12.1.

Electric Charges and

Fields
 CONTENTS
⮚ Introduction
⮚ Electric Charges
⮚ Conductors and Insulators
⮚ Charging by Induction
⮚ Basic Properties of Electric Charge
⮚ Coulomb’s Law
⮚ Forces between Multiple Charges
⮚ Electric Field
⮚ Electric Field Lines
⮚ Electric Flux
⮚ Electric Dipole
⮚ Dipole in a Uniform External Field
⮚ Continuous Charge Distribution
⮚ Gauss’s Law
⮚ Application of Gauss’s Law
 Electrostatics

Electrostatics is the branch of Physics

which deals with the study forces, fields,
and potentials arising from static charges.
INTRODUCTION -ELECTROSTATICS

• The word electricity is derived from the

Greek word elektron which means amber.

• In 600 BC, the Greek philosopher Thales

of Miletus observed that when amber is
rubbed with wool it attracts light objects.
ACTIVITY USING COMB AND PAPER
BITS
ACTIVITY USING PLASTIC SCALE AND PAPER BITS
 Methods of charging

There are three methods:

a) Rubbing (charging by friction)
b) Charging by Conduction
c) Charging by Induction
Rubbing (charging by friction)
Rubbing (charging by friction)
 Rubbing (charging by friction)
When glass rod is rubbed with silk, glass
acquires positive charge and silk acquires
negative charge.

When plastic is rubbed with fur, plastic

acquires negative charge and fur acquires
positive charge.

Electricity developed on bodies, when two

 Charging by friction
When we rub a glass rod with silk, some of
the electrons from the rod are transferred to
the silk cloth. Thus the rod gets positively
charged and the silk gets negatively charged.
Similarly, when we rub a plastic rod with fur,
some of the electrons from fur are transferred
to the plastic rod. Thus the fur gets positively
charged and the plastic rod gets negatively
 ELECTRON THEORY OF
ELECTRIFICATION
To electrify a neutral body, we need to add or
remove one kind of charge. When we say that
a body is charged, we always refer to this
excess charge or deficit of charge. In solids,
some of the electrons, being less tightly
bound in the atom, are the charges which are
transferred from one body to the other. A body
can thus be charged positively by losing some
of its electrons. Similarly, a body can be
charged negatively by gaining electrons.
a) It was observed that if two glass rods rubbed
with wool or silk cloth are brought close to
each other, they repel each other.
b) Similarly, two plastic rods rubbed with cat’s
fur repelled each other.
c) On the other hand, the plastic rod attracts
• If a plastic rod rubbed with fur is made to touch two
small pith balls suspended by silk or nylon thread,
then the balls repel each other.
• A similar effect is found if the pith balls are touched
with a glass rod rubbed with silk .
• A pith ball touched with glass rod attracts another pith
Like charges repel and unlike charges attract
ball other.with plastic rod.
touched
each
Like charges repel while unlike charges
attract each other.
 ELECTROSCOPE
A simple apparatus to detect charge
on a body is the gold-leaf
electroscope. It consists of a vertical
metal rod housed in a box, with two
thin gold leaves attached to its
bottom end. When a charged
touches the metal knob at the top of
the rod, charge flows on to the
leaves and they diverge. The degree
of divergence is an indicator of the
amount of charge.
ELECTROSCOPE
 Conductors and insulators
Some substances readily allow passage of electricity
through them, others do not. Those which allow
electricity to pass through them easily are called
conductors. They have electric charges (electrons) that
are comparatively free to move inside the material.
Metals, human and animal bodies and earth are
conductors. Most of the non-metals like glass, porcelain,
plastic, nylon, wood offer high resistance to the passage
of electricity through them. They are called insulators.
Conductors and insulators
 Charging by conduction
When a charged body is brought in to contact
with an uncharged conductor, charge flows
from the charged body to the uncharged body.
+ + +
+ + +
+ + + +
+ + +
 Charging by Induction
I. Bring two metal spheres, A and B, supported on
insulating stands,in contact as shown in Fig.(a)

II. Bring a positively charged rod near one of the

spheres, say A. The free electrons in the spheres are
attracted towards the rod. This leaves an excess of
positive charge on the rear surface of sphere B. The
left surface of sphere A, has an excess of negative
charge and the right surface of sphere B, has an
excess of positive charge.
The process is called induction of charge and happens
almost instantly. The accumulated charges remain on
the surface, as shown, till the glass rod is held near
the sphere.
iii) Separate the spheres by a small distance while the
glass rod is still held near sphere A, as shown in Fig.
(c). The two spheres are found to be oppositely
charged and attract each other.

(iv) Remove the rod. The charges on spheres

rearrange themselves as shown in Fig. (d).

(v)Now, separate the spheres quite apart. The charges

on them get uniformly distributed over them, as
shown in Fig. (e).

In this process, the metal spheres will each be equal

and oppositely charged. This is charging by induction.
How can you charge a metal sphere positively without
touching it?
❖ Figure (a) shows an uncharged metallic sphere on an
insulating metal stand.
❖ Bring a negatively charged rod close to the metallic
sphere, as shown in Fig.(b).
As the rod is brought close to the sphere, the free
electrons in the sphere move away due to repulsion
and start piling up at the farther end. The near end
becomes positively charged due to deficit of electrons.
❖ Connect the sphere to the ground by a conducting
wire. The electrons will flow to the ground while the
positive charges at the near end will remain held there
due to the attractive force of the negative charges on
the rod, as shown in Fig.(c).
❖ Disconnect the sphere from the ground. The positive
charge continues to be held at the near end [Fig. (d)].
❖ Remove the electrified rod. The positive charge will
spread uniformly over the sphere as shown in Fig.(e).
Charging by Induction
Charging by Induction
BASIC PROPERTIES OF ELECTRIC CHARGE
Additivity of charges
The total charge of an isolated system is equal to
an algebraic sum of individual charges of the
system.
For example, the total charge of a system
containing five charges +1, +2, –3, +4 and
– 5,in some arbitrary unit, is
(+1) + (+2) + (–3) + (+4) + (–5) = –1 in the same
unit.
Conservation of charge
The total charge of an isolated system is always
conserved that means charge can neither be created
nor be destroyed but can be transferred from one
body to another.

When bodies are charged by rubbing, there is

transfer of electrons from one body to the other; no
new charges are either created or destroyed.
Quantisation of charge
Any charged body has a total charge ± ne where ‘n`
is an integer (n =0,1,2,3………..). This experimental
fact is called quantization of charge.
q = ± ne, where n is an integer
and e = 1.6 × 10 -19 C
By convention, the charge on an electron is taken to
be negative; therefore charge on an electron is
written as –e and that on a proton as +e.
The SI unit of charge is Coulomb and is denoted by
the symbol C.
1𝞵C=10 -6C
How many electrons constitute one coulomb
of charge?
q = ne
q=1C e = 1.6 × 10 -19 C
n=6.25 x 1018 electrons
Why can one ignore quantisation of electric charge
when dealing with macroscopic i.e., large scale
charges?
At the macroscopic level, one deals with charges that
are enormous compared to the magnitude of charge e. A
charge of magnitude, say 1 μC, contains something like
1013 times the electronic charge. At this scale, the fact
that charge can increase or decrease only in units of e.
Thus, at the macroscopic level, the quantisation of
charge has no practical consequence and can be
ignored.
At the microscopic level, where the charges involved
are of the order of a few tens or hundreds of e, i.e.,they
can be counted and quantisation of charge cannot be
ignored.
Charles Augustin de Coulomb
(1736 – 1806)
 COULOMB’S LAW
• q1 q2
r
 COULOMB’S LAW
•
•
 Relative permittivity Or Dielectric
constant ( K Or 𝟄r)
•
1.How does the force between two charges change if the
a) distance is doubled?
b) distance is halved?
c) dielectric constant of the medium is increased?
d) charges are immersed in water (K=81)?
2.The force between two charges placed in air at a distance r apart
is F. What must be the distance between two charges so that the
force become
e) 3F
f) F/3
3.What is the force between two small charged spheres having
charges of 2x10-7C and 3x 10-7C placed 30cm apart in the air?
•
•
 Question
•
 Coulomb’s law in vector form
•
•
 Force between multiple charges
(Principle of superposition)
q1

q2 q4

q3
 Principle of superposition
•
 Principle of superposition
Total force on any charge due to number of charges
is the vector sum of all the forces due to the other
charges.
What is the force acting on a charge Q placed at
the centroid of the triangle?

F1 = F2 = F 3 = F

Net force acting on

the charge at the
centroid of the
triangle is zero

R =F
 Four point charges qA = 2 μC, qB = –5 μC, qC = 2 μC, and qD = –5 μC are
located at the corners of a square ABCD of side 10 cm. What is the
force on a charge of 1 μC placed at the centre of the square?
The repulsive force between
the charges at A and at the
centre O is same in magnitude
with the repulsive force by the
corner C to the centre O, but
these forces are opposite in
direction. Hence, these forces
will cancel each other.
Similarly attractive force
between charges at D and O is
cancelled by the attractive
force between the charges at
B and O. Therefore, the net
force on 1 μC at the centre is
zero..
 ELECTRIC FIELD

The electric field is defined as the region or

space around a charge where an electric force
of attraction or repulsion can be experienced.
 Electric field Intensity
•

P
q

The electric field or field intensity at a point is defined as

the force experienced by unit positive charge placed at
that point.
•
Electric field intensity due to a point charge
+q r P E
+1
Consider a point P at a distance r from a point
charge +q.
Electric field intensity at the point P,
 Electric dipole and Electric Dipole
moment
• +
-
A system has two charges qA = 2.5 × 10–7 C and qB = –2.5 × 10–7 C
located at points A: (0, 0, –15 cm) and B: (0,0, +15 cm), respectively.
What are the total charge and electric dipole moment of the system?
Total charge
= 2.5 × 10–7 C –2.5 × 10–7 C
=0
q = 2.5 × 10–7 C
2a = 15Cm + 15Cm = 30Cm
= 0.3 m
p =2a q
p =0.3 x 2.5 × 10–7
p =7.5 × 10–8 Cm
 Electric field of a dipole (On axial line)
x
•
•
 Electric field of a dipole (On equatorial line )

The electric field at P due to the

charge +q, E1 Cos𝞱 �
E2 Cos𝞱 �
�

r x rr
� �
E1 Can be resolved into two � �

components E1 Cos𝞱 and E1 Sin𝞱.

•

E1 Cos𝞱 �
E2 Cos𝞱 �
�

r x rr
� �
� �
•

E1 Cos𝞱 �
E2 Cos𝞱 �
�

r x rr
� a �
� �
Torque acting on a dipole in an electric field

+q
B +qE

2a �
E
�

A � N
- qE
-q �
Consider a dipole of charge q and length 2a placed in a
uniform electric field makes an angle 𝞱 with the direction of the
electric field.
 Torque acting on a dipole in an electric field
•
+

2a

n𝞱
2aSi
The net force acting on
the dipole + qE- qE = 0
•

-q 2a +q
E Parallel

+q 2a -q
E Anti parallel
• +q

2a
E

-q

+q
30o
E
-q
•
Electric field lines
 Electric field lines
The electric field lines are imaginary lines drawn
in such a way that the tangent to which at any
point gives the direction of the electric field at
that point.
Electric field lines of a single positive
Charge
Electric field lines of a single negative
Charge
 The field lines of a single positive
charge and a single negative

The field lines of a single positive charge are radially

outward while those of a single negative charge are
radially inward.
Field lines around the system of two
positive charges
Field lines around the system of two positive charges
gives a different picture and describe the mutual
repulsion between them.
Field lines around a system of a positive
and negative charge (Electric dipole)
Field lines around a system of a positive
and negative charge clearly shows the
mutual attraction between them.
Field lines around the system of two
negative charges
ELECTRIC FIELD LINES IN A UNIFORM
ELECTRIC FIELD
Uniform electric field
Electric field corresponding to a negative
charge is placed with in the vicinity of a
metal plate
 Properties of Electric field lines.
❖ Electric field lines start from +ve charge and end in –ve
charge.
❖ Electric field lines do not form any closed loop.
❖ Electric field lines never intersect each other.
If two lines intersect at a point, it means that at the point of
intersection electric field can be two directions and hence they
never intersect each other.
❖ If the field lines are crowded, then the field is strong and if the
field lines are not crowded, then field is weak.
❖ The electric field lines are always normal to the surface of the
charge body.
❖ Electric field lines can be taken to be continuous curves
without any breaks.
Continuous Charge Distribution:
A system of closely spaced charges is said to form a
continuous charge distribution.

If the charge is distributed over a line then the distribution

is called ‘linear charge distribution’.
dq
++++++++++++
dl
Linear charge density is the charge per unit length. Its SI
unit is C / m. d or
q
dl
ii) Surface Charge Density ( σ ):
If the charge is distributed over a surface, then the
distribution is called ‘surface charge distribution’.
o
r +++++++++++
+
dq++++++++++
+++++++++++
+ + + + + + + + + +++
dS
Surface charge density is the charge per unit area.
Its SI unit is C / m2.
(iii) Volume Charge Density ( ρ ):
If the charge is distributed over a volume, then the
distribution is called ‘volume charge distribution’.
dq

dV

Volume charge density is the charge per unit volume. Its

SI unit is C / m3.
 Electric flux (ϕ)
The electric flux is defined
as the measure of total
number of electric field lines
passing normally through a
given surface.
If the surface is
perpendicular to the field,
then the flux through an
area ΔS is
Δϕ = E ΔS
 Electric flux (ϕ)
If the normal to the surface makes
an angle 𝞱 with the electric field ,
Flux through the surface
Δϕ = E ΔS Cos 𝞱
Δϕ = E . ΔS
Total Flux through a given
surface
ϕ =𝞢 E . ΔS
OR �
ϕ=E.S �
Unit of electric flux is Nm2/C
 GAUSS’S LAW
•
•

P
 APPLICATIONS OF GAUSS’S LAW
Field due to an infinitely long straight uniformly
charged wire.
Consider an infinitely long thin straight
wire with uniform linear charge density λ.
Let P be a point at a distance r from the
straight wire. The electric field lines are
radially outward. To find the electric field 𝞴
intensity at P, imagine a Gaussian surface
of radius r and length l. The electric flux
through two flat surfaces is zero because
the electric field lines are radially outward
and the area vector is purpendiculat to E
•

�
�
Field due to a uniformly charged thin spherical shell
(i) Field outside the shell
Consider a spherical shell of radius
R with uniform surface charge
density 𝞼. Let P be a point at a
distance r from the center of the
spherical shell. Here the electric
field lines are radially outward. To
find the electric field intensity at P
imagine a Gaussian surface of
radius r.
•
(ii)Field inside the shell
•
Variation of electric field with distance
from the centre of the spherical shell

E =0
Field due to a uniformly charged
infinite plane sheet

�
�
ΔS

x x
 Field due to a uniformly charged infinite plane sheet
Consider an infinite plane
sheet of charge with uniform
charge density 𝞼. To find the
electric field intensity at P,
imagine a Gaussian cylinder of
cross sectional area A normal �
to the plane of the sheet. Since �ΔS
the electric field lines are x x
parallel to the curved surface,
the flux through this surface is
zero.
 Field due to a uniformly charged infinite plane sheet
•

�
�ΔS

x x
Electric field between two parallel plates

+ 𝞼 -𝞼

I II III
Electric field between two parallel
plates