝐨𝐫 𝐐= 𝛚 -------(2)
𝐑 𝟎 𝐂𝐑

From eq(1) and (2)

ω0
=Q
2Δω
𝐒 = 𝐐(𝐍𝐮𝐦𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐥𝐥𝐲)

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Power In AC Circuit: The Power Factor
p= v i
p= 𝐯𝐦 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐭 𝐢𝐦 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝛚𝐭 + ɸ)
𝐯 𝐢
P= 𝐦 𝐦 ⟨𝐜𝐨𝐬 ɸ − 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝟐𝛚𝐭 + ɸ)⟩
𝟐
𝐯𝐦 𝐢𝐦
P= 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ɸ
𝟐
𝐯𝐦 𝐢𝐦
P= 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ɸ
√𝟐 √𝟐
P= 𝐕 𝐈 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ɸ
So, the average power dissipated depends not only on the voltage and
current but also on the cosine of the phase angle ɸ between them.
The quantity cosɸ is called the power factor.
Power factor can be obtained from impedance diagram.

𝐑
𝐜𝐨𝐬ɸ =
𝐙

Case (i) Resistive circuit:

ɸ = 0,
P= 𝐕 𝐈 cos 0=VI
There is maximum power dissipation.
Case (ii) Purely inductive or capacitive circuit:
ɸ = π/2
P = 𝐕 𝐈 cos π/2=0
No power is dissipated even though a current is flowing in the circuit.
This current is sometimes referred to as wattless current.
Case (iii) LCR series circuit:
X −X
ϕ = tan−1 C L
R
P= 𝐕 𝐈 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ɸ
So, ɸ may be non-zero and power may dissipate in a RL or RC or RCL
circuit. Even in such cases, power is dissipated only in the resistor.
Case (iv) Power dissipated at resonance in LCR circuit:
At resonance 𝐗 𝐂 − 𝐗 𝐋 = 0, and ɸ = 0.
P= 𝐕 𝐈 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟎 =PV
That is, maximum power is dissipated in a circuit (through R) at resonance.

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LC Oscillations
A capacitor and an inductor can store electrical and magnetic energy,
respectively. When a capacitor (initially charged) is connected to an
inductor, the charge on the capacitor and the current in the circuit produce
electrical oscillations similar to oscillations in mechanical systems.

According to Kirchhoff’s loop rule, Σε(t) = 0

𝐪 ⅆ𝐢
−𝐋 =𝟎
𝐂 ⅆ𝐭
ⅆ𝐪
i = – ( ) in the present case (as q decreases, i increases).
ⅆ𝐭
𝐪 ⅆ − ⅆ𝐪
− ( )=𝟎
𝐋𝐂 ⅆ𝐭 ⅆ𝐭
𝐪 ⅆ𝟐 𝐪
+ =𝟎
𝐋𝐂 ⅆ𝐭 𝟐
ⅆ𝟐 𝐪 𝟏
+ 𝐪=𝟎
ⅆ𝐭 𝟐 𝐋𝐂

Comparing with the equation for a simple harmonic oscillator,

ⅆ𝟐 𝐱
+ 𝛚𝟐 𝐱 = 𝟎
ⅆ𝐭 𝟐
𝟏
𝛚𝟐 =
𝐋𝐂
𝟏
𝛚𝟎 =
√𝐋𝐂
𝟏
The charge, oscillates with a natural frequency 𝛚𝟎 =
√𝐋𝐂
and varies sinusoidally with time as 𝐪 = 𝐪𝐦 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝟎 𝐭
ⅆ𝐪
𝐢=−
ⅆ𝐭
ⅆ
𝐢=− (𝐪𝐦 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝟎 𝐭)
ⅆ𝐭

𝐢 = −𝐪𝐦 𝐱 − 𝛚𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝟎 𝐭
𝐢 = 𝐪𝐦 𝛚𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝟎 𝐭
𝐢 = 𝐢𝐦 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝟎 𝐭 where 𝐢𝐦 = 𝐪𝐦 𝛚𝟎

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a)A capacitor with initial charge 𝐪𝐦 connected to an ideal inductor. The
𝐪𝐦 𝟐
electrical energy stored in the charged capacitor is 𝐔𝐄 = . Since, there is
𝟐𝐂
no current in the circuit, energy in the inductor is zero. 𝐔𝐁 = 𝟎
b) When the switch is closed and the capacitor starts to discharge . As the
current increases, it sets up a magnetic field in the inductor and thereby,
some energy gets stored in the inductor in the form of magnetic energy.
𝐔𝐄 ≠ 𝟎 , 𝐔𝐁 ≠ 𝟎
c)As the current reaches its maximum value 𝐢𝐦 , (at t = T/4) , all the energy
𝟏
is stored in the magnetic field, 𝐔𝐁 = 𝐋𝐢𝐦 𝟐
𝟐

The capacitor now has no charge and hence no energy. 𝐔𝐄 = 𝟎.

The maximum electrical energy equals the maximum magnetic energy.

d)The current now starts charging the capacitor, but with opposite polarity
as in initial state.
𝐔𝐄 ≠ 𝟎 , 𝐔𝐁 ≠ 𝟎
e)This process continues till the capacitor is fully charged (at t = T/2) ,all
the energy is stored in the electric field with a polarity opposite to its initial
state.
𝐪𝐦 𝟐
𝐔𝐄 = and 𝐔𝐁 = 𝟎.
𝟐𝐂

The whole process will now repeat itself till the system reverts to its
original state. Thus, the energy in the system oscillates between the
capacitor and the inductor.

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Note that the above discussion of LC oscillations is not realistic for two
reasons:
(i) Every inductor has some resistance. The effect of this resistance is to
introduce a damping effect on the charge and current in the circuit and
the oscillations finally die away.
(ii) Even if the resistance were zero, the total energy of the system would
not remain constant. It is radiated away from the system in the form of
electromagnetic waves (discussed in the next chapter). In fact, radio
and TV transmitters depend on this radiation.
Transformer

A transformer consists of two sets of coils, insulated from each other. They
are wound on a soft-iron core, One of the coils called the primary coil has
NP turns. The other coil is called the secondary coil; it has NS turns. Often the
primary coil is the input coil and the secondary coil is the output coil of the
transformer.

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Transformer works on the Principle of Mutual Induction
When an alternating voltage is applied to the primary, the resulting current
produces an alternating magnetic flux which links the secondary and
induces an emf in it.
The emf induced in the primary
dϕ
εP = −NP
dt
If the primary coil has negligible resistance εP = VP (input voltage)
dϕ
VP = −NP ------------(1)
dt
The emf induced in thesecondary
dϕ
εs = −Ns
dt
If the secondary coil has negligible resistance εs = Vs (output voltage)
dϕ
Vs = −Ns -----------------(2)
dt
𝐞𝐪 (𝟏) 𝐕𝐬 𝐍𝐬
−−− = 𝐍 ------------------- (3)
𝐞𝐪 (𝟐) 𝐕𝐏 𝐏

Step-up Transformer

For a step up transformer the number of turns in the secondary will be

greater than that in the primary( 𝐍𝐬 > 𝐍𝐏 )

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Thus for a step up transformer secondary voltage will be greater than
primary voltage,but the secondary current will be less than primary current.

Step-down Transformer

For a step down transformer the number of turns in the secondary will be
less than that in the primary( 𝐍𝐬 ˂ 𝐍𝐏 )

Thus for a step up transformer secondary voltage will be less than primary
voltage, but the secondary current will be greater than primary current.

Energy Losses in a Transformer

(i)Flux Leakage:
There is always some flux leakage; that is, not all of the flux due to primary
passes through the secondary due to poor design of the core or the air gaps
in the core. It can be reduced by winding the primary and secondary coils
one over the other.
(ii)Resistance of the windings :
The wire used for the windings has some resistance and so, energy is lost
due to heat produced in the wire(I2 R). In high current, low voltage windings,
these are minimised by using thick wire.
(iii)Eddy currents loss:
The alternating magnetic flux induces eddy currents in the iron core and
causes heating. The effect is reduced by having a laminated core.
(iv)Hysteresis loss:
The magnetisation of the core is repeatedly reversed by the alternating
magnetic field. This produces hysteresis and energy is lost as heat. This can
be minimised by using a magnetic material which has a low hysteresis
loss(e.g- soft iron core).

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 Chapter 8
Electromagnetic Waves
Introduction
An electrical current produces a magnetic field around it. Further, a
magnetic field changing with time gives rise to an electric field. Is the
converse also true? Does an electric field changing with time give rise to a
magnetic field?
According to James Clerk Maxwell , time-varying electric field
generates magnetic field. Maxwell formulated a set of equations involving
electric and magnetic fields, known as Maxwell’s equations. Maxwell’s
equations predicted the existence of electromagnetic waves, which are
(coupled) timevarying electric and magnetic fields that propagate in space.
Hertz, in 1885, experimentally demonstrated the existence of
electromagnetic waves. Its technological use by Marconi and others led in
due course to the revolution in communication that we are witnessing today.

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Displacement Current
The current due to changing electric field or electric flux is called called
displacement current or Maxwell’s displacement current.
q
Electric flux ϕE = ε0
dϕE 1 dq
=
dt ε0 dt
dϕE 1
= i
dt ε d
0
ⅆ𝛟𝐄
Displacement current 𝐢ⅆ = 𝛆𝟎 ⅆ𝐭

Ampere-Maxwell law
According to Maxwell the source of a magnetic field is not just the
conduction electric current due to flowing charges, but also the time rate of
change of electric field.
The total current i is the sum of the conduction current ( ic ) and
displacement current ( id )
i= 𝐢𝐜 + 𝐢ⅆ
dϕ
i= ic + ε0 dtE
Ampere’s theorem become
∮ B ⋅ 𝑑𝑙 = μ0 (iC + id )
dϕ
∮ B ⋅ 𝑑𝑙 = μ0 (ic + ε0 E)
dt
ⅆ𝛟𝐄
∮ 𝐁 ⋅ ⅆ𝒍 = 𝛍𝟎 𝐢𝐜 + 𝛍𝟎 𝛆𝟎 ⅆ𝐭
This is known as Ampere-Maxwell law.

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Electromagnetic waves
Sources of Electromagnetic Waves
▪ A stationary charge produces only electrostatic fields.
▪ Charges in uniform motion (steady currents) can produce magnetic
fields that, do not vary with time.
▪ An oscillating charge(accelerating charge) produces an oscillating
electric field in space, which produces an oscillating magnetic field,
which in turn, is a source of oscillating electric field, and so on. The
oscillating electric and magnetic fields thus regenerate each other, as
the electro magnetic wave propagates through the space.
Thus an oscillating charge(accelerating charge) is the source
of electromagnetic waves.

An electric charge oscillating harmonically with frequency 𝑣, produces

electromagnetic waves of the same frequency 𝑣.

▪ The experimental demonstration of electromagnetic wave in the radio

wave region was done by Hertz in1887.
▪ Seven years after Hertz, Jagdish Chandra Bose, succeeded in producing
and observing electromagnetic waves of much shorter wavelength
(25 mm to 5 mm).
▪ At around the same time, Guglielmo Marconi succeeded in transmitting
electromagnetic waves over distances of many kilometres. Marconi’s
experiment marks the beginning of the field of communication using
electromagnetic waves.

Nature of Electromagnetic Waves

1) In an e.m waves are transverse waves in which the electric and magnetic
fields are perpendicular to each other, and also to the direction of
propagation.
2) The speed of e.m.wave in vacuum is,
𝟏
𝐜=
√𝛍𝟎 𝛆𝟎
3)The speed of of electromagnetic waves in a material medium is
The speed of of electromagnetic waves in a material medium is
𝟏 𝟏 𝐜
𝐯= or 𝐯 = or 𝐯 =
√𝛍𝛆 √𝛍𝟎 𝛍𝐫 𝛆𝟎 𝛆𝐫 √𝛍𝐫 𝛆𝐫
4) The electric and the magnetic fields in an electromagnetic wave are
related as
𝐄𝟎
=𝐜
𝐁𝟎

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5) No material medium is required for the propagation of e.m.wave.
6) Electromagnetic waves carry energy as they travel through space and this
energy is shared equally by the electric and magnetic fields.

7)Electromagnetic waves transport momentum as well. When these waves

strike a surface, total momentum delivered to this surface is,
𝐔
p=𝐜 , where U is the energy

Expression for electric field and magnetic field

Consider an electromagnetic wave propagating along the z direction. Let the
electric field 𝐸𝑥 is along the x-axis and the magnetic field 𝐵𝑦 is along the y-
axis. Then

𝐄𝐱 = 𝐄𝟎 sin (k z– ωt)
𝐁𝐲 = 𝐁𝟎 sin (k z– ωt)
𝟐𝛑
Here 𝐤 =
𝛌
k is the propagation constant
ω =𝟐𝝅𝒗
ω is the angular frequency
𝜔 2𝜋𝜈
= 2𝜋 = 𝑣𝜆 = 𝑐
𝑘
𝜆
𝛚
Speed, c=
𝐤
Example
A plane electromagnetic wave of frequency 25 MHz travels in free space
along the x-direction. At a particular point in space and time, E = 6.3ĵ V/m.
What is B at this point?
𝐄𝟎
=𝐜
𝐁𝟎
𝐄𝟎 6.3
𝐁𝟎 = c
=3 x 108 =2.1 x10−8 T

E is along y-direction and the wave propagates along x-axis.

Therefore, B should be in a direction perpendicular to both x- and y-axes.

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i.e., B is along z-axis.
Example
The magnetic field in a plane electromagnetic wave is given by
𝐵𝑦 = 2 × 10−7 sin (0.5×103 𝑥 + 1.5×1011 t) T.
a) What is the wavelength and frequency of the wave?
b) Write an expression for the electric field.

(a) 𝐵𝑦 = 2 × 10−7 sin (0.5×103 𝑥 + 1.5×1011 t)

Comparing with general expression for magnetic field of an em
wave travelling in x direction,
By = B0 sin (kx– ωt)

k=0.5×103
2π
k= λ =0.5×103
2π
λ = 0.5×103
=12.56 × 10−3 m

ω =1.5×1011
ω =2𝜋𝑣 =1.5×1011
11
1.5×10
𝑣=
2π
=0.24 x1011 Hz

b) B is along y-direction and the wave propagates along x-axis.

Therefore, E should be in a direction perpendicular to both x- and y-axes.
i.e., E is along z-axis.
So expression for electric field is ,
Ez = E0 sin (k x– ωt)
E0
=c
B 0
E0 =B0 𝑥 𝑐
=2 × 10−7 x 3 × 108
=60 V/m
𝐄𝐳 = 60 sin (0.5×𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝒙 + 1.5×𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟏 t) V/m

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Electromagnetic Spectrum
The classification of em waves according to frequency is the electromagnetic
spectrum. There is no sharp division between one kind of wave and the next.

Radio waves
▪ Radio waves are produced by the accelerated motion of charges in
conducting wires.
▪ Frequency range from 500 kHz to about 1000 MHz.
▪ (i)They are used in radio and television communication systems.
(ii)Cellular phones use radio waves.

Microwaves
▪ Microwaves (short-wavelength radio waves), are produced by special
vacuum tubes called, klystrons, magnetrons and Gunn diodes.
▪ Frequencies in the gigahertz (GHz) range,
▪ (i)Used for radar systems used in aircraft navigation .
(ii)Used in speed guns used to time fast balls, tennisserves,
and automobiles.
(iii) Microwaves are used in microwave ovens , for cooking.

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How is food cooked in microwave ovens?
In microwave ovens, the frequency of the microwaves is selected to match
the resonant frequency of water molecules so that energy from the waves is
transferred efficiently to the kinetic energy of the molecules. This raises the
temperature of any food containing water.

Infrared waves
▪ Infrared waves are produced by hot bodies and molecules.
▪ (i) Infrared lamps are used in physical therapy.
(ii) Infrared radiation plays an important role in maintaining the
earth’s warmth or average temperature through the greenhouse effect.
(iii)Infrared detectors are used in Earth satellites, both for
military purposes and to observe growth of crops.
(iv)LEDs emit infrared waves, which are used in the remote
switches of TV sets, video recorders and hi-fi systems.

Why IR waves are called heat waves?

Infrared waves are sometimes referred to as heat waves. This is because
water molecules present in most materials readily absorb infrared waves
( CO2 , NH3 , also absorb infrared waves). After absorption, their thermal
motion increases, that is, they heat up and heat their surroundings.

Greenhouse Effect
Incoming visible light is absorbed by the earth’s surface and reradiated as
infrared (longer wavelength) radiations. This radiation is trapped by
greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and water vapour. This trapped
Infrared radiation maintains the earth’s warmth.

Visible rays
▪ Electrons in atoms emit The eye light when they move from
Photocells one energy level to a Photographic film lower energy
level’
▪ Frequency range of 4 × 1014 Hz to 7 × 1014 Hz
Wavelength range of about 700 – 400 nm.

Our eyes are sensitive to this range of wavelengths. Different animals are
sensitive to different range of wavelengths. For example, snakes can detect
infrared waves, and the ‘visible’ range of many insects extends well into the
utraviolet.

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Ultraviolet rays
▪ Ultraviolet (UV) radiation is produced by special lamps and very hot
bodies. The sun is an important source of ultraviolet light.
▪ Wavelength range of (400 nm) to (0.6 nm).
▪ (i)UV radiations are used in LASIK
(Laser assisted in situ keratomileusis) eye surgery.
(ii) UV lamps are used to kill germs in water purifiers.

Why is depletion of ozone layer , a matter of international concern?

Most of the UV rays from sun is absorbed in the ozone layer in the
atmosphere at an altitude of about 40 – 50 km. UV light in large quantities
has harmful effects on humans. Exposure to UV radiation induces the
production of more melanin, causing tanning of the skin. Ozone layer in the
atmosphere plays a protective role, and hence its depletion by chlorofluoro-
carbons (CFCs) gas (such as freon) is a matter of international concern.

UV radiation is absorbed by ordinary glass. Hence, one cannot get tanned or

sunburn through glass windows. Welders wear special glass goggles or face
masks with glass windows to protect their eyes from large amount of UV
produced by welding arcs.

X-rays
▪ One common way to generate X-rays is to bombard a metal target by
high energy electrons.
▪ Wavelengths from about (10 nm) to (10–4 nm).
▪ X-rays are used as a diagnostic tool in medicine and as a treatment for
certain forms of cancer.
As X-rays damage or destroy living tissues and organisms, care must be
taken to avoid unnecessary or over exposure.

Gamma rays
▪ This high frequency radiation is produced in nuclear reactions and also
emitted by radioactive nuclei.
▪ Gamma rays are the highest frequency range of the electromagnetic
spectrum and have wavelengths of from about 10–10m to 10–14m.
▪ They are used in medicine to destroy cancer cells.

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 Chapter 9
Ray Optics and Optical Instruments
Introduction
Light is an electromagnetic wave. Light travels with a speed of 3 x108 m/s in
vacuum. The speed of light in vacuum is the highest speed attainable in
nature. A light wave can be considered to travel from one point to another,
along a straight line joining them. The path is called a ray of light, and a
bundle of such rays constitutes a beam of light.

Reflection of Light by Spherical Mirrors

Laws of Reflection
1) The incident ray, reflected ray and the normal to the reflecting surface at
the point of incidence lie in the same plane.
2)The angle of incidence is equai to the angle of reflection(i=r).

Sign Convention

We follow the Cartesian sign convention to measure distances. According to

this convention,
1) All distances are measured from the pole of the mirror or the optical
centre of the lens.
2) The distances measured in the same direction as the incident light are
taken as positive and those measured in the direction opposite to the
direction of incident light are taken as negative.
3) The heights measured upwards with respect to principal axis of the
mirror/ lens are taken as positive . The heights measured downwards
are taken as negative.

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Focal Length of Spherical Mirrors
When a parallel beam of light
is incident on a concave mirror, the
reflected rays converge at a point F
on its principal axis . The point F is
called the principal focus of the
concave mirror.

When a parallel beam of light is

incident on a convex mirror, the
reflected rays appear to diverge from
a point F on its principal axis . The
point F is called the principal focus of
the convex mirror.
Relation between Focal Length and Radius of Curvature

Let f be the focal length and R be the radius of curvature of lens

MD MD
From figure , tan θ = , θ= ------(1) (For small value of θ, tanθ ≈ θ )
R R
MD MD
tan2 θ = , 2θ = -----(2) (tan2θ ≈ 2θ)
f f
MD MD
Substituting θ from eq(1) in eq(2) 2 =
R f
2 1
=
R f
𝐑
𝐟=𝟐
Some important points to consider while image formation in spherical
mirrors :-
▪ If rays emanating from a point actually meet at another point after
reflection , that point is called the image of the first point.
▪ The image is real if the rays actually converge to the point.
▪ The image is virtual if the rays do not actually meet but appear to
diverge from the point when produced backwards.

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 ▪ The ray parallel to the principal axis, goes through the focus of the
mirror after reflection.
▪ The ray passing through the centre of curvature of a concave mirror
,retraces the path.
▪ The ray passing through the focus of the concave mirror , after
reflection ,goes parallel to the principal axis.
▪ The ray incident at any angle at the pole. The reflected ray follows
laws of reflection.
The Mirror Equation

The two right-angled triangles A′B′F and MPF are similar

B′ A′ B′ F
=
PM FP
B′ A′ B′ F
= ------------(1) (since PM = AB)
BA FP

The right angled triangles A′B′P and ABP are also similar.
B′ A′ B′ P
= ------------(2)
BA BP

From eqns(1) and (2)

B′ F B′ P
=
FP BP

B′ P = v, BP = u, B′ F =v-f , FP = f,
v− f v
=
f u

Applying sign convention ,

−v− −f −v
=
−f −u
v−f v
=
f u
v v
−1 =
f u

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 Dividing by v
1 1 1
− =
f v u
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
+ =
𝐮 𝐯 𝐟
This relation is known as the mirror equation.

Linear Magnification (m)

Linear magnification (m) is the ratio of the height of the image (h′) to the
height of the object (h).
𝐡′
𝐦= 𝐡
From above figure
B′ A′ B′ P
=
BA BP
With the sign convention,
−h′ −v
=
h −u
h′ −v
=
h u
𝐡′ −𝐯
𝐦= =
𝐡 𝐮
Example
An object is placed at (i) 10 cm, (ii) 5 cm in front of a concave mirror of
radius of curvature 15 cm. Find the position, nature, and magnification of the
image in each case.

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Refraction
The direction of propagation of an obliquely incident ray of light that enters
the other medium, changes at the interface of the two media. This
phenomenon is called refraction of light.

Laws of Refraction
i)The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the interface at the
point of incidence, all lie in the same plane.
ii)The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of angle of
refraction is constant
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐢
= 𝐧𝟐𝟏
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐫
where n21 is a constant, called the refractive index of the second
medium with respect to the first medium.
n
n21 = 2
n1
This equation is known as Snell’s law of refraction.

▪ When a ray travels from rarer to denser

medium, the refracted ray bends towards
the normal.
i.e., if n21 > 1, i.e., n2 > n1 , r < i

▪ When a ray travels from denser to rarer

medium, the refracted ray bends away from
the normal.
i.e., if n21 < 1, i.e., n2 < n1 , r > i

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Some Elementary Results Based on The Laws of Refraction
(i)Lateral Shift

For a rectangular slab, refraction takes place at two interfaces (air-glass and
glass-air). The emergent ray is parallel to the incident ray—there is no
refraction and reflection of light, but it does suffer lateral displacement/
shift with respect to the incident ray.
(ii)Apparent depth

The bottom of a tank filled with water appears to be raised .

For viewing near the normal direction ,
𝐫𝐞𝐚𝐥 ⅆ𝐞𝐩𝐭𝐡
Apparent depth =
𝐑𝐞𝐟𝐫𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 𝐈𝐧ⅆ𝐞𝐱
𝐡𝟐
𝐡𝟏 = 𝐧
iii)Advance sunrise and delayed sunset

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The sun is visible a little before the actual sunrise and until a little after the
actual sunset due to refraction of light through the atmosphere. Due to this,
the apparent shift in the direction of the sun is by about half a degree and
the corresponding time difference between actual sunset and apparent
sunset is about 2 minutes.
The apparent flattening (oval shape) of the sun at sunset and sunrise is also
due to the atmospheric refraction.
Total Internal Reflection
When a ray of light enters from a denser medium to a rarer medium, if the
angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle (ic ) for the given pair of
media, the incident ray is totally reflected. This is called total internal
reflection.

Explanation:-
When a ray of light enters from a denser medium to a rarer medium, it bends away
from the normal.
▪ The incident ray AO1 is partially reflected (O1 C) and partially refracted(O1 B) .
▪ As the angle of incidence increases, the angle of refraction also increases.(for
ray AO2 )
▪ When the angle of incidence becomes equal to the critical angle(ic ) for the
given pair of media, the angle of refraction becomes 90º.(for rayAO3 )
▪ If the angle of incidence is increased further ( ray AO4 ), refraction is not
possible, and the incident ray is totally reflected.

Conditions for Total Internal Reflection

▪ The ray of light should enter from a denser medium to a rarer
medium.
▪ The angle of incidence should be greater than the critical angle (ic )
for the given pair of media .

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Critical Angle
The angle of incidence in the denser medium, corresponding to an angle of
refraction 90º, is called the critical angle (i c ) for the given pair of media.
Let the second medium be air.
sin i n2 1
By Snell’s law = =
sin r n1 n

When i=ic , r=90

sin ic 1
=
sin 90 n
1
sin ic =
n
𝟏
n= 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐢
𝐜

This is the relation connecting refractive index and critical angle.

Total internal reflection in nature and its technological applications
(i)Mirage:
On hot summer days, the air near the ground becomes hotter than the air at
higher levels. So air near the ground has less refractive index than that
above . As a result, when light from a tall object such as a tree reaches
ground, it successively bends away from the normal and undergoes total
internal reflection, if the angle of incidence for the air near the ground
exceeds the critical angle.To a distant observer, the light appears to be
reflected from the ground, and an inverted images of distant tall objects is
seen. This optical illusion is called mirage. This type of mirage is especially
common in hot deserts.

Some of you might have noticed that while moving in a bus or a car during a
hot summer day, a distant patch of road, especially on a highway, appears to
be wet. But, you do not find any evidence of wetness when you reach that
spot. This is also due to mirage.
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(ii) Diamond:
The brilliance of diamond is mainly due to the total internal reflection of
light inside them. The critical angle for diamond-air interface (≅ 24.4°) is
very small, therefore once light enters a diamond, it is very likely to undergo
total internal reflection inside it. By cutting the diamond suitably, multiple
total internal reflections can be made to occur.
(iii)Prism:
Prisms designed to bend light by 90º or by 180º make use of total internal
reflection .In these cases, the critical angle ic for the material of the prism
must be less than 45º.

Such a prism is also used to invert images without changing their size.

(iv) Optical fibres:

Now-a-days optical fibres are extensively used for transmitting audio and
video signals through long distances. Optical fibres make use of the
phenomenon of total internal reflection. Optical fibres are fabricated with
high quality composite glass/quartz fibres.

Each fibre consists of a core and cladding. The refractive index of the
material of the core is higher than that of the cladding. When a signal in the
form of light is directed at one end of the fibre at a suitable angle, it
undergoes repeated total internal reflections along the length of the fibre
and finally comes out at the other end . Since light undergoes total internal
reflection at each stage, there is no appreciable loss in the intensity of the
light signal.

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 A bundle of optical fibres can be put to several uses. Optical fibres are
extensively used for transmitting and receiving electrical signals which are
converted to light by suitable transducers. Obviously, optical fibres can also
be used for transmission of optical signals. For example, these are used as a
‘light pipe’ to facilitate visual examination of internal organs like esophagus,
stomach and intestines. Optical fibres are used in decorative lamps.

Refraction at Spherical Surfaces and by Lenses

Refraction at a Spherical Surface

MN MN
tan α = , α=
OM OM
MN MN
tan β = , β=
MC MC
MN MN
tan γ = , γ=
MI MI

From ΔNOC, i = α + β--------------(1)

From ΔNIC, β=r+γ
r = β – γ---------------(2)
From Snell’s law
sin i n2
=
sin r n1

n1 sin i = n2 sinr
For small values of i and r
n1 i = n2 r
Substituting fron eqn (1) and (2)
n1 (α + β) = n2 (β – γ)
MN MN MN MN
n1 ( + ) = n2 ( – )
OM MC MC MI

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 n1 n1 n2 n2
+ = –
OM MC MC MI
n1 n2 n2 n1
+ = –
OM MI MC MC
n1 n2 n2 −n1
+ =
OM MI MC

Applying the Cartesian sign convention,

OM = –u, MI = +v, MC = +R
n1 n2 n2 −n1
+ =
−u v R
𝐧𝟐 𝐧𝟏 𝐧𝟐 −𝐧𝟏
− =
𝐯 𝐮 𝐑
This equation gives the relation between object and image distance in terms
of refractive index of the medium and the radius of curvature of the curved
spherical surface.
Refraction by a Lens -Lens Maker’s Formula

For the first interface ACB of radius of curvature R1

n2 n1 n2 −n1
− = ----------(1)
v′ u R1

For the first interface ADB of radius of curvature R 2

n1 n2 n1 −n2
− = -------------(2)
v v′ R2
Eqns (1) + (2)
n2 n1 n1 n2 n2 −n1 n1 −n2
− + − = +
v′ u v v′ R1 R2
n1 n1 1 1
− = (n2 − n1 )( - )
v u R1 R2

Dividing throughout by n1
1 1 n2 1 1
− =( − 1)( - )
v u n1 R1 R2
1 1 1 1
− = (n21 − 1)( - )------------(3)
v u R1 R2

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When u=∞ (infinity) , v=f
1 1 1 1
− = (n21 − 1)( - )
f ∞ R1 R2
1 1 1
= (n21 − 1)( - )
f R1 R2

If the lens is placed in air

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= (𝐧 − 𝟏)( - 𝐑 )-----------(4)
𝐟 𝐑𝟏 𝟐

This Equation is known as the lens maker’s formula.

From eq (3) and (4)
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
−𝐮 =
𝐯 𝐟
This equation is called thin lens formula
Image Formation by a Convex Lens

Image Formation by a Concave Lens

Magnification (m)
Magnification produced by a lens is defined as the ratio of the size of the
image to that of the object.
𝐡′ 𝐯
𝐦= =𝐮
𝐡
For erect (and virtual) image formed by a convex or concave lens, m is
positive, while for an inverted (and real) image, m is negative.

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Power of a lens
Power of a lens is the reciprocal of focal length expressed in metre
𝟏
𝐩= 𝐟
The SI unit for power of a lens is dioptre D. 1D = 1m−1
Power of a lens is positive for a converging lens and negative for a diverging
lens.
Combination of Thin Lenses in Contact

For the image formed by the first lens A,

1 1 1
− = -----------(1)
v1 u f1
For the image formed by the second lens B,
1 1 1
− = -----------(2)
v v1 f2
Eqn (1) +(2)
1 1 1 1 1 1
− + − = +
v1 u v v1 f1 f2
1 1 1 1
− = + -----------(3)
v u f1 f2

If the two lens-system is regarded as equivalent to a single lens of focal

length f, we have
1 1 1
− = ---------------(4)
v u f
From eqn (3) and (4)
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
=𝐟 +𝐟
𝐟 𝟏 𝟐
For a number of thin lenses in contact
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + + +……..
𝐟 𝐟𝟏 𝐟𝟐 𝐟𝟐

Total power,P of the combination is,

P =𝐏𝟏 +𝐏𝟐 +𝐏𝟑 +……….
Total magnification, m of the combination is,
m = 𝐦𝟏 𝐦𝟐 𝐦𝟑 …………

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Refraction Through a Prism

In the quadrilateral AQNR,

∠A + ∠QNR = 180º
From the triangle QNR,
r1 + r2 + ∠QNR = 180º
Comparing these two equations, we get
𝐫𝟏 + 𝐫𝟐 = A ------------------(1)

The total deviation δ is the sum of deviations at the two faces,

d = (i – r1 ) + (e – r2 )
d = i + e –( r1 + r2 )
d = i + e – A -----------------(2)

Thus, the angle of deviation depends on the angle of incidence

At the minimum deviation
d=D , i=e, r1 = r2 =r
From eqa (1)
2r =A
𝐀
r= ----------------(3)
𝟐
From eqa (2)
d = 2i – A
2i = A + D
𝐀+𝐃
i= -------------(4)
𝟐

By Snell’s law the refractive index of prism

sin i
n =
sin r
𝐀+𝐃
𝐬𝐢𝐧
𝟐
𝐧 = 𝐀
𝐬𝐢𝐧
𝟐

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Graph between the angle of deviation and angle of incidence - i-d curve

Dispersion by a Prism
The phenomenon of splitting of light into its component colours is known as
dispersion.

When a narrow beam of sunlight, usually called white light, is incident on a

glass prism, the emergent light is seen to be consisting of seven colours-
violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange and red (given by the acronym
VIBGYOR). The red light bends the least, while the violet light bends the
most.
Dispersion takes place because the refractive index of medium for different
wavelengths (colours) is different.
Thick lenses could be assumed as made of many prisms, therefore, thick
lenses show chromatic aberration due to dispersion of light.
Sir Isaac Newton put another similar prism, but in an inverted position,

He first prism splits the white light into its component colours, while the
inverted prism recombines them to give white light.

Some Natural Phenomena Due to Sunlight

The rainbow
The rainbow is a phenomenon due to combined effect of dispersion,
refraction and reflection of sunlight by spherical water droplets of rain. An
observer can therefore see a rainbow only when his back is towards the sun.

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Primary rainbow
The primary rainbow is a result of three-step process, that is, refraction,
reflection and refraction. For primary rainbow , red colour on the top and
violet on the bottom.

▪ Sunlight is first refracted as it enters a raindrop. Red bent the least

and violet bent the most.
▪ These component rays then strike the inner surface of the water
drop and undergo total internal reflection if i > ic (48º, in this
case).
▪ The reflected light is refracted again as it comes out of the drop.

The violet light emerges at an angle of 40º and red light emerges at an angle
of 42º, related to the incoming sunlight. For other colours, angles lie in
between these two values.

Secondary Rainbow
When light rays undergoes two internal reflections inside a raindrop,
instead of one as in the primary rainbow, a secondary rainbow is formed.
The secondary rainbow is a result of four-step process, that is, refraction,
two internal reflections and refraction. For secondary rainbow , violet colour
on the top and red on the bottom.

The intensity of light is reduced at the second reflection and hence the
secondary rainbow is fainter than the primary rainbow.

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Scattering of light
Rayleigh scattering
The amount of scattering is inversely proportional to the fourth power of
the wavelength. This is known as Rayleigh scattering.
𝟏
I∝ 𝟒
𝝀
Light of shorter wavelengths is scattered much more than light of longer
wavelengths.

Why sky appears blue?

As sunlight travels through the earth’s atmosphere, it gets scattered
(changes its direction) by the atmospheric particles. According to Rayleigh
scattering ,the amount of scattering is inversely proportional to the fourth
power of the wavelength .So violet and blue like colours are scattered more
than red. Since our eyes are more sensitive to blue than violet, we see the
sky blue.

Why are clouds generally white?

When sunlight gets scattered by large particles (a >> λ) like dust, rain
drops and ice particles present in the atmosphere, all wavelengths are
scattered nearly equally(Rayleigh scattering is not obeyed). Thus, clouds
which have droplets of water with a >> λ are generally white.

Why does sun look reddish at sunset and sunrise?

At sunset or sunrise, the sun’s rays have to pass through a larger distance in
the atmosphere . Most of the blue and other shorter wavelengths are
removed by scattering. The least scattered red light reaches our eyes and the
sun looks reddish. This explains the reddish appearance of the sun and full
moon near the horizon.

Optical Instruments
The microscope

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A simple microscope or magnifier is a converging lens of small focal length.
If the object is held between the focus and optical centre of lens, an erect,
magnified and virtual image is formed at near point 25 cm or more. If the
object is held at focus, the image will be formed at infinity.

The linear magnification m(when image is at D)

v 1 1
m= = v ( - )
u v f
v
m=1-
f

Applying sign convention , v=-D

𝐃
m=𝟏 +
𝐟
The linear magnification m(when image is at infinity)
𝐃
m= 𝐟
Compound Microscope
A simple microscope has a limited maximum magnification (≤ 9). For much
larger magnifications, one uses two lenses, one compounding the effect of
the other. This is known as a compound microscope.

The lens near the object, called the objective. It forms a real, inverted,
magnified image of the object. This serves as the object for the second lens,
the eyepiece, at the focal plane (or little closer) of the eyepiece . The
eyepiece functions like a simple microscope or magnifier and produces an
enlarged and virtual image at infinity, or at the near point. Clearly, the final
image is inverted with respect to the original object.
Magnifiction, m= mo x me -----------(1)
h′ L
m0 = =
h f0

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When the final image is formed at infinity,
D
me =
fe
Substituting in eqn(1)
𝐋 𝐃
m=𝐟 x 𝐟
𝟎 𝐞

D= near point=25cm
f0 = focal length of objective
fe = focal length of eyepiece
L= The tube length of the compound microscope
(The distance between the second focal point
of the objective and the first focal point of the
eyepiece is called the tube length.)
Clearly, to achieve a large magnification of a small object , the objective and
eyepiece should have small focal lengths.
Telescope
Refracting Telescope

The telescope is used to provide angular magnification of distant objects . It

also has an objective and an eyepiece. The objective has a large focal length
and a much larger aperture than the eyepiece. Light from a distant object
enters the objective and a real image is formed in the tube at its second focal
point. The eyepiece magnifies this image producing a final inverted image.

The magnifying power m is the ratio of the angle β subtended at the eye by
the final image to the angle α which the object subtends at the lens or the
eye.
β h fo f0
m≈ ≈ ⋅ =
α fe h fe
𝐟𝟎
𝐦=
𝐟𝐞

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Terrestrial telescopes have, in addition, a pair of inverting lenses to make
the final image erect. Refracting telescopes can be used both for terrestrial
and astronomical observations.
For high resolving power, optical telescopes should have objective of large
diameter. Such big lenses are very heavy and it is rather difficult and
expensive to make such large sized lenses which form images that are free
from any kind of chromatic aberration and distortions.So modern telescopes
use a concave mirror rather than a lens for the objective.( Reflecting
Telescope)

Reflecting Telescope
Telescopes with mirror objectives are called reflecting telescopes. They have
several advantages.
▪ First, there is no chromatic aberration in a mirror.
▪ Second, if a parabolic reflecting surface is chosen, spherical aberration is
also removed. Mechanical support is much less of a problem since a
mirror weighs much less than a lens of equivalent optical quality.

A reflecting telescope is that the objective mirror focusses light inside the
telescope tube. A convex secondary mirror focusses the incident light, which
passes through a hole in the objective primary mirror. It has the advantages
of a large focal length in a short telescope.

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 Chapter 10
Wave Optics
Introduction
In 1678, the Dutch physicist Christiaan Huygens put forward the wave
theory of light .The wave model could satisfactorily explain the phenomena
of reflection , refraction, interference, diffraction and polarisation .

Wavefront
A locus of points, which oscillate in phase is called a wavefront; thus a
wavefront is defined as a surface of constant phase.
The speed with which the wavefront moves outwards from the source is
called the speed of the wave. The energy of the wave travels in a direction
perpendicular to the wavefront.

Spherical Wavefront
For a point source emitting waves uniformly in all directions, the
wavefronts will be spherical .

Plane Wavefront
At large distance from a source, a small portion of the sphere can be
considered as a plane and is known as a plane wavefront.

Huygens Principle
According to Huygens principle, each point of the wavefront acts as a source
secondary wavelets and if we draw a common tangent to all these secondary
wavelets, we obtain the new position of the wavefront at a later time.

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Refraction and Reflection of Plane Waves Using Huygens Principle
Refraction of a Plane Wave

AB is the incident wavefront and EC is the refracted wavefront. Let 𝑣1 and

𝑣2 be the velocity of wave in medium 1 and 2 respectively.
𝐵𝐶 𝑣1 𝜏
sin i = = ----------(1)
𝐴𝐶 𝐴𝐶
𝐴𝐸 𝑣2 𝜏
sin r = = ----------(2)
𝐴𝐶 𝐴𝐶
(1) sin 𝑖 𝑣1
eqn = --------------(3)
(2) sin 𝑟 𝑣2
𝑐
Refractive index of first medium 𝑛1 =
𝑣1
𝑐
Refractive index of second medium 𝑛2 =
𝑣2
𝑛2 𝑣1
=
𝑛1 𝑣2

Substituting in eqn (3)

𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊 𝒏𝟐
=
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓 𝒏𝟏
This is the Snell’s law of refraction.
Reflection of a plane wave by a plane surface

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AB is the incident wavefront and EC is the reflected wavefront.
Let v be the velocity of the wave ,then
AE = BC = v𝜏
AC = AC (common side)
So the triangles EAC and BAC are congruent . Therefore
i=r
Angle of incidence=Angle of reflection
This is the law of reflection.
Refraction of a plane wave by a thin prism

The emerging wavefront is also plane wavefront,but tilted.

Refraction of a plane wave by a convex lens

The emerging wavefront is spherical and converges to the point F which is

known as the focus.

Reflection of a plane wave by a concave mirror

The reflected wavefront is a spherical converging to the focal point F.

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The doppler effect
The apparent change in frequency of light seen by an observer , whenever
there is a relative motion between source and observer is called Doppler
Effect.

When the source moves away from the observer the frequency as measured
by the source will be smaller and the wavelength increases. This increase in
wavelength due to doppler effect is called red shift.

When source moving towards the observer, there is an apparent increase in

frequency and decrease in wavelength. This is referred to as blue shift.
The Doppler shift can be expressed as
𝜟𝒗 𝒗𝒓𝒂ⅆ𝒊𝒂𝒍
=−
𝒗 𝒄
𝒗𝒓𝒂ⅆ𝒊𝒂𝒍 is the component of the source velocity along the line joining the
observer to the source relative to the observer; 𝒗 radial is considered positive
when the source moves away from the observer.
Superposition Principle
According to superposition principle , the resultant displacement produced
by a number of waves in a medium is the vector sum of the displacements
produced by each of the waves.

Coherent sources
Two sources are said to be coherent if they emit light waves of same
frequency and same phase or constant phase difference.

Two needles oscillating in phase in water represent two coherent sources.

Interference
Interference is the phenomenon in which two waves superpose to form a
resultant wave of greater or lower amplitude.
The interference can be constructive or destructive.

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Condition for constructive interference
If the path difference at a point is an integral multiple of
λ, there will be constructive interference and a bright
fringe is formed at that point
S2P – S1P = nλ where (n = 0, 1, 2, 3,...)

Condition for destructive interference

If the path difference at a point is an odd integral multiple
of λ/2 , there will be destructive interference and a dark
fringe is formed at that point
𝟏
S2P – S1P = = (n+ ) λ where (n = 0, 1, 2, 3,...)
𝟐

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Two sodium lamps illuminating two pinholes cannot produce
interference fringes. Why?
If we use two sodium lamps illuminating two pinholes we will not observe
any interference fringes. This is because the light wave emitted from an
ordinary source (like a sodium lamp) undergoes abrupt phase changes .Thus
the light waves coming out from two independent sources of light will not
have any fixed phase relationship and would be incoherent and cannot
produce interference pattern.
Interference of Light Waves and Young’s Experiment

The British physicist Thomas Young made two pinholes S1 and S2 (very
close to each other) on an opaque screen. These were illuminated by
another pinholes which is illuminated by a bright source. Light waves spread
out from S and fall on both S1 and S2. S1 and S2 then behave like two coherent
sources because light waves coming out from S1 and S2 are derived from the
same original source and interference pattern with altermate bright and
dark fringes is formed on the screen.
Expression for the fringe width (Band width)

Cosider two coherent sources separated by a distance d with a screen placed

at a distance D from the coherent sources.
𝑑 2 𝑑 2
(𝑆2 𝑃)2 − (𝑆1 𝑃)2 = [𝐷2 + (𝑥 + ) ] − [𝐷2 + (𝑥 − ) ]
2 2
𝑑2 𝑑2
= [𝐷2 + 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑑 + ] − [𝐷2 + 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥𝑑 + ]
4 4
(𝑆2 𝑃)2 − (𝑆1 𝑃)2 = 2𝑥𝑑 ------------------------(1)
(S2P + S1P) (S2P – S1P) = 2xd

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 2𝑥𝑑 2𝑥𝑑
(S2P – S1P) = =
(S2P+ S1P) 2D
𝒙ⅆ
(S2P – S1P) = -----------------(1)
𝐃
Let the point P corresponds to maximum brightness(bright band).Then
S2P – S1P = nλ (n = 0, 1, 2, 3,...) --------------(2)
𝑥𝑑
From eq (1) and(2) , = nλ
D
nλ𝐷
Thus for the nth bright band, xn=
d
(n+1)λ𝐷
For the (n+1)th bright band, xn+1=
d

Bandwidth , β = xn+1 –xn

(n+1)λ𝐷 nλ𝐷
β= −
d d
𝛌𝑫
β= ⅆ
This is the expression for the fringe width.
The central point O will be bright as the path difference is zero.
Thus bandwidth can be increased by
▪ Increasing the distance of screen (D)from coherent sources
▪ Decreasing the distance between the coherent sources.
▪ Increasing the wavelength of source.
The graph of the intensity distribution in Young’s double-slit experiment.

What is the effect on the interference fringes in a Young’s double-slit

experiment,if the monochromatic source is replaced by a source of white
light?
The interference patterns due to different component colours of white light
overlap (incoherently). The central bright fringes for different colours are at
the same position. Therefore, the central fringe is white. The fringe closest
on either side of the central white fringe is red and the farthest will appear
blue. After a few fringes, no clear fringe pattern is seen.

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Example
Two slits are made one millimetre apart and the screen is placed one metre
away. What is the fringe separation when bluegreen light of wavelength 500
nm is used.
λ𝐷
Fringe spacing , β =
d
500x10−9 𝑥1
β=
1x10−3

= 5 × 10–4 m = 0.5 mm
Example
In a double slit experiment, the slits are separated by 0.03 cm and the screen
is placed 1.5 m away. The distance between the central fringe and the fourth
bright fringe is 1 cm. Determine the wavelength of the light used in the
experiment.
4β =1cm
β =1/4 =0.25cm =0.25x10-2m
λ𝐷
β=
d
β𝑑
λ=
𝐷
0.25x10−2 x0.03𝑥10−2
=
1.5
= 0.005x10-4=500x10-9=500nm
Diffraction
Diffraction is the phenomenon of bending of light around the corners of an
obstacle , into the region of geometrical shadow of the obstacle.

If we look clearly at the shadow cast by an opaque object, close to the region
of geometrical shadow, there are alternate dark and bright regions just like
in interference. This happens due to the phenomenon of diffraction.
Diffraction is a general characteristic exhibited by all types of waves, be it
sound waves, light waves, water waves or matter waves.
Since the wavelength of light is much smaller than the dimensions of most
obstacles; we do not encounter diffraction effects of light in everyday
observations.

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The single slit

When a single narrow slit is illuminated by a monochromatic source, a broad

pattern with a central bright region is seen on the screen. On both sides,
there are alternate dark and bright regions, the intensity becoming weaker
away from the centre. This is diffraction pattern.
Single slit diffraction experiment

Consider a parallel beam of light falling normally on a single slit LN of width

a. The diffracted light goes on to meet a screen. The midpoint of the slit is M.
The path difference NP – LP between the two edges of the slit,
NP – LP = NQ
= a sin θ
NP – LP≈ aθ

For central maximum

At the central point C on the screen,
the angle θ =0
Path differences aθ =0
All the parts of the slit contribute in phase.This gives maximum intensity at C
called central maximum.

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For secondary maxima
For secondary maxima,
1
Path difference , aθ = (n+ ) λ
2
𝟏 𝛌
θ = (n+ ) where n = ±1, ±2, ±3, ....
𝟐 𝒂

For secondary minima

For secondary minima,
Path differences , aθ = nλ
𝛌
θ= n where n = ±1, ±2, ±3, ....
𝒂

Difference between Interference and Diffraction

Holding two blades to form a single slit. A bulb filament

viewed through this shows clear diffraction bands.

Cosistency with Principle of Conservation of Energy.

In interference and diffraction, light energy is redistributed. If it reduces in
one region, producing a dark fringe, it increases in another region,
producing a bright fringe. There is no gain or loss of energy, which is
consistent with the principle of conservation of energy.

Resolving power of optical instruments

When a parallel beam of light is incident on a convex lens, because of
1.22 λf 0.61 λf
diffraction effects, the beam gets focused to a spot of radius ≈ =
2𝑎 𝑎

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where f is the focal length of the lens and 2a is the diameter of the circular
aperture or the diameter of the lens.
Although the size of the spot is very small, it plays an important role in
determining the limit of resolution of optical instruments like a telescope or
a microscope.
Resolving Power of Telescope
For the two stars to be just resolved
0.61 λf
f Δθ ≈
𝑎

The limit of resolution,

0.61 λ
Δθ ≈
𝑎
𝒂
Resolving power of telescope =
𝟎.𝟔𝟏 𝛌
This implies that the telescope will have better resolving power if a is large.
It is for this reason that for better resolution, a telescope must have a large
diameter objective.
Resolving power of microscope

The minimum separation,

1.22 λf
dmin=
𝐷
𝐷
but =2 tan β
𝑓
1.22 λ
dmin=
2 tan β

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 For small β , tan β ≈sin β
1.22 λ
dmin=
2 sin β
If the medium between the object and the objective lens is not air but a
medium of refractive index n,
1.22 λ
dmin=
2 nsin β
𝟐 𝐧 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛃
Resolving power of microscope=
𝟏.𝟐𝟐 𝛌
n sinβ is called the numerical aperture
The resolving power can be increased by choosing a medium of higher
refractive index. Usually an oil having a refractive index close to that of the
objective glass is used. Such an arrangement is called an ‘oil immersion
objective’. It is not possible to make sinβ larger than unity. Thus,the
resolving power of a microscope is basically determined by the wavelength
of the light used.
Polarisation
A wave propagating in x direction in a horizontally string ,with
displacement in y direction can be represented as
y (x,t) = a sin (kx – ωt)
It is referred to as a y-polarised wave.
Since each point on the string moves on a straight line, the wave is also
referred to as a linearly polarised wave.
As the string always remains confined to the x-y plane , it is also referred to
as a plane polarised wave.
Polarisation of Light
Unpolarised Light
For an unpolarised light the vibrations of electric vector takes all possible
directions in the transverse plane. Natural light, e.g., from the sun is
unpolarised.

Plane Polarised Light

For a plane polarised light the vibrations of electric field vector are
restricted in one direction .

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Polaroids
Polaroids are thin plastic like sheets, which consists of long chain molecules
aligned in a particular direction. The electric vectors along the direction of
the aligned molecules get absorbed. Thus, if an unpolarised light wave is
incident on a polaroid ,it transmits only one component of electric field
vectors which are parallel to its pass axis and the resulting light is c linearly
polarised or plane polarised.
Polaroids are used in sunglasses, wind screens in trains and aeroplanes, in
3D cameras.
Polarisation
The phenomenon of restricting the electric field vibrations of light to one
plane is called polarisation.

Malus’ Law
When an unpolarised light is passed through two polaroids P1 and P2 and if
the angle between the polaroids is varied from 0º to 90º, the intensity of the
transmitted light will vary as:
I = 𝐈𝟎 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐 𝛉
where I0 is the intensity of the polarized light after passing through P1 . This
is known as Malus’ law.
Polarisation by scattering

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When a scattered light is observed in a direction perpendicular to the
direction of incidence, it is found to be plane polarised.
The scattering of light by molecules was intensively investigated by C.V.
Raman and his collaborators in Kolkata in the 1920s. Raman was awarded
the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1930 for this work.
Polarisation by reflection

When a ray of light incident at Brewster’s angle iB , on the boundary

between two transparent media, the reflected light is plane polarised and
also the refracted are reflected rays are perpendicular to each other.
Brewster’s angle iB is also called the angle of polarisation
Brewster’s law
Brewster’s law states that the tangent of the Brewster’s angle is equal to the
refractive index of the medium.
𝒏 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝐢𝐁
Proof

At Brewster’s angle, i= 𝐢𝐁
r + 𝐢𝐁 = 𝟗𝟎
r =90 - 𝐢𝐁
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝐢𝐁
By Snell’s law 𝒏=
𝐬𝐢𝐧 (𝟗𝟎 − 𝐢𝐁 )
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝐢𝐁
𝒏=
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝐢𝐁
𝒏 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝐢𝐁

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Example
Unpolarised light is incident on a plane glass surface. What should be the
angle of incidence so that the reflected and refracted rays are perpendicular
to each other?
As the reflected and refracted rays are perpendicular to each othe, the angle
of incidence should be equal to Brewster’s angle.
𝑛 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 iB
1.5 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 iB
iB =tan-1 (1.5) =570
Example
Show that when light incident at polarising angle (Brewsters angle),the
reflected and refracted rays are mutually perpendicular.

B 𝑠𝑖𝑛i
By Snell’s law 𝑛= -----------(1)
sin r
By Brewster’s law 𝑛 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 iB ----------(2)
𝑠𝑖𝑛iB
From eq(1) and (2) 𝑡𝑎𝑛 iB =
sin r
𝑠𝑖𝑛 iB 𝑠𝑖𝑛 iB
=
cos iB sin r
cos iB = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑟
sin(900 -iB ) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑟
900 - iB = 𝑟
iB + 𝑟 =900
From figure
iB + 𝑟 +<BOC =1800
900+<BOC =1800
<BOC=900
i.e., the reflected and refracted rays are mutually perpendicular.

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 Chapter 11
Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter
Introduction
▪ It was found that at low pressure ,when an electric field is applied to
the gas in the discharge tube, a fluorescent glow appeared on the glass
opposite to cathode. These cathode rays were discovered, in 1870, by
William Crookes who later, in 1879, suggested that these rays
consisted of streams of fast moving negatively charged particles.

▪ By applying mutually perpendicular electric and magnetic fields across

the discharge tube, J. J. Thomson determined experimentally the
speed and the specific charge [charge to mass ratio (e/m)] of the
cathode ray.

▪ In 1887, it was found that certain metals, when irradiated by

ultraviolet light, emitted negatively charged particles having small
speeds. Also, certain metals when heated to a high temperature were
found to emit negatively charged particles. The value of e/m of these
particles was found to be the same as that for cathode ray particles.

These observations thus established that all these particles, although

produced under different conditions, were identical in nature. J. J. Thomson,
in 1897, named these particles as electrons, and suggested that they were
fundamental, universal constituents of matter.In 1913, the American
physicist R. A. Millikan performed oil-drop experiment and measured the
charge of electron as 1.602 × 10–19 C. Millikan’s experiment established that
electric charge is quantised.

Electron emission
If an electron attempts to come out of the metal, the metal surface acquires a
positive charge and pulls the electron back to the metal. The electron can
come out of the metal surface only if it has got sufficient energy to overcome
the attractive pull.

Work Function
The minimum energy required to eject an electron from the metal
surface is called work function. The work function is denoted by ϕ0 .
▪ Work function is measured in electron volt (eV).
▪ ϕ0 depends on properties of metal and nature of its surface.

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 ▪ One electron volt is the energy gained by an electron when it has been
accelerated by a potential difference of 1 volt.
1 eV = 1.602 ×10–19 J.

The work function of platinum is the highest (ϕ0 = 5.65 eV) while it is the
lowest (ϕ0 = 2.14 eV) for caesium.

The minimum energy required for the electron emission from the metal
surface can be supplied to the free electrons by any one of the following
physical processes:
(i)Thermionic emission
By suitably heating, the free electrons will get sufficient thermal energy to
escape from the metal surface.
(ii)Field Emission
By applying a very strong electric field (of the order of 108 V/m) to a metal,
electrons will get sufficient energy to escape from the metal, as in a spark
plug.
(iii) Photo-electric emission
When light of suitable frequency incident on a metal surface, electrons are
emitted from the metal surface. These photo(light)-generated electrons are
called photoelectrons.

Photoelectric Effect
Hertz’s observations
The phenomenon of photoelectric emission was discovered in 1887 by
Heinrich Hertz (1857-1894).
He observed that when light falls on a metal surface, the electrons escaped
from the surface of the metal into the surrounding space.

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Hallwachs’ and Lenard’s observations
Lenard (1862-1947) observed that when ultraviolet radiations were
allowed to fall on the emitter plate of an evacuated glass tube enclosing two
electrodes (metal plates), current flows in the circuit.
Hallwachs, in 1888, connected a negatively charged zinc plate to an
electroscope and found that negatively charged particles were emitted from
the zinc plate under the action of ultraviolet light.
It was found that zinc, cadmium, magnesium, etc., responded only to
ultraviolet light, having short wavelength, to cause electron emission from
the surface.
However, some alkali metals such as lithium, sodium, potassium, caesium
and rubidium were sensitive even to visible light.
Photoelectric Effect
The phenomenon of emission of electrons when photosensitive substances
are illuminated by light of suitable frequency is called photoelectric effect.
Experimental Study of Photoelectric Effect

Experimental arrangement consists of an evacuated glass/quartz tube

having a photosensitive plate C and another metal plate A. Monochromatic
light from the source S of sufficiently short wavelength passes through the
window W and falls on the photosensitive plate C (emitter). A transparent
quartz window permits ultraviolet radiation to pass through it and irradiate
the photosensitive plate C. The electrons are emitted by the plate C and are
collected by the plate A (collector), by the electric field created by the
battery. The polarity of the plates C and A can be reversed by a commutator.
When the collector plate A is positive with respect to the emitter plate C, the
electrons are attracted to it. The emission of electrons causes flow of
electric current in the circuit. The photoelectric current can be increased or
decreased by varying the potential of collector plate A with respect to the

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emitter plate C. The intensity and frequency of the incident light can also be
varied.

1.Effect of intensity of light on photocurrent

When intensity of incident radiation is increased( keeping the frequency

of the incident radiation and the accelerating potential fixe), the number of
photoelectrons emitted per second increases and hence the photoelectric
current also increases.
i.e., the photocurrent increases linearly with intensity of incident light.

2.Effect of potential on photoelectric current

When the positive potential of collector (A) is increased the photoelectric

current increases until all the electrons are collected by the collector(A).
Then the photocurrent becomes maximum and is called saturation current.

Now the collector is made negative with respect to emitter C. Then the
photocurrent decreases with increases in negative potential and finally
becomes zero. The minimum negative potential of emitter plate A for which
the photocurrent stops or bocomes zero is called the cut off potential or
stopping potential (V0)
At stopping potential,
Kmax = e V0
𝟏
mvmax2 = e V0
𝟐

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3.Effect of Intensity of incident radiation on stopping potential

The experiment is repeated with incident radiation of the same frequency

but different intensities I1, I2 and I3 (I3 > I2 > I1).When the intensity of
incident radiation is increased ,number of photo electrons emitted per
second increases and hence the the saturation current increases. But as the
kinetic energy of photoelectrons remains constant and the stopping
potential also remains constant.

i.e., for a given frequency of incident radiation, the stopping potential is

independent of intensity of radiation.

4.Effect of frequency of incident radiation on stopping potential

The experiment is repeated at same intensity of light radiation but differenr

frequencies 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣3 such that 𝑣1 > 𝑣2 > 𝑣3 . When the frequency of
incident radiation increases, the kinetic energy of photoelectrons increases
and hence the stopping potential also increases. But as the intensity does not
change , the saturation current will be the same for different frequencies.

i.e., the stopping potential increases with increase in frequency of incident

radiation.

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Laws of Photoelectric Effect
i.For a given photosensitive material and frequency of incident radiation,
the photoelectric current is directly proportional to the intensity of
incident light.
ii.For a given photosensitive material and frequency of incident radiation,
saturation current is found to be proportional to the intensity of incident
radiation whereas the stopping potential is independent of its intensity .
iii.For a given photosensitive material, there exists a certain minimum cut-
off frequency of the incident radiation, called the threshold frequency(𝑣0 )
below which no emission of photoelectrons takes place, no matter how
intense the incident light is. Above the threshold frequency, the stopping
potential or equivalently the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted
photoelectrons increases linearly with the frequency of the incident
radiation, but is independent of its intensity
iv.The photoelectric emission is an instantaneous process without any
apparent time lag.

Threshold Frequency
Threshold frequency is the minimum cut-off frequency of the incident
radiation, below which photo emission is not possible, no matter how
intense the incident light is.
Photoelectric Effect and Wave Theory of Light
The phenomena of interference, diffraction and polarisation were explained
by the wave picture of light. But the wave picture is unable to explain the
most basic features of photoelectric emission.
▪ According to the wave picture of light, the free electrons at the
surface of the metal absorb the radiant energy continuously. The
greater the intensity of radiation, the greater should be the energy
absorbed by each electron. This is contradictory to the observations of
photoelectric effect.
▪ As large number of electrons absorb energy, the energy absorbed
per electron per unit time turns out to be small. It can take hours or
more for a single electron to pick up sufficient energy to overcome the
work function and come out of the metal. This is contrast to
observation that the photoelectric emission is instantaneous.

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Einstein’s Photoelectric Equation: Energy Quantum of Radiation
Einstein explained photoelectric effect based on Planck’s quantum theory of
radiation. When a photon incident on a metal surface, a part of its energy is
used as work function and the remaining part is used to give kinetic energy
to emitted photoelectrons.
Energy of photon =work function + KE of electrons
ℎ𝑣 = 𝜙0 + Kmax
Kmax = 𝒉𝒗 − 𝝓𝟎 ----------------(1)
This is known as Einstein’s photoelectric equation.

At stopping potential V0
Kmax=e V0
e V0 = 𝒉𝒗 − 𝝓𝟎 ----------------(2)

At threshold frequency , 𝑣 = 𝑣0 , KE = 0 , 𝜙0 = h𝑣0

Kmax = 𝒉𝒗 − 𝒉𝒗𝟎 -------------(3)

Since Kmax is must be non negative, the photo emission is possible

only if ℎ𝑣 > 𝜙0 , ℎ𝑣 > ℎ𝑣0 , 𝑣 > 𝑣0
𝜙
where, 𝑣0 = 0
ℎ
Greater the work function ,greater the threshold frequency.
Below threshold frequency ,photoemission is not possible.
1
but Kmax = 𝑚ν𝑚𝑎𝑥 2
2
𝟏
𝒎𝛎𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝟐 = 𝒉(𝒗 − 𝒗𝟎 ) ------------(4)
𝟐

𝑐 𝑐
c= 𝑣 λ then 𝑣= , 𝑣0 =
𝜆 𝜆0
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝒎𝛎𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝟐 = hc ( − ) ----------(5)
𝟐 𝝀 𝝀𝟎
where 𝜆0 is called threshold wavelength.

Variation of stopping potential with frequency of incident radiation

At stopping potential V0 Einstein’s photoelectric equation ,
eV0 = ℎ𝑣 − 𝜙0
𝒉 𝝓𝟎
𝑽𝟎 = 𝒗−
𝒆 𝒆

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This equation shows that the graph between stopping potential 𝑉0 and
ℎ
frequency 𝑣 is a straight line with slope which is a constant independent of
𝑒
nature of material.

𝑽𝟎 𝒉
From graph , slope
𝒗
= 𝒆

The x- intercept of this graph gives work function.

The graph shows that

(i) the stopping potential V0 varies linearly with the frequency of
incident radiation for a given photosensitive material.
(ii) there exists a certain minimum cut-off frequency ν0 for which the
stopping potential is zero

For two metals A and B these graphs metal A metal B will be parallel straight
lines

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Particle Nature of Light –The Photon
1) In the interaction of light with matter , light behaves as if it is made up of
particles called photon.
2) Each photon has energy, E=hν and momentum p= hν/c and speed c= 3x
108 m/s
3) All photons of light of a particular frequency ν, or wavelength λ, have the
same energy and momentum p, whatever the intensity of radiation may be.
4) When intensity of light is increased only the number of photons
increases, but the energy of photon is independent of intensity of light.
5) Photons are electrically neutral. They are not deflected by electric and
magnetic fields.
6) In photon-particle collision total energy and total momentum are
conserved. However, the number of photons may not be conserved in a
collision. The photon may be absorbed or a new photon may be created.

Example
Monochromatic light of frequency 6.0 ×1014 Hz is produced by a laser. The
power emitted is 2.0 ×10–3 W.
(a) What is the energy of a photon in the light beam?
(b) How many photons per second, on an average, are emitted by the
source?
(a) Each photon has an energy E = h ν = 6.63 ×10–34x6.0 ×1014 Hz
= 3.98 × 10–19 J
𝑃 2𝑥10−3
(b) N= = = 5 x1015photons per second
𝐸 3.98𝑥10−19

Example
The work function of a metal is 6eV. If two photons each having energy 4 eV
strike the metal surface. Will the emission be possible? Why?
No, photo emission is not possible.
Photo emission is possible only if ℎ𝑣 > 𝜙0
Here energy of incident photon is less than work function
and hence photo emission is not possible.

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Example
The work function of caesium is 2.14 eV.
a) Find the threshold frequency for caesium.
b) the wavelength of the incident light if the photocurrent is brought
to zero by a stopping potential of 0.60 V.
𝜙
a) 𝑣0 = 0
ℎ
𝜙0 =2.14 eV =2.14 x1.6x10-19 J
h=6.63 x10-34Js
2.14 𝑥1.6𝑥10−19
𝑣0 = =5.16 x1014 Hz
6.63 𝑥10−34

b) e V0 = ℎ𝑣 − 𝜙0
ℎ𝑣 = e V0−𝜙0
𝑐
ℎ = e V0−𝜙0
𝜆
hc
λ=
eV0 −ϕ0
6.63 x10−34 x3 x108
= =454 nm
1.6 x10−19 x0.6−2.14 x1.6x10−19
Wave Nature of Matter
▪ The wave nature of light shows up in the phenomena of
interference, diffraction and polarisation. On the other hand, in
photoelectric effect and Compton effect which involve energy and
momentum transfer, radiation behaves as if it is made up of particles –
the photons.
▪ The gathering and focussing mechanism of light by the eye-lens is
well described in the wave picture. But its absorption by the rods and
cones (of the retina) requires the photon picture of light.
A natural question arises: If radiation has a dual (wave-particle) nature,
might not the particles of nature (the electrons, protons, etc.) also exhibit
wave-like character?
Louis Victor de Broglie argued that moving particles of matter should
display wave-like properties under suitable conditions.
As nature is symmetrical , the two basic physical entities of nature – matter
and energy, must have symmetrical character. If radiation shows dual
aspects, matter should also exhibit dual nature.

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de Broglie Relation -Wavelenth of matter wave
De Broglie proposed that the wave length λ associated with a particle of
momentum p is given as
𝒉 𝒉
λ = 𝒑= 𝒎𝒗 ----------(1)
where m is the mass of the particle and v its speed.
λ is called de Broglie wavelength.
The dual aspect of matter is evident in the de Broglie relation. Here λ is a
wave attribute while the momentum p is a particle attribute. Planck’s
constant h relates the two attributes.
For an electron of mass m and velocity v
1 𝑝2
K = m v2 = ,
2 2𝑚
P2 =2mK
P=√2𝑚𝐾
𝒉
λ= ------------(2)
√𝟐𝒎𝑲
For an electron accelerated from rest through a potential V.
The kinetic energy K = e V
𝒉
λ= -------------(3)
√𝟐𝒎𝒆𝑽
Substituting the numerical values of h, m, e,
𝟏.𝟐𝟐𝟕
λ= nm -----------(4)
√𝑽

Why macroscopic objects in our daily life do not show wave-like properties?
The de Broglie wavelength of a ball of mass 0.12 kg moving with a speed of
20 m s–1 is ,
ℎ 6.6 𝑥10−34
λ= = = 2.76x10-34 nm
𝑚𝑣 0.12 𝑥20
This wavelength is so small that it is beyond any measurement. This is the
reason why macroscopic objects in our daily life do not show wave-like
properties. But in the sub-atomic domain, the wave character of particles is
significant and measurable.
Example
What is the de Broglie wavelength associated with an electron moving with
a speed of 5.4×106 m/s?
ℎ 6.6 𝑥10−34
λ= = = 0.135 nm
𝑚𝑣 9.1 𝑥 10−31 𝑥 5.4 𝑥106

This wavelength is measurable. i.e., in the sub-atomic domain, the wave

character of particles is significant and measurable.

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Example
What is the de Broglie wavelength associated with an electron, accelerated
through a potential differnece of 100 volts?
1.227
λ= nm
√𝑉
1.227
= nm = 0.123 nm
√100

The de Broglie wavelength associated with an electron in this case is of the

order of X-ray wavelengths.
Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle
The matter–wave picture incorporates the Heisenberg’s uncertainty
principle.
Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle states that, it is not possible to measure
both the position and momentum of an electron (or any other particle) at
the same time exactly.
𝒉
Δx Δp ≈
𝟐𝝅
Δx is the uncertainty in the specification of position
Δp is the uncertainty in the specification of momentum.

If Δx is zero; then Δp must be infinite in order that the product is non-zero.

Similarly, if Δp is zero, Δx must be infinite.
Ordinarily, both Δx and Δp are non-zero such that their product is of the
ℎ
order of = .
2𝜋

The matter wave description of an electron with an uncertainty in position

(Δx) and an uncertainty in momentum (Δp).
(Here λ and x are not definite )

The matter wave description of an electron with definite momentum.

i.e., Δp = 0 (and Δ x → ∞.
(Here λ is definite but x not definite i,e.,electron extends all over space).

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Davisson and Germer Experiment
The wave nature of electron was first experimentally verified by Davisson
and Germer in 1927 (and independently by G P Thomson in 1928) Davisson
and Thomson shared Nobel prize for their experimental discovery of
diffraction of electrons by crystals.

▪ A collimated beam of electron from an electron gun is allowed to

fall on a Nickel target. The intensity of scattered beam in a given
direction is measured by a movable detector.

▪ The variation of intensity of scattered electron with the angle of

scattering is obtained at different accelerating potential from 44V to
54V .It was found that a strong peak appeared in intensity of scattered
electron for an accelerating voltage of 54V and scattering angle
𝜃 = 500.

▪ The appearance of peak in particular direction is due to

constructive interference of electron beams scattered from different
layers of regularly spaced atoms of the crystal.

▪ From the electron diffraction measurement ,the wavelength of

matter wave was found to be 0.165nm.
▪ The de Broglie wavelength λ associated electron for 54V is
1.227 1.227
λ= nm = λ = nm =0.167nm
√𝑉 √54

Thus theoritical value agrees with experimentally obtained de Broglie

wavelength. DavissonGermer experiment thus confirms the wave nature of
electrons and the de Broglie relation.

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 Chapter 12
Atoms
Thomson Model of Atom- (plum pudding model)
The first model of atom was proposed by J. J. Thomson in 1898.
▪ According to this model, the positive charge of the atom is uniformly
distributed throughout the volume of the atom .
▪ The negatively charged electrons are embedded in it like seeds in a
watermelon.
This model is also called plum pudding model of the atom.

Alpha-Particle Scattering and Rutherford’s Nuclear Model of Atom

Ernst Rutherford , a former research student of J. J. Thomson, proposed a
classic experiment of scattering of these α-particles by atoms to investigate
the atomic structure. The explanation of the results led to the birth of
Rutherford’s planetary model of atom (also called the nuclear model of the
atom).

Alpha-Particle Scattering
At the suggestion of Ernst Rutherford, in 1911, H. Geiger and E. Marsden
performed scattering experiment.

Alpha-particles emitted by a 214 83𝐵𝑖 radioactive source were collimated into a

narrow beam by passing through lead bricks. The beam was allowed to fall
on a thin foil of gold of thickness 2.1 × 10–7 m. The scattered alpha-particles
were observed through a rotatable detector consisting of zinc sulphide
screen and a microscope.
Observations
▪ Many of the α-particles pass through the foil. It means that
they do not suffer any collisions.
▪ Only 0.14% of the incident α-particles scatter by more than 1º.
▪ About 1 in 8000 of incident α-particles deflect by more than 90º.

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Rutherford argued that , greater part of the mass of the atom and its positive
charge were concentrated tightly at its centre. When the incoming α-particle
make a close encounter with the positive charge ,that would result in a large
deflection.
Rutherford’s nuclear model of the atom
▪ Most of an atom is empty space.
▪ The entire positive charge and most of the mass of the atom
are concentrated in the nucleus with the electrons some
distance away.
▪ The electrons would be moving in orbits about the nucleus just
as the planets do around the sun.
▪ The size of the nucleus to be about 10–15 m to 10–14 m.
▪ The electrostatic force of attraction, between the
revolving electrons and the nucleus provides the
centripetal force to keep them in their orbits.
Impact Parameter (b)

Impact parameter is the perpendicular distance of the initial velocity vector

of the 𝛂 𝐩𝐚𝐫𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐥𝐞 from the centre of the nucleus.
Alpha-particle trajectory
The trajectory traced by an α-particle depends on the impact parameter, b of
collision.

▪ For an α-particle close to the nucleus , impact parameter is

small and it suffers large scattering.
▪ For head on collision, the impact parameter b=0 and
α particle rebounds back ie,angle of scattering 𝜃 =1800.
▪ For large impact parameter, the angle of scattering will be
small ( 𝜃 ≈00) and such α particles go undeviated.

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Electron orbits
The electrostatic force of attraction(Fe), between the revolving electrons and
the nucleus provides the centripetal force (Fc) to keep them in their orbits.
Fc = Fe
mv2 1 e2
=
r 4πε0 r2

The kinetic energy (K) of electron

𝟏 𝟐 𝐞𝟐
K = 𝒎𝒗 =
𝟐 𝟖𝛑𝛆𝟎 𝐫
The potential energy (U) of electron
−𝐞𝟐
U=
𝟒𝛑𝛆𝟎 𝐫
(The negative sign in U signifies that the electrostatic force is in the –r
direction.)
Thus the total energy E of the electron in a hydrogen atom is
E = K+U
e2 e2
E= −
8πε0 r 4πε0 r
−𝐞𝟐
E = 𝟖𝛑𝛆
𝟎𝐫

The total energy of the electron is negative. This implies the fact that the
electron is bound to the nucleus. If E were positive, an electron will not
follow a closed orbit around the nucleus.
Limitations of Rutherford Model
Rutherford nuclear model has two main difficulties in explaining the
structure of atom:
(a) Rutherford model could not explain stability of
matter. The accelerated electrons revolving around the
nucleus loses energy and must spiral into the nucleus.
This contradicts the stability of matter.
(b) It cannot explain the characteristic line spectra of atoms of
different elements.

Bohr Model of Hydrogen Atom

Niels Bohr made certain modifications in Rutherford’s model using the
ideas of quantum hypothesis. Bohr combined classical and early quantum
concepts and gave his theory in the form of three postulates.

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1) Bohr’s first postulate states that an electron in an atom revolves in
certain stable orbits without the emission of radiant energy.
2) Second postulate states that the electron revolves around the nucleus
only in those orbits for which the angular momentum is an integral multiple
of h/2π where h is the Planck’s constant
𝒏𝒉
L = mvr = ,where n = 1,2,3……….
𝟐𝝅
n is called principal quantum number
3) Third postulate states that when an electron make a transition from
higher energy level to lower energy level a photon is emitted having energy
equal to the energy difference between the initial and final states. The
frequency of the emitted photon is then given by
hν = 𝑬𝒊 - 𝑬𝒇
Expression for Radius of Hydrogen Atom
Consider an electron of charge ‘e’ and mass ‘m’ revolving round the
positively charged nucleus in circular orbit of radius ’r’
Centripetal force = Electrostatic force of attraction
mv2 1 e2
= --------------(1)
r 4πε0 r2
According to Bohr atom model, the angular momentum
nh
mvr =
2π
nh
v= ------------------(2)
2πmr
Substituting eqn (2) in eqn (1)
nh 2 e2
m( ) = 4πε
2πmr 0r
n2 h2 e2
=
4π2 mr2 4πε0 r
𝐧𝟐 𝐡𝟐 𝛆𝟎
𝐫𝐧 = -----------(3)
𝛑𝐦𝐞𝟐
th
rn is the radius of n orbit of Hydrogen atom
𝐫𝐧 𝛂 𝐧𝟐
For the first orbit n=1
h2 ε0
r1 =
πme2

This is called the Bohr radius, represented by the symbol a0

𝐡𝟐 𝛆𝟎
𝐚𝟎 =
𝛑𝐦𝐞𝟐

Bohr radius , 𝐚𝟎 = 5.29 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟏 m = 0.53Å

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 The radius of 𝐧𝐭𝐡 orbit of Hydrogen atom can also be written as
𝐫𝐧 =0.53 𝐧𝟐 Å
𝐫𝟏 =1 x 0.53 Å
𝐫𝟐 =4 x 0.53 Å
𝐫𝟑 =9 x 0.53 Å

Energy of Hydrogen Atom

Total energy of 𝒏𝒕𝒉 energy level
−e2
En =
8πε0 rn

The radius of hydrogen atom

n2 h2 ε0
rn =
πme2

Substituting for rn from eqn(3)

−e2
En = n2 h2 ε0
8πε0 ( )
πme2

−𝐦𝐞𝟒
𝐄𝐧 =
𝟖𝐧𝟐 𝛆𝟎 𝟐 𝐡𝟐
−𝟏𝟑.𝟔
𝐄𝐧 = eV
𝐧𝟐
𝟏
𝐄𝐧 𝛂 𝟐
𝐧
The negative sign of the total energy of an electron moving in an orbit means
that the electron is bound with the nucleus.

Energy levels
The energy of an atom is the least (largest negative value) when its electron
is revolving in an orbit closest to the nucleus for n = 1. The energy is
progressively larger in the outer orbits.

Ground State
The lowest energy state of an atom is called the Ground State, with the
electron revolving in the orbit of smallest radius, the Bohr radius, a0.
For ground state n=1
−𝟏𝟑.𝟔
𝐄𝟏 = 𝟐 eV = -13.6 eV
𝟏

At room temperature most of the Hydrogen atoms are in ground state.

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Excited States
When Hydrogen atom receives energy by the process such as collisions, the
atoms may acquire sufficient energy to raise the electrons to higher energy
states. Then atom is said to be in an excited state.
For first excited state (second energy level)
−13.6
n =2, E2 = 2 eV = -3.4 eV
2
For second excited state (third energy level)
−13.6
n =3 , E3 = 2 eV = -1.51 eV
3
And so on..
The energy level diagram for the hydrogen atom

Ionisation Energy
The minimum energy required to free the electron from the ground state of
the atom is called the Ionisation energy.

Ionisation energy of an atom is always positive.

Ionisation energy of Hydrogen atom = E∞ - E1
= 0 – ( -13.6) eV = 13.6 eV.
Ionisation energy of Hydrogen atom is 13.6 eV

The energy required to excite an electron in Hydrogen atom from ground

state to its first excited state is
𝐄𝟐 -𝐄𝟏 = -3.6 eV – (-13.6) eV = 10.2 eV
The energy required to excite an electron in Hydrogen atom from ground
state to its second excited state is
𝐄𝟑 -𝐄𝟏 = -1.51 eV – (-13.6) eV = 12.09 eV
And so on…

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Atomic Spectra
Each element has a characteristic spectrum of radiation, which it emits.
There are two types of spectra-Emission spectrum and Absorption
spectrum.

Emission Spectrum
When an atomic gas or vapour is excited at low pressure, by passing an
electric current through it, the emitted radiation has a spectrum which
contains certain specific wavelengths only. A spectrum of this kind is termed
as emission line spectrum and it consists of bright lines on a dark
background. Study of emission line spectra of a material is used for
identification of the gas.

Absorption Spectrum
When white light passes through a gas and we analyse the transmitted light
using a spectrometer we find some dark lines in the spectrum. These dark
lines correspond precisely to those wavelengths which were found in the
emission line spectrum of the gas. This is called the absorption spectrum of
the material of the gas.

Spectral series of Hydrogen Atom

Hydrogen is the simplest atom and therefore, has the simplest spectrum.
The spacing between lines within certain sets of the hydrogen spectrum
decreases in a regular way . Each of these sets is called a spectral series. The
first series was observed Johann Jakob Balmer the visible region of the
hydrogen spectrum. This series is called Balmer series .

The line with the longest wavelength, 656.3 nm in the red is called Hα
The line with the shortest wavelength, 364.6 nm is called 𝐻∞ .
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Rydberg formula, for the spectrum of the hydrogen atom
According to the third postulate of Bohr’s model, when an atom makes a
transition from the higher energy state with quantum number ni to the
lower energy state with quantum number nf (nf < ni ),
h𝑣 = Ei – Ef
−me4 −me4
h𝑣 = 2 −
8ni 2 ε0 2 h 8nf 2 ε0 2 h2
−me4 1 1
h𝑣 = ( − )
8ε0 2 h2 nf 2 ni 2
me4 1 1
𝑣= ( − )
8ε0 2 h3 nf 2 ni 2
c
𝑣=
λ
c me4 1 1
= 2 h3 (n 2 − )
λ 8ε0 f ni 2
1 me4 1 1
= 2 h3 c (n 2 − )
λ 8ε0 f ni 2
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= 𝐑( 𝟐 − )
𝛌 𝐧𝐟 𝐧𝐢 𝟐
This is the Rydberg formula, for the spectrum of the hydrogen atom. R is
called the Rydberg constant.
𝐦𝐞𝟒
𝐑=
𝟖𝛆𝟎 𝟐 𝐡𝟑 𝒄
R = 1.03 × 107 m–1
Balmer Formula
If we take nf = 2 and ni = 3, 4, 5..., Rydberg formula reduces to Balmer
formula.
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= 𝐑 ( 𝟐 − 𝟐 ) where n= 3,4,5,…..
𝛌 𝟐 𝐧
R is Rydberg constant and its value R = 1.03 × 107 m–1.
▪ For Hα line, n = 3
1 1 1
= R ( 2 − 2)
λ 2 3
λ = 656.3 nm
This is the longest wavelength of Balmer series
▪ For 𝐻𝛽 line, n = 4
1 1 1
= R ( 2 − 2)
λ 2 4
λ = 486.1 nm
▪ For 𝐻∞ line, n = ∞
1 1 1
= R ( 2 − 2)
λ 2 ∞
λ = 364.6 nm.
This the shortest wavelength of Balmer series i.e.,the limit of Balmer series.

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The formulae for spectral series of Hydrogen atom
Other series of spectra for hydrogen were subsequently discovered. These
are known, after their discoverers. The spectral series of hydrogen atom are
Lyman,Balmer, Paschen, Brackett, and Pfund series.
Lyman Series
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= 𝐑 ( 𝟐 − 𝟐 ) where n= 2,3,4,…..
𝛌 𝟏 𝐧
Balmer Series
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= 𝐑 ( 𝟐 − 𝟐 ) where n= 3,4,5,…..
𝛌 𝟐 𝐧
Paschen Series
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= 𝐑 ( 𝟐 − 𝟐 ) where n=4,5,6,…..
𝛌 𝟑 𝐧
Brackett Series
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= 𝐑 ( 𝟐 − 𝟐 ) where n=5,6,7,.…..
𝛌 𝟒 𝐧
Pfund Series
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= 𝐑 ( 𝟐 − 𝟐 ) where n= 6,7,8,…..
𝛌 𝟓 𝐧
The Lyman series is in the ultraviolet,Balmer series in the Visible region and
the Paschen and Brackett series are in the infrared region.
The Balmer formula in terms of frequency of the light,
c = νλ
1 𝑣
=
𝜆 𝑐
𝑣 1 1
= R( − )
𝑐 22 n2
𝟏 𝟏
𝛎 = 𝐑𝐜 ( − ) where n=3,4,5,….
𝟐𝟐 𝐧𝟐
The Line Spectra of The Hydrogen Atom

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De Broglie’s Explanation of Bohr’s second postulate of Quantisation
De Broglie argued that electron in its circular orbit behaves as a particle
wave. The particle wave can produce standing wave under resonant
condition.

For 𝒏𝒕𝒉 orbit of radius 𝑟𝑛 , the resonant condition is

2 π 𝑟𝑛 = n λ----------- (1) where n=1,2,3…..

But by de Broglie hypothesis , for matter waves

𝐡
λ = ---------------(2)
𝐦𝐯

Substituing eqn (2) in eqn (1),

𝐡
2 π rn = n
𝐦𝐯
𝐧𝐡
mv 𝐫𝐧 = where n=1,2,3……
𝟐𝛑
This Bohr’s second postulate of Quantisation.

Limitations of Bohr Atom Model

(i) The Bohr model is applicable to hydrogenic atoms. It cannot be
extended two or more electron atoms. Difficulty lies in the fact that
each electron interacts not only with the positively charged nucleus
but also with all other electrons.
(ii) While the Bohr’s model correctly predicts the frequencies of the
light emitted by hydrogenic atoms, the model is unable to explain
the intensity variations of the frequencies in the spectrum.

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 Chapter 13
Nuclei
Introduction
The volume of a nucleus is about 10–12 times smaller than the volume of the
atom. In other words, an atom is almost empty. If an atom is enlarged to the
size of a classroom, the nucleus would be of the size of pinhead.
Nevertheless, the nucleus contains most (more than 99.9%) of the mass of
an atom.
Atomic Masses and Composition of Nucleus
The mass of an atom is very small. Kilogram is not a very convenient unit to
measure such small quantities. Therefore, a different mass unit is used for
expressing atomic masses. This unit is the atomic mass unit (u).

Atomic Mass Unit (u)

Atomic mass unit (u) is defined as 1/12th of the mass of the carbon (12C)
atom.
𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐨𝐧𝐞 𝐂−𝟏𝟐 𝐚𝐭𝐨𝐦
1u =
𝟏𝟐
𝟏.𝟗𝟗𝟐𝟔𝟒𝟕 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟔
=
𝟏𝟐
=1.660539 10-27 kg
Accurate measurement of atomic masses is carried out with a mass
spectrometer.

Composition of Nucleus
The composition of a nucleus can be described using the following terms
and symbols:
Z - atomic number = number of protons = number of electrons
N - neutron number = number of neutrons=A-Z
A - mass number = Z + N = total number of protons and neutrons .

Protons and neutrons are also called nucleons. Thus the number of
nucleons in an atom is its mass number A.

▪ All the electrons of an atom are outside the nucleus.

▪ The total charge of the atomic electrons is (–Ze)
▪ The total cherge of the nucleus is (+Ze).
▪ Atom is electrically neutral
▪ The mass of proton , mp =1.00727 u = 1.67262 10-27 kg
▪ The mass of neutron , mn = 1.00866 u = 1.6749×10–27 kg

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 ▪ Neutron was discovered by James Chadwick.
▪ Chadwick was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1935 for his
discovery of the neutron.
Isotopes
Isotpes are different types of atoms of the same element, with same atomic
number ,but different mass number .They exhibit the same chemical
properties, but differ in mass.

▪ Chlorine has two isotopes having masses 34.98 u and 36.98 u. The
relative abundances of these isotopes are 75.4 and 24.6 per cent,
respectively. Thus, the average mass of a chlorine atom is obtained by
the weighted average of the masses of the two isotopes, which works
out to be
75.4 x34.98+ 24.6x 36.98
=
𝟏𝟎𝟎
= 35.47 u
which agrees with the atomic mass of chlorine.

▪ The lightest element, hydrogen has three isotopes ,

Proton( 11H) - contains one proton only
2
Deuterium( 1H) - contains one proton and one neutron.
Tritium( 31H) - contains one proton and two neutrons.
Tritium nuclei, being unstable, do not occur naturally and
are produced artficially in laboratories.

▪ The element gold has 32 isotopes, ranging from

A =173 to A = 204.
Isobars
All nuclides with same mass number A , but with different atomic number
are called isobars.
For example, the nuclides ( 31H) and ( 32He)are isobars.

Isotones
Nuclides with same neutron number N but different atomic number Z are
called isotones.
For example 198 197
80Hg 79Au are isotones.
Size of The Nucleus
By performing scattering experiments in which fast electrons, instead of α-
particles, are projectiles that bombard targets made up of various elements,
the sizes of nuclei of various elements have been accurately measured.

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Radius of nucleus
A nucleus of mass number A has a radius
R = R0 A1/3
where R0 = 1.2 × 10–15 m.
Volume of nucleus
4
V= πR3
3
4 𝟏⁄ 𝟑
= π (𝐑 𝟎 𝐀 𝟑 )
3
4
= π(𝐑 𝟎 )𝟑 𝐀
3
The volume of the nucleus is proportional to A
Density of nucleus
mass
Nuclear density=
volume
Amp
=4
3
π(𝐑 𝟎 )𝟑 𝐀
mp
=4 = constant
3
π(𝐑 𝟎 )𝟑
Thus the density of nucleus is a constant, independent of A, for all nuclei.

Example
Given the mass of iron nucleus as 55.85u and A=56, find the nuclear
density?
mFe = 55.85 u = 9.27 × 10–26 kg
m
Nuclear density =4 Fe 𝟑
3
𝜋(𝐑 𝟎 ) 𝑨
9.27 × 10–26
=4
3
𝜋(1.2 × 10–15 )𝟑 𝒙 𝟓𝟔
= 2.29 × 1017 kg m–3
Mass – Energy
Einstein showed that mass is another form of energy and one can convert
mass-energy into other forms of energy, say kinetic energy and vice-versa.
Einstein gave the famous mass-energy equivalence relation
E = mc 2
c is the velocity of light in vacuum.c= 3×108 m s–1.
Experimental verification of the Einstein’s mass-energy relation has been
achieved in the study of nuclear reactions. In a reaction the conservation law
of energy states that the initial energy and the final energy are equal
provided the energy associated with mass is also included.

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Example
Calculate the energy equivalent of 1 g of substance.
E = mc 2
= 1x10–3 × ( 3 × 108 ) 2
= 10–3 × 9 × 1016
= 9 × 1013 J
Thus, if one gram of matter is converted to energy, there is a release of
enormous amount of energy.
Example
Find the energy equivalent of one atomic mass unit, first in Joules and then
in MeV.
1u = 1.6605 × 10–27 kg
E = mc 2
=1.6605 × 10–27 x(3 x 108)2
E = 1.4924 × 10–10 J

Energy equivalent in MeV.

1eV = 1.602 x10-19J
1.4924 × 10–10
E=
1.602 x10−19
= 0.9315 × 109 eV
= 931.5 MeV

Mass Defect and Binding Energy

Mass Defect (ΔM)
The nucleus is made up of neutrons and protons. Therefore it may be
expected that the mass of the nucleus is equal to the total mass of its
individual protons and neutrons.

The nuclear mass M is always less than the total mass, of its constituents
(protons and neutrons). The difference in mass of a nucleus and its
constituents is called the mass defect.
ΔM = [𝐙 𝐦𝐩 + (𝐀 − 𝐙)𝐦𝐧 ] − 𝐌
For example, let us consider 168O ; a nucleus which has 8 neutrons and 8
protons.
Mass of 8 neutrons = 8 × 1.00866 u
Mass of 8 protons = 8 × 1.00727 u
The expected mass of 168O nucleus = 16.12744 u

The atomic mass of 168O from mass spectroscopy experiments= 15.99493 u

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 Substracting the mass of 8 electrons (8 × 0.00055 u)
The mass of 168O nucleus =15.99493 u -(8 × 0.00055 u)= 15.99053 u

Mass defect ΔM =16.12744 -15.99053 u

= 0.13691u
Binding Energy
The energy equivalent of mass defect is called binding energy.
Eb = Δ Mc2
▪ If we separate a nucleus into its nucleons, we would have to supply a
total energy equal to Eb, to those particles.
▪ If a certain number of neutrons and protons are brought together to
form a nucleus of a certain charge and mass, an energy Eb will be
released .
Binding Energy Per Nucleon
A more useful measure of the binding between the constituents of the
nucleus is the binding energy per nucleon, Ebn,

The binding energy per nucleon, Ebn, is the ratio of the binding energy Eb of
a nucleus to the number of the nucleons, A, in that nucleus.
Ebn = Eb / A
It is the average energy per nucleon needed to separate a nucleus into its
individual nucleons.
The plot of binding energy per nucleon versus mass number

Observations:
(i) In the mass number range A = 30 to 170 ( 30 < A < 170), the
binding energy per nucleon is nearly constant, about 8
MeV/nucleon.
(ii) The maximum of about 8.75 MeV for A = 56 I,e,.for 56Fe nucleus.
(iii) Ebn is lower for both light nuclei with A< 30 and for heavy nuclei
with A>170.

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We can draw some conclusions from these two observations:
(i) The nuclear force is attractive and sufficiently strong to produce a
binding energy of a few MeV per nucleon.
(ii) The constancy of the binding energy in the range 30 < A < 170
indicates that the nuclear force is short-ranged. A nucleon influences
only nucleons close to it and this property is called saturation property
of the nuclear force.
(iii) A very heavy nucleus, say A = 240, has lower binding energy per
nucleon .Such a heavy nucleus breaks into two lighter nuclei, thereby
increasing the binding energy per nucleon and the nucleons get more
tightly bound. Energy would be released in the process and this is an
implication of through fission.
(iv) Two very light nuclei (A ≤ 10) have lower binding energy per nucleon
.They join to form a heavier nucleus , thereby increasing the binding
energy per nucleon and the nucleons get more tightly bound. Energy
would be released in such a process and this is an implication of
through of fusion.

Nuclear Force
The nuclear force binds the nucleons together inside the nucleus.
(i) The nuclear force is much stronger than the Coulomb repulsive
force between protons inside the nucleus and the gravitational
force between the masses.
(ii) The nuclear force between two nucleons falls rapidly to zero as
their distance is more than a few femtometres. The force is
attractive for distances larger than 0.8 fm and repulsive if they are
separated by distances less than 0.8 fm.

A rough plot of the potential energy between

two nucleons as a function of distance. The
potential energy is a minimum at a distance r0
of about 0.8 fm.

(iii) The nuclear force between neutron-neutron, proton-neutron and

proton-proton is approximately the same. The nuclear force does
not depend on the electric charge.

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Radioactivity
A .H. Becquerel discovered radioactivity in 1896. Radioactivity is a nuclear
phenomenon in which an unstable nucleus undergoes a decay.This is
referred to as radioactive decay.
Three types of radioactive decay occur in nature :
α-decay in which a helium nucleus (He) is emitted;
β-decay in which electrons or positrons (particles with the same mass as
electrons, but with a charge exactly opposite to that of electron) are emitted;
γ-decay in which high energy (hundreds of keV or more) photons are
emitted.

Law of radioactive decay

This law states that the number of nuclei undergoing the decay per unit time
is proportional to the total number of nuclei in the sample.

If N is the number of nuclei in the sample and ΔN undergo decay in time Δt

then
dN
= −λN
dt
dN
= −λdt
N
Now, integrating both sides of the above equation,we get,
dN
∫ = −λ∫ dt
N
ln N − ln N0 = −λ (t – t 0 )
Here N0 is the number of radioactive nuclei in the sample at time t 0 and N is
the number of radioactive nuclei at any subsequent time t. Setting t 0 =0
N
ln = −λt
N0
Taking exponential on both sides
N
= e−λt
N0
N =𝐍𝟎 𝐞−𝛌𝐭
Decay Rate
Decay rate is the number of nuclei decaying per unit time.
dN
R =-
dt
d
R =- N0 e−λt
dt
R = λN0 e−λt
R = 𝐑 𝟎 𝐞−𝛌𝐭 where R 0 = λN

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The total decay rate R of a sample of one or more radionuclides is called the
activity of that sample.
The SI unit for activity is becquerel.
1 becquerel = 1Bq = 1 decay per second
An older unit is curie.
1 curie = 1 Ci = 3.7 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟎 Bq (decays per second)

Half-life ( 𝑻𝟏⁄ )
𝟐
Half-life is the time at which the number of radioactive nuclei reduce to
half of their initial value.
N = N0 e−λt
N0
At t = T1⁄ , N=
2 2
N0 −λ T1⁄
= N0 e 2
2
1 −λ T1⁄
=e 2
2

ln 2 = λ T1⁄
2
ln 2
T1⁄ =
2 λ
𝟎.𝟔𝟗𝟑
𝐓𝟏⁄ =
𝟐 𝛌

Mean life τ
mean life τ, is the time at which the number of radioactive nuclei reduces to
𝑒 −1 of their initial value.
𝟏
τ=
𝝀
0.693
T1⁄ = =0.693 τ
2 λ

𝐓𝟏⁄ =0.693 τ
𝟐

Example
Tritium has a half-life of 12.5 y undergoing beta decay. What fraction of a
sample of pure tritium will remain undecayed after 25 y.
By definition of half-life, half of the initial sample will remain undecayed
after 12.5 y. In the next 12.5 y, one-half of these nuclei would have decayed.
Hence, one fourth of the sample of the initial pure tritium will remain
undecayed.

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Alpha decay
When a nucleus undergoes alpha-decay, it transforms to a different nucleus
by emitting an alpha-particle (a helium nucleus ( 42𝐻𝑒)
Atomic number decreases by 2 and mass number decreases by 4.
𝐀 𝐀−𝟒
𝐙𝐗 → 𝐙−𝟐𝐘 + 𝟒𝟐𝐇𝐞
𝟐𝟑𝟖 𝟐𝟑𝟒
𝟗𝟐𝐔 → 𝟗𝟎𝐓𝐡 + 𝟒𝟐𝐇𝐞
The difference between the initial mass energy and the final mass energy of
the decay products is called the Q value of the process or the disintegration
energy. Thus, the Q value of an alpha decay can be expressed as
Q=(mX – mY - mHe)c2

Beta decay
A nucleus that decays spontaneously by emitting an electron or a positron is
said to undergo beta decay.

Beta minus (β− ) decay

In beta minus (β− ) decay, an electron o is emitted by the nucleus.
In beta-minus decay, a neutron transforms into a proton inside the nucleus.
n→ p+𝒆− + 𝒗
̅
Atomic number increases by 1 and mass number remains same.
𝟑𝟐 𝟑𝟐 −
𝟏𝟓𝐏 → 𝟏𝟔𝐒+𝒆 ̅
+𝒗
Beta plus (β + ) decay
In beta plus (β + ) decay, a positron is emitted by the nucleus.
In beta-plus decay, a proton transforms into neutron inside the nucleus.
p→ n+𝒆+ + 𝒗
Atomic number decreases by 1 and mass number remains same.
𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐 +
𝟏𝟏𝐍𝐚 → 𝟏𝟎𝐍𝐞+𝒆 +𝒗
Gamma decay
When a nucleus is in an excited state, it can make a transition to a lower
energy state by the emission of electromagnetic radiation. As the energy
differences between levels in a nucleus are of the order of MeV, the photons
emitted by the nuclei have MeV energies and are called gamma rays.

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Energy level diagram showing the emission of γ rays by a 𝟔𝟎
𝟐𝟕𝑪𝒐 nucleus
subsequent to beta decay.

Example
The radioactive isotope D decays according to the sequence,
D β− D1 α D2

If the mass number and atomic number of D2 are176 and 71respectively,

what is the mass number and atomic number of D.
180 180 176
72D β− 73D1 α 71D2
mass number of D =180
atomic nimber of D =72

Nuclear Energy
Energy then can be released if less tightly bound nuclei are transmuted into
more tightly bound nuclei. Two such processes, are fission and fusion.
For the same quantity of matter, nuclear sources will give a million times
larger energy than conventional sources. One kilogram of coal on burning
gives 107 J of energy, whereas 1 kg of uranium, which undergoes fission, will
generate on fission 1014 J of energy.
Nuclear Fission
Nuclear fission is the process in which a heavier nucleus splits into lighter
nuclei with the release of large amount of energy.
When a neutron was bombarded on a uranium target, the uranium nucleus
broke into two nearly equal fragments releasing great amount of energy.
Example
𝟏
𝟎𝐧 + 𝟐𝟑𝟓
𝟗𝟐𝐔 →
𝟐𝟑𝟔
𝟗𝟐𝐔 → 𝟏𝟒𝟒
𝟓𝟔𝐁𝐚 + 𝟖𝟗 𝟏
𝟑𝟔𝐊𝐫 + 𝟑 𝟎𝐧

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Fission does not always produce barium and krypton. A different pair can be
produced,
1 235 236 133 99
0n + 92U → 92U → 51Sb + 41 Nb + 4 10n
1 235 236 140 94
0n + 92U → 92U → 54Xe + 38Sr + 2 10n

The energy released (the Q value ) in the fission reaction of nuclei like
uranium is of the order of 200 MeV per fissioning nucleus.
The enormous energy released in an atom bomb comes from uncontrolled
nuclear fission.
Nuclear reactor
Averagely, 2½ neutrons are released per fission of uranium nucleus. In some
fission events 2 neutrons are produced, in some 3, etc. The extra neutrons in
turn can initiate fission processes, producing still more neutrons, and so on.
This leads to the possibility of a chain reaction,which was first suggested by
Enrico Fermi.
If the chain reaction is controlled suitably, we can get a steady energy
output. This is what happens in a nuclear reactor.

If the chain reaction is uncontrolled, it leads to explosive energy output, as in

a nuclear bomb.
The chain reaction is controlled and steady in a nuclear reactor. In a reactor,
the value of the neutron multiplication factor k is maintained at 1.
Multiplication factor
Multiplication factor is the ratio of number of fission produced by a given
generation of neutrons to the number of fission of the preceding generation.
If K becomes greater than one, the reaction rate and the reactor power
increases exponentially. Unless the factor K is brought down very close to
unity, the reactor will become supercritical and can even explode.
92
The abundant 238 U isotope, which does not fission, on capturing a neutron
leads to the formation of plutonium.
238 239 239
92U +n→ 92U → 93Np + e− + ν̅
239 239 −
93Np → 94Pu + e + ν̅
Plutonium is highly radioactive and can also undergo fission under
bombardment by slow neutrons.

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Schematic diagram of a nuclear reactor based on thermal neutron fission

The main parts of a nuclear reactor

Core
The core of the reactor is the site of nuclear fission. It contains the fuel
elements. The fuel may be enriched uranium (i.e., one that has greater
92
abundance of 235 U than naturally occurring uranium).
Reflector
The core is surrounded by a reflector to reduce leakage.
Moderators
Slow neutrons have a much higher intrinsic probability of inducing fission in
235
92𝑈 → than fast neutrons.
Therefore, in reactors, light nuclei called moderators are provided along
with the fissionable nuclei for slowing down fast neutrons. The moderators
commonly used are water, heavy water (D2O) and graphite.
Control Rods
The reaction rate is controlled through control-rods made out of neutron-
absorbing material such as cadmium
Safety Rods
In addition to control rods, reactors are provided with safety rods which,
when required, can be inserted into the reactor and K can be reduced
rapidly to less than unity.
Coolent
In pressurised-water reactor , water is used both as the moderator and as
the heat transfer medium.
Water is circulated through the reactor vessel and transfers energy at high
temperature and pressure to the steam generator. In the steam generator,
evaporation provides high-pressure steam to operate the turbine that drives
the electric generator. The low-pressure steam from the turbine is cooled
and condensed to water and forced back into the steam generator.

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Shield
The whole assembly is shielded to prevent harmful radiation from coming
out.
The nuclear waste from nuclear reactors are radioactive and hazardous to
all forms of life on earth. Elaborate safety measures, both for reactor
operation as well as handling and reprocessing the spent fuel, are required.
Nuclear Fusion – Energy Generation in Stars
Nuclear fusion is the process in which two light nuclei combine to form a
single larger nucleus, with the release of a large amount of energy. Examples
are
1 1 2 +
1H + 1H → 1H + e + ν + 0.42 MeV
2
1H + 21H → 23He + n + 3.27 MeV
2
1H + 21H → 31H + 11H + 4.03 MeV
Thermonuclear fusion
For nuclear fusion to occur in bulk matter the temperature of the material is
to be raised until the particles have enough energy to penetrate the
coulomb barrier. This process is called thermonuclear fusion.
for thermonuclear fusion to take place, extreme conditions of temperature
and pressure are required, which are available only in the interiors of stars
including sun.
The energy generation in stars takes place via thermonuclear fusion.
The fusion reaction in the sun is a multi-step process called the proton-
proton (p, p) cycle.
1 1 2 +
1H + 1H → 1H + e + ν + 0.42 MeV

e+ + e− → γ + γ + 1.02 MeV
2
1H + 11H → 23He + γ + 5.49 MeV
3
2H + 32H → 42He + 11H + 11H + 12.86 MeV
The combined reaction is
4 11H + 2 e− → 42He + 2ν + 6γ + 26.7 MeV
Or (4 11H + 4 e− ) → ( 42He + 2e− ) + 2ν + 6γ + 26.7 MeV
Thus, four hydrogen atoms combine to form an 4 2He atom with a release of
26.7 MeV of energy.
In about 5 billion years, however, the sun’s core, which by that time will be
largely helium, will begin to cool and the sun will start to collapse under its
own gravity. This will raise the core temperature and cause the outer
envelope to expand, turning the sun into what is called a red giant.

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 Chapter 14
Semiconductor Electronics:
Materials, Devices and Simple Circuits Introduction

Semiconductors are the basic materials used in the present solid state
electronic devices like diode, transistor, ICs, etc. Lattice structure and the
atomic structure of constituent elements decide whether a particular
material will be insulator, metal or semiconductor.

Classification of Metals, Conductors and Semiconductors

On the basis of conductivity:
On the basis of the relative values of electrical conductivity (σ) or resistivity
(ρ = 1/σ ), the solids are broadly classified as:

(i) Metals: They possess very low resistivity (or high conductivity).
ρ ~ 10–2 – 10–8 Ω m
σ ~ 102 – 108 S m–1
(ii) Semiconductors: They have resistivity or conductivity intermediate
to metals and insulators.
ρ ~ 10–5 – 106 Ω m
σ ~ 105 – 10–6 S m–1
(iii) Insulators: They have high resistivity (or low conductivity).
ρ ~ 1011 – 1019 Ω m
σ ~ 10–11 – 10–19 S m–1
Semiconductors which could be:
(i) Elemental semiconductors: Si and Ge
(ii) Compound semiconductors: Examples are:
• Inorganic: CdS, GaAs, CdSe, InP, etc.
• Organic: anthracene, doped pthalocyanines, etc.
• Organic polymers: polypyrrole, polyaniline, polythiophene, etc.
Most of the currently available semiconductor devices are based on
elemental semiconductors Si or Ge and compound inorganic semiconductors.

Energy Bands In Solids

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 ▪ Inside the crystal each electron will have a different energy level.
These different energy levels with continuous energy variation form
energy bands.
▪ The energy band which includes the energy levels of the valence
electrons is called the valence band.
▪ The energy band which includes the energy levels of conduction
electrons is called the conduction band.
▪ The conduction band is above the valence band .Normally the
conduction band is empty and valence band is occupied.
▪ The gap between the top of the valence band and bottom of the
conduction band is called the energy band gap (Energy gap Eg ).
It is measured in electron volt.

Classification of Metals, Conductors and Semiconductors

On the basis of energy bands
(i) metals

In some metals, the conduction band is partially filled and the valence band
is partially empty with small energy gap and in some others the conduction
and valance bands overlap. When there is overlap electrons from valence band
can easily move into the conduction band. Therefore, the resistance of such
materials is low or the conductivity is high.

(ii)Insulators

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In insulators a large band gap , Eg > 3 eV. There are no electrons in the
conduction band, and therefore no electrical conduction is possible. The
energy gap is so large that electrons cannot be excited from the valence band
to the conduction band by thermal excitation.

(iii)Semiconductors

In semiconductors a finite but small band gap (Eg < 3 eV) exists. Because of
the small band gap, at room temperature some electrons from valence band
can acquire enough energy to cross the energy gap and enter the conduction
band. These electrons (though small in numbers) can move in the
conduction band. Hence, the resistance of semiconductors is lower than that
of insulators.

When the electrons from valence band move to the conduction band vacant
energy levels will be created in the valence band . This vacancy of electrons
is called hole. Other valence electrons can move to this hole thereby
producing hole current.

Intrinsic Semiconductor
Pure semiconductors are called ‘intrinsic semiconductors’.
Si and Ge have four valence electrons. In a pure Si or Ge crystal ,each atom
make covalent bond with four neighbouring atoms and share the four
valence electrons.

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As the temperature increases, these electrons get more thermal energy ,
break–away the covalent bonds and become free electrons contributing to
conduction. These free electrons (with charge –q) leaves a vacancy with an
effective charge (+q ). This vacancy with the effective positive electronic
charge is called a hole.

In intrinsic semiconductors, the number of free electrons, ne is equal to the

number of holes, nh.
ne = nh = ni
where ni is called intrinsic carrier concentration.

The free electrons move as conduction electron and gives rise to an electron
current, Ie under an applied electric field. Under the action of an electric
field, the holes move towards negative potential giving the hole current, Ih.
The total current, I is thus the sum of the electron current Ie and the hole
current Ih:
I = Ie + Ih

Energy-Band Diagram of an Intrinsic Semiconductor at T=0K

An intrinsic semiconductor will behave like an insulator at T = 0 K .

Energy-Band Diagram of an Intrinsic Semiconductor at T > 0K

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At temperatures (T > 0K), some electrons are excited from the valence
band to the conduction band, leaving equal number of holes there.

Extrinsic Semiconductor
When a small amount of a suitable impurity is added to the pure
semiconductor, the conductivity of the semiconductor is increased . Such
materials are known as extrinsic semiconductors or impurity
semiconductors.
The deliberate addition of a desirable impurity is called doping and the
impurity atoms are called dopants. Such a material is also called a doped
semiconductor.

There are two types of dopants used in doping Si or Ge:

(i)Pentavalent (valency 5)
Eg: Arsenic (As), Antimony (Sb), Phosphorous (P), etc.
(ii)Trivalent (valency 3)
Eg: Indium (In), Boron (B), Aluminium (A𝒍), etc.

Depending on the type of impurities added, there are two types of

semiconductors –
(i) n-type semiconductor
(ii) p-type semiconductor

n-type semiconductor
n-type semiconductor is obtained by doping Si or Ge with pentavalent atoms
(donors) like As, Sb, P, etc. The four valence electrons of pendavalent
impurity atom bond with the four silicon neighbours ,while the fifth one is
free to move in the lattice of the semiconductor ,at room temperature. Thus,
the pentavalent dopant is donating one extra electron for conduction and
hence is known as donor impurity.
For n-type semiconductors, ne >> nh
Here electrons become the majority carriers and holes the minority carriers.
The electron and hole concentration in a semiconductor in thermal
equilibrium is given by

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 nenh = ni 2
Energy bands of n-type semiconductor at T > 0K

For n-type Si semiconductor ,the donor energy level ED ,is slightly below the
bottom EC of the conduction band .The electrons from this level move into
the conduction band with very small supply of energy.

p-type semiconductor
p-type semiconductor is obtained when Si or Ge is doped with a trivalent
impurity like A𝑙, B, In, etc. The dopant has only 3 valence electrons and can
form covalent bonds with neighbouring three Si atoms but does not have
any electron to offer to the fourth Si atom. This vacancy of electron creates a
hole. As the pendavalent impurities creates holes ,which can accept
electrons from neighbouring atom, these impurities are called acceptor
impurities.
For p-type semiconductors, nh >> ne
Here holes become the majority carriers and electrons the minority carriers.
The electron and hole concentration in a semiconductor in thermal
equilibrium is given by
nenh = ni 2
Energy bands of p-type semiconductor at T > 0K

For p-type semiconductor, the acceptor energy level EA is slightly above the
top EV of the valence band . With very small supply of energy an electron
from the valence band can jump to the level EA and ionise the acceptor .
negatively.

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p-n junction

A p-n junction can be formed by adding a small quantity of

pendavalent impurity to a p-type semiconductor or by adding a small
quantity of trivalent impurity to an n-type semiconductor.

Two important processes occur during the formation of a p-n junction:

diffusion and drift.

1.Diffusion
The holes diffuse from p-side to n-side (p → n) and electrons diffuse from n-
side to p-side (n → p). This motion of charge carriers give rise to Diffusion
current across the junction.
Due to diffusion, a layer of positive charge (or positive space-charge region)
is developed on n-side of the junction and a layer of negative charge (or
negative space-charge region) is developed on the p-side of the junction .

Depletion region (Depletion layer)

The space-charge region on either side of the junction together is known as
depletion region. The depletion layer consist of immobile ion-cores and no
free electrons or holes. This is responsible for a junction potential barrier.

2.Drift
The positive charge on n-side of the junction and negative charge on p-side
of the junction develops an electric field. Due to this field, an
electron(minority carrier) on p-side of the junction moves to n-side and a
hole(minority carrier) on n- side of the junction moves to p-side. The motion
of charge carriers due to the electric field is called drift.

Initially, diffusion current is large and drift current is small. As the diffusion
process continues, the electric field strength increases and hence drift
current also increases. This process continues until the diffusion current
equals the drift current.. Thus in a p-n junction under equilibrium there is no
net current. .

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Barrier Potential

The loss of electrons from the n-region and the gain of electron by the p-
region causes a difference of potential across the junction of the two regions.
Since this potential tends to prevent the movement of electron from the n
region into the p region, it is often called a barrier potential.
The barrier potential of a Ge diode is 0.2Vand that of a Si diode is 0.7V.

Semiconductor Diode

A semiconductor diode is basically a p-n junction with metallic contacts

provided at the ends for the application of an external voltage. It is a two
terminal device.

Symbol of a p-n junction Diode

p-n junction diode under forward bias

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If p-side of the diode is connected to the positive terminal and n-side to the
negative terminal of the battery, it is said to be forward biased.
▪ The direction of the applied voltage (V ) is opposite to barrier potential
V0. As a result, the depletion layer width decreases and the barrier
height is reduced.
▪ The effective barrier height under forward bias is (V0 – V ).
▪ At high applied voltage, electrons from n-side cross the depletion
region and reach p-side . Similarly, holes from p-side cross the junction
and reach the n-side.
▪ This motion of majority carriers on either side gives rise to diffusion
current.
▪ The magnitude of this current is usually in mA.

p-n junction diode under reverse bias

If n-side of the diode is connected to the positive terminal and p-side to the
negative terminal of the battery, it is said to be reverse biased.

▪ The direction of the applied voltage (V ) is same as barrier potential V0.

As a result, the depletion layer width increases and the barrier height is
incresaed.
▪ The effective barrier height under reverse bias is (V0 + V ).
▪ The flow of electrons from n → p and holes from p → n is suppressed.
Thus, diffusion current, decreases enormously compared to the diode
under forward bias.
▪ The electricfield of the junction is such that the minority carriers are
drifted to majority zone which gives rise to drift current.
▪ The drift current is of the order of a few μA.

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V-I characteristics of a silicon diode.

▪ In forward bias, the current first increases very slowly, till the voltage
across the diode crosses a certain value. . This voltage is called the
threshold voltage or cut-in voltage (0.2V for germanium diode and 0.7
V for silicon diode).
▪ After threshold voltage, the diode current increases significantly , even
for a very small increase in the diode bias voltage.
▪ For the diode in reverse bias, the current is very small (~μA) and
almost remains constant with change in bias. It is called reverse
saturation current. However, at very high reverse bias called break
down voltage Vbr, the current suddenly increases. The general purpose
diode are not used beyond the reverse saturation current region.

Threshold Voltage
The forward voltage beyond which the diode current increases significantly
is called threshold voltage or cut-in voltage.

Break down Voltage

The reverse voltage at which the reverse current increases suddenly is
called break down voltage.

Dynamic Resistance(rd)
Dynamic resistance is defined as the ratio of small change in voltage ΔV to a
small change in current ΔI.
𝚫𝐕
rd =
𝚫𝐈

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Example
The V-I characteristic of a silicon diode is shown in the Figure. Calculate the
resistance of the diode at (a) ID = 15 mA and (b) VD = –10 V.

(a) From the curve, at I = 20 mA, V = 0.8 V

I = 10 mA, V = 0.7 V
ΔV 0.1
rforwrd bias = = = 10 Ω
ΔI 10x10−3
(b) From the curve at V = –10 V, I = –1 μA,
10
rreverse bias = −6 = 1.0 × 10 Ω
7
1x10

Application of Junction Diode as a Rectifier

The diode allows current to pass only when it is forward biased.
If an alternating voltage is applied across a diode the current flows only in
that part of the cycle when the diode is forward biased. This property is
used to rectify alternating voltages .
Rectifier
The process of conversion of ac voltage to dc voltage is called rectification
and the circuit used for rectification is called rectifier.
Half wave Rectifier

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In the positive half-cycle of ac there is a current through the load resistor 𝑅𝐿
and we get an output voltage, whereas there is no current in the negative
half cycle. Since the rectified output of this circuit is only for half of the input
ac wave it is called as half-wave rectifier.
Input ac voltage and output voltage waveforms from the rectifier circuit.

Full wave rectifier

▪ For a full-wave rectifier the secondary of the transformer is provided

with a centre tapping and so it is called centre-tap transformer.
▪ During this positive half cycle, diode 𝐷1 gets forward biased and
conducts ,while 𝐷2 being reverse biased is not conducting. Hence we
get an output current and a output voltage across the load resistor 𝑅𝐿 .
▪ During negative half cycle, diode 𝐷1 would not conduct but diode 𝐷2
conducts, giving an output current and output voltage across 𝑅𝐿 in the
same directionas in positive half.
▪ Thus, we get output voltage during both the positive as well as the
negative half of the cycle. This is a more efficient circuit for getting
rectified voltage or current than the halfwave rectifier.

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Input ac voltage and output voltage waveforms from the rectifier circuit.

Filters
To get steady dc output from the pulsating voltage a capacitor is connected
parallel to the output terminals.
The cicuits that filter out the ac ripple and give a pure dc voltage are called
filters.

Special Purpose p-n Junction Diodes

Zener diode
It is a special purpose semiconductor diode, named after its inventor C.
Zener.
Symbol

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The I-V characteristics of a Zener diode

▪ It is designed to operate under reverse bias in the breakdown region

and used as a voltage regulator.
▪ Zener diode is fabricated by heavily doping both p, and n sides of the
junction.
▪ When the applied reverse bias voltage(V) reaches the breakdown
voltage (Vz) of the Zener diode, there is a large change in the current.
▪ After the breakdown voltage Vz , the Zener voltage remains constant,
even though current through the Zener diode varies over a wide range.
This property of the Zener diode is used for regulating supply voltages.

Zener diode as a voltage regulator

In the breakdown region, Zener voltage remains constant even though the
current through the Zener diode changes.
This property of the Zener diode is used for regulating supply voltages.

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 ▪ The unregulated dc voltage (filtered output of a rectifier) is connected
to the Zener diode through a series resistance Rs such that the Zener
diode is reverse biased.
▪ If the input voltage increases, the current through Rs increases . Then
current through Zener diode increases without any change in Zener
voltage.
▪ Similarly, if the input voltage decreases, the current through Rs
decreases. Then current through Zener diode decreases without any
change in Zener voltage.
Thus any increase/ decrease in the input voltage results in, increase/
decrease of the voltage drop across Rs without any change in voltage across
the Zener diode. Thus the Zener diode acts as a voltage regulator. We have to
select the Zener diode according to the required output voltage and
accordingly the series resistance Rs.

Optoelectronic Junction Devices

The semiconductor diodes in which carriers are generated by photons
(photo-excitation) are called optoelectronic junction devices. Some
examples are,
(i)Photodiodes used for detecting optical signal (photodetectors).
(ii) Light emitting diodes (LED) which convert electrical energy into light.
(iii)Photovoltaic devices which convert optical radiation into
electricity(solar cells).

(i)Photodiode

▪ A Photodiode is operated under reverse bias.

▪ When the photodiode is illuminated with light (photons) with energy
(hν) greater than the energy gap (E g) of the semiconductor, then
electron-hole pairs are generated due to the absorption of photons.
▪ When an external load is connected, current flows.
▪ The magnitude of the photocurrent depends on the intensity of
incident light (photocurrent is proportional to incident light intensity).

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(ii)Light emitting diode
▪ It is a heavily doped p-n junction which under forward bias emits
spontaneous radiation.
▪ When the diode is forward biased, electrons are sent from n → p
(where they are minority carriers) and holes are sent from p → n
(where they are minority carriers).
▪ At the junction boundary the concentration of minority carriers
increases and the excess minority carriers recombine with majority
carriers near the junction. On recombination, the energy is released
in the form of photons
The semiconductor used for fabrication of visible LEDs must at least have a
band gap of 1.8 eV .

▪ The compound semiconductor Gallium Arsenide – Phosphide

(GaAs1–xPx) is used for making LEDs of different colours.
▪ GaAs0.6 P0.4 (E g ~ 1.9 eV) is used for red LED.
▪ GaAs (E g ~ 1.4 eV) is used for making infrared LED.
These LEDs find extensive use in remote controls, burglar
alarm systems, optical communication, etc.
Extensive research is being done for developing white LEDs which can
replace incandescent lamps.
Advantages of LEDs over conventional incandescent low power lamps:
(i) Low operational voltage and less power.
(iii) Fast action and no warm-up time required.
(iv) The bandwidth of emitted light is 100 Å to 500 Å or in
other words it is nearly (but not exactly) monochromatic.
(v) Long life and ruggedness.
(vi) Fast on-off switching capability.

(iii)Solar cell
A typical p-n junction and its cross sectional view

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A p-Si wafer is taken and a thin layer of n-Si is grown on one-side of it by
diffusion process. The other side of p-Si is coated with a metal which acts as
back contact. On the top of n-Si layer, metal finger electrode (or metallic
grid) is deposited. This acts as a front contact.

▪ A solar cell is basically a p-n junction which generates emf when solar
radiation falls on the p-n junction.
▪ It works on the same principle (photovoltaic effect) as the photodiode,
except that no external bias is applied .
▪ The junction area is kept much larger for solar radiation to be incident
because we are interested in more power.
▪ The generation of emf by a solar cell, when light falls on, it is due to the
following three basic processes: generation, separation and
collection—
a. generation of e-h pairs due to light (with hν > E g) close to the
junction;
b. separation of electrons and holes due to electric field of depletion
region. Electrons are swept to n-side and holes to p-side.
c. the electrons reaching the n-side are collected by the front contact
and holes reaching p-side are collected by the back contact. Thus
p-side becomes positive and n-side becomes negative giving rise
to photovoltage.
Solar cells are made with semiconductors like
Si (Eg = 1.1 eV),
GaAs (Eg = 1.43 eV),
CdTe (Eg = 1.45 eV),
CuInSe2 (Eg = 1.04 eV), etc.

The criteria for the selection of a material for solar cell fabrication are,
(i) band gap (~1.0 to 1.8 eV),
(ii) high optical absorption (~104 cm–1),
(iii) electrical conductivity,
(iv) availability of the raw material,
(v) cost.

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 Note that sunlight is not always required for a solar cell. Any light with
photon energies greater than the bandgap will do. Solar cells are used to
power electronic devices in satellites and space vehicles and also as power
supply to some calculators. Production of low-cost photovoltaic cells for
large-scale solar energy is a topic for research.

Digital Electronics And Logic Gates

Analogue signals
Continuous, time-varying signals( voltage or current) are called continuous
or analogue signals.

Digital sinals
In digital sinals only two values (represented by 0 or 1) of the input and
output voltage are permissible.

Logic gates
A logic gate is a digital circuit that follows curtain logical relationship
between the input and output voltages.
The five common logic gates used are NOT, AND, OR, NAND, NOR.

NAND and NOR gates are called universal gates, since using these gates we
can realise other basic gates OR, AND and NOT gates.
Each logic gate is indicated by a symbol and its function is defined by a truth
table that shows all the possible input logic level combinations with their
respective output logic levels.

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(i) NOT gate
This is the most basic gate, with one input and one output. It produces a
‘1’ output if the input is ‘0’ and vice-versa. That is, it produces an inverted
version of the input at its output. This is why it is also known as an
inverter.
Symbol Truth Table

(ii) OR Gate
An OR gate has two or more inputs with one output. The output Y is
1 when either input A or input B or both are 1s. That is, if any of the
input is high, the output is high.
Symbol Truth Table

(iii) AND Gate

An AND gate has two or more inputs and one output. The output Y
of AND gate is 1 only when input A and input B are both 1. That is, if
all the input are high, the output is high.

Symbol Truth Table

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(iv) NOR Gate
It has two or more inputs and one output. OR- gate followed by a
NOT gate gives a NOT-OR gate (or simply NOR gate). Its output Y is
‘1’ only when both inputs A and B are ‘0’. The gate gets its name from
this NOT OR behaviour.
Symbol Truth Table

(v) NAND Gate

It has two or more inputs and one output. AND gate followed by a
NOT gate gives a NOT-AND gate (or simply NAND gate). If inputs A
and B are both ‘1’, the output Y is ‘0’. The gate gets its name from
this NOT AND behaviour.
Symbol Truth Table

Seema Elizabeth
MARM Govt HSS Santhipuram
Thrissur

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