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1 CHAPTER TWO
2 ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION
3
4 2.1 Introduction
5 A good principle applicable to all physical systems in which mass is neither
6 created nor destroyed is the principle of conservation of energy, which states that
7 energy then is neither created nor destroyed; it is merely changed in form. An
8 electromechanical transducer (a device for translating a mechanical input to electrical
9 form, or the reverse) is a link between an electrical and a mechanical system. The
10 coupling between the two systems is through the medium of the fields of electric
11 charges. Both electric and magnetic fields are in general present, and energy storage
12 in these fields is inevitably associated with energy conversion. The energy in the
13 coupling field of the device may change or tend to change during the energy-
14 conversion process. It may be said that the tendency for the energy in the coupling
15 field to release itself and do work is the reason for the existence of coupling between
16 the electrical and mechanical systems.
17 In general, electromechanical energy conversion devices can be divided into three
18 categories:
19 (1) Transducers (for measurement and control): These devices transform the
20 signals of different forms. Examples are microphones, pickups, and speakers.
21 (2) Force producing devices (linear motion devices): These types of devices produce
22 forces mostly for linear motion drives, such as relays, solenoids (linear
23 actuators), and electromagnets.
24 (3) Continuous energy conversion equipment: These devices operate in rotating
25 mode. A device would be known as a generator if it convert mechanical energy
26 into electrical energy, or as a motor if it does the other way around (from
27 electrical to mechanical).
28 Since the permeability of ferromagnetic materials is much larger than the
29 permittivity of dielectric materials, it is more advantageous to use electromagnetic
30 field as the medium for electromechanical energy conversion. As illustrated in Fig.2.1,
31 an electromechanical system consists of an electrical subsystem (electric circuits such
32 as windings), a magnetic subsystem (magnetic field in the magnetic cores and airgaps),

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33 and a mechanical subsystem (mechanically movable parts such as a plunger in a linear

34 actuator and a rotor in a rotating electrical machine). Voltages and currents are used
35 to describe the state of the electrical subsystem and they are governed by the basic
36 circuital laws: Ohm's law, KCL and KVL. The state of the mechanical subsystem can be
37 described in terms of positions, velocities, and accelerations, and is governed by the
38 Newton's laws. The magnetic subsystem or magnetic field fits between the electrical
39 and mechanical subsystems and acting as a "ferry" in energy transform and
40 conversion. The field quantities such as magnetic flux, flux density, and field strength,
41 are governed by the Maxwell's equations. When coupled with an electric circuit, the
42 magnetic flux interacting with the current in the circuit would produce a force or
43 torque on a mechanically movable part. On the other hand, the movement of the
44 moving part will cause variation of the magnetic flux linking the electric circuit and
45 induces an electromotive force (emf) in the circuit. The product of the torque and
46 speed (the mechanical power) equals the active component of the product of the emf
47 and current. Therefore, the electrical energy and the mechanical energy are inter-
48 converted via the magnetic field.
49 Electromechanical System
50
51
Electrical System Magnetic System Mechanical System
52
53
Voltages and Currents Magnetic Flux Position, Speed and
54 Acceleration
55
Force or
56 Circuit Equations obtained Torque Force/Torque Equations by
by KCL and KVL Emf Newton’s Laws
57
58 Fig. 2.1Concept map of electromechanical energy conversion
59
60 Electromechanical energy conversion accordingly depends on the existence in
61 nature of phenomena interrelating magnetic and electric fields on the one hand and
62 mechanical force and motion on the other. The principal phenomena utilised
63 practically are the following:
64 (a) A mechanical force is exerted on a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic
65 field, and between current carrying circuits by means of their magnetic fields.
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66 The energy conversion process is reversible because a voltage is induced in a

67 circuit undergoing motion in a magnetic field.
68 (b) A mechanical force is exerted on ferromagnetic material tending to align it
69 with or bring it into the position of the densest part of the magnetic field.
70 When the magnetic field is created by a current-carrying coil, the energy-
71 conversion process is reversible because motion of the material will cause a
72 change in the flux linking the coil and change of flux linkages will induce a
73 voltage in the coil.
74 Rotating machines utilize the above energy conversion processes. Since the
75 frequencies and velocities involved in the electromechanical energy conversion are
76 relatively low, quasi-static field conditions prevail and electromagnetic radiation is
77 entirely negligible. Electromechanical energy conversion then involves energy in four
78 forms, and conservation of energy leads to the following relation among these forms:
79 Energy input Mechanical Increase in Energy
80 from electrical
source
= energy output + stored energy in
coupling field
+ converted to
heat
…(2.1)

81
82 Equation 2.1 is applicable to all conversion devices; it is written so that the electrical
83 and mechanical energy terms have positive values for motor action and negative
84 values for generator action.
85 Irreversible conversion of energy to heat arises from three causes; part of the
86 electrical energy is converted to heat in resistances of the current paths, part of the
87 mechanical energy developed within the device is absorbed in friction and windage
88 and converted to heat, part of the energy absorbed by the coupling field is converted
89 to heat in magnetic core loss (for magnetic coupling) or dielectric loss (for electric
90 coupling). The energy losses in the electrical system, the mechanical system, and the
91 coupling field are grouped with the corresponding terms in equation 2.1, the energy
92 balance may be written in the following form:
93 Electrical energy Mechanical energy Increase in energy stored

94
input minus
resistance losses
= output plus friction
and windage losses
+ in coupling field plus
associated losses
…(2.2)

95 The LHS of Equation 2.2 can be expressed in terms of the currents and voltages in the
96 electric circuits of the coupling device. Consider, for example, the energy – conversion
97 devices shown schematically in fig. 2.2. The differential energy input from the
98 electrical source in time dt is vtidt, where vt is the instantaneous terminal voltage and i
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99 is the instantaneous current. The energy loss in the resistance of the device is i2rdt,
100 where r is the resistance. Hence the LHS of equation 2.2 is
101 dWe = vtidt – i2rdt……………….(2.3)
102 dWe = (vt – ir) idt……………….(2.4)
103 where dWe is the net electrical input to the coupling device after resistance losses
104 have been taken into account.
105
Heat due to
i2r losses Heat due to Heat due to
106 field losses mechanical
losses
107
108 Electrical Coupling Mechanical
+
system vt i e field system
109 -
110
111 Fig. 2.2: General representation of electromechanical energy conversion.
112 For the coupling device to absorb energy from the electric circuit, the coupling field
113 must produce a reaction in the circuit. This reaction is the emf indicated by the voltage
114 e in Fig. 2.2. On electromagnetic devices, for example, it is a voltage induced by the
115 magnetic field. Reaction on the input is an essential part of the process of
116 interconversion of energy between an electric circuit and any other medium. The
117 coupling field may be likened to a reservoir of energy, releasing energy to the output
118 system and being replenished through the reaction of the field on the input system.
119 The reaction emf is give by
120 e = vt – ir …………(2.5)
121 Substitution of eqn 2.5 in eqn 2.4 gives
122 dWe = eidt ……………(2.6)
123 If electrical energy is supplied to the coupling field from more than one circuit, the
124 total electrical energy input is the sum of terms of the form of equation 2.6.
125 The first term on the RHS of equation 2.2 is the total energy converted to
126 mechanical form. It differs from the useful mechanical energy by the mechanical
127 friction and windage losses caused by the motion of the mechanical parts of the
128 energy-conversion device.
129 The second term on the RHS of equation 2.2 is the total energy absorbed by the
130 coupling field, including both stored energy and losses (hysteresis and eddy current).
131 From the discussion thus far, it is evident that the resistance of the electric circuits and
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132 the friction and windage of the mechanical system, though always present, play no
133 basic parts in the energy conversion process. The basic energy-conversion process is
134 one involving the coupling field and its action and reaction on the electrical and
135 mechanical systems. For motor action, the sum of the energy absorbed by the
136 coupling field and the internal energy converted to mechanical form can always be
137 equated to the internal electrical energy associated with the flow of electricity against
138 the emf e caused by the coupling field. In differential form, equation 2.2 may be
139 written as:
140 dWe = eidt = dWf + dWm …………………….(2.7)
141 where dWe is the net electrical energy input after copper losses have been accounted
142 for, dWf is the differential energy absorbed by the coupling field, and dWm is the net
143 internal energy converted to mechanical form including mechanical losses.
144 The incremental mechanical energy for a virtual displacement dx in the time dt
145 when the force f can be written as
146 dWm = fdx ………………….(2.8)
147 But dWm = dWe – dWf …….(2.9)
148 Therefore, dWe – dWf = fdx ………..(2.10)
We W f
149 and f   ………….(2.11)
x x
150 The induced emf e can be written by Faraday’s law
d
151 e …………………(2.12)
dt
152 where λ represents the flux linkages. Then the net incremental electrical energy in
153 time dt can be written as
 d 
154 dWe  eidt   idt  id ……….(2.13)
 dt 
155 Substituting eqn. 2.13 into eqn. 2.11 gives
(id ) W f
156 f   …………………(2.14)
x x
157 If the displacement occurs with the flux linkages λ held constant, it follows from eqn.
158 2.14 that
 W f 
159 f    ……………..(2.15)

 x   k

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160 The general form of the relationship between the flux linkage λ and the current i or
161 flux Φ and mmf F (iN) is that of the normal magnetization curve shown in Fig. 2.3 for
162 which the energy stored in the magnetic field is the area shown (Wf) and is given by:
 
163 W f   i( )d   F ()d ……………(2.16)
0 0

164
165 λ, B or φ
166 Wf
167 dλ(dΦ)
168
Wf'
169
170
mmf, H or i
171 Fig. 2.3: The magnetization curve
172 The integration in equation 2.16 must be performed graphically because of its non-
173 linearity. The field energy is explicitly expressed in terms of flux linkage or flux as the
174 variable of integration, i.e. it is the area between the magnetization curve and λ or Φ
175 axis.
i F
176 The quantity: W f '    (i)di  ( F )dF ……………(2.17)
0 0

177 is called the co-energy and is explicitly expressed in terms of the current or mmf as the
178 integration variable from fig 2.3,
179 Wf + Wf' = λi = ΦF ………………………………(2.18a)
180 Although co-energy does not have clear-cut physical significance that energy has, it
181 will be found to be a useful quantity in the computation of electromechanical forces.
182 From equation 2.18a,
183 Wf = λi – Wf'…………………….(2.18b)
184 Substitution of equation 2.18b in eqn 2.7 and noting that dWm = fdx (i.e. eqn (8))
185 dWe = d(λi-Wf') + fdx = λ∂i + idλ - ∂Wf' + fdx ……………(2.19)
186 But dWe = idλ = FdΦ …………………………………...(2.20)
187 Therefore, idλ = λ∂i + i∂λ - ∂Wf' + fdx ……………………(2.21)
i W f '
188 f   ……………………………………….(2.22)
x x

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189 The foregoing analysis has been concerned with force f and linear displacement x. In
190 the case of a rotational transducer torque T and angular displacement θ must be
191 introduced and eqns 2.15 and 2.22 therefore become:
 W f   W f ' 
192 T   
   
 (2.23)
     k    i  k
193 Most electromechanical energy conversion devices contain airgaps in series with the
194 magnetic circuit, and usually most of the mmf is required to overcome the airgap
195 reluctance. Most of the energy is then stored in the airgap and is returned to the
196 circuit when the field is reduced. Because of the simplicity of the resulting relations,
197 magnetic non-linearity and core losses are often neglected in the analysis of practical
198 devices. For linear magnetic circuit the stored energy is equal to the co-energy and for
199 a singly excited system it is given by
200 Wf = Wf' = ½ λi = ½ FΦ ………………………(2.24)
201 The reluctance S of the magnetic circuit is given by
202 F = SΦ so that
203 Wf = Wf' = ½ Φ2S………………………..(2.25)
204 In terms of inductance
205 Wf = Wf' = ½ Li2………………………..(2.26)
206 and
207 Wf = Wf' = ½ HB = ½ μH2 = ½ B2/μ ……………(2.27)
208 where Wf and Wf' is the magnetic stored energy per unit volume.
 W  1 dS
209 From equation 2.15, f    f     2 ……….(2.28)
 x   k 2 dx

210 From equation 2.22,

 W f '  1 dL
211 f     i2
 ……….(2.29)
 x  i k 2 dx

212 For the case of a rotational transducer, equation 2.28 and 2.29 become
1 dS
213 T   2 …………………(2.30)
2 d
1 2 dL
214 T i ……………………(2.31)
2 d
215

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216 2.2 Concept of mechanical work

217 In order to understand the principle of mechanical work, consider the relay attracting
218 the iron armature in Fig. 2.4a. The magnetization curves of the magnetic circuit for the
219 open and closed positions of the armature are shown in Fig. 2.4b.
220 Closed position

221
222
223 Open position
ES source
224
225
Iron armature
226
227 (a)
228
Flux
229 Closed position

230
Φ2 d b
231 Transient locus

Φ1 c
232 a' a
Wm
233
234
Open position
235
236 (b) Mmf
237 Fig. 2.4: (a) Relay and (b) corresponding flux-mmf characteristic
238
239 If the switch S is closed and the armature is held forcibly in the open position until the
240 current in the coil has settled down to its final dc steady-state value Es/r, the
241 corresponding operating point is a (Fig2.4b). Now, let the armature be released. It will
242 move under the influence of the magnetic force of attraction and eventually will stop
243 in the closed position. After the transients have disappeared, the final operating point
244 is at b. during the transient period while the armature is moving, the flux is increasing,
245 and a counter emf is induced in the coil. This emf depends on how fast the armature
246 moves. If it moves very slowly, the induced emf is negligible, the current then stays
247 substantially constant and the flux-mmf locus during the transient period approaches
248 the vertical dotted line ab. If the motion is very fast, it will have taken place before the
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249 flux has changed appreciably. Then, the flux-mmf locus while the armature is moving
250 then approaches the horizontal dotted line aa' and after the motion is all over the flux
251 and mmf rise along the magnetization curve a'b.
252 The area oaco to the left of the original magnetization curve represent the energy
253 abstracted from the electrical source and absorbed by the magnetic field when the
254 armature is in the open position. Neglecting hysteresis and eddy currents, this energy
255 is stored in the magnetic field. After the armature has moved into the closed position,
256 the energy stored in the field is represented by the area obdo to the left of the final
257 magnetization curve. Consequently the increase in energy stored in the field is:
258 ∆Wf = obdo – oaco ……………………………(2.32)
259
260 While the armature is moving, the flux is increasing from Φ1 and Φ2 and an emf is
261 induced in the coil. The corresponding energy abstracted from the source during the
262 time is:
2
263 We   Fd  area
1
cabdc ………………………..(2.33)

264 Substitution of eqn 2.32 and 2.33 in the energy balance equation 2.7 gives
265 We = ∆Wf + Wm ………………………………………(2.34)
266 Area cabdc = obdo + Wm – oaco ……………………….(2.35)
267 Whence Wm = oaco + cabdc – obdo = oabdo – obdo …….(2.36)
268 = oabo ………………………………………………(2.37)
269 This important relation shows that the energy converted to mechanical form equals
270 the area included by the original and final magnetization curve and the flux-mmf locus
271 during motion as shown by the cross hatched area.
272
273 2.3 Mechanical forces – virtual work
274 Consider fig. 2.5 which shows the effect of the differential displacement dx on the
275 magnetization curve which may arise as a result of the relay 2.3a moving a linear
276 distance dx

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Flux Φ

x+dx
h e
b
dΦ
c a x
d

fdx

g
0
Mmf, F
277
278 Fig. 2.5: Virtual work
279 From its open position to its closed position to its closed position, the mechanical work
280 done by the magnetic force is area oabo,
281 whence fdx = oabo ……………………..(2.38)
282 But area oabo differs from area oado by the area of triangle abd, whose altitude and
283 base are both infinitesimal. In the limit as dx approaches zero, oabo = oado and
284 fdx = oado = oaco – odco …………….(2.39)
285 Areas oaco and odco represent the energies stored in the magnetic field respectively
286 before and after the virtual displacement dx with flux Φ constant. Their difference is
287 the decrease in stored energy at constant flux, thus
288 fdx = – dWf with Φ constant ……………(2.40)
289 Therefore, the mechanical force f is given by:
W f
290 f  …………………………(2.41)
x
291 By similar reasoning, area oabo differs from area oaeo by the second order
292 infinitesimal area of triangle abe. Therefore in the limit as dx approaches zero
293 fdx = oaeo = ogeo – ogao ………….(2.42)
294 Areas ogeo and ogao represent the co-energies, respectively and before the virtual
295 displacement dx with mmf F constant. Their difference is the increase in co-energy at
296 constant mmf, thus:
297 fdx = + dWf' with f constant ……………….(2.43)
298 where Wf' is the co-energy.
299

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300 Example 2.1

301 Assume that the functional relationship of mmf F, flux Φ, and the position co-ordinate
302 x is given by:
303 F = Φ2x2
304 Using energy and co-energy concept in turn, find the mechanical force acting in the x-
305 direction and show that the results are identical
306 Soln
 
1
307 W f   F ()d    2 x 2d  3 x 2
0 0 3

308 where Φ is the flux at the operating point

W f 2
309 But F =    3 x Nm
x 3
310 Alternatively, the co-energy is
F
W f '   ( F )dF
0

F 1/ 2
311 
x
F
F 1/ 2 2 F 3/ 2
thus W f '   dF 
0 x 3 x
W f ' 2 F 3/2
F  
x 3 x2
312
F  

2 2 x2 3/ 2
2
  3 x
3 x2 3
313 The negative sign indicates that the force tends to decrease the airgap
314
315 Example 2.2
316 The flux-linkage-current relationship for an actuator can be expressed approximately
1
2
0.08i
317 by   between the limits 0<i<5A and 0.02<g<0.10m. If the current is
g
318 maintained at 4A, what is the force on the armature for g = 0.06m?
319
320 Solution:
321 The λ-I relationship is non-linear and since the flux linkage is give as a function of the
322 current, the co-energy approach is more convenient. Thus:

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1
3
0.08i 2 0.08 2 2
323 W f '  di  i J
g g 3

 W f '  0.08 2
3
0.08 2 2
3
324  f      2 . .i 2 N  . .4  119N .
 g i  4 A g 3 0.062 3

325 The negative sign indicates that the force tends to decrease the airgap.
326
327 ASSIGNMENT 2
328 1. The relationships between flux linkage λ, current i and displacement x of the moving
329 part of a ferromagnetic actuator can be expressed approximately by the equation:
1
0.04 2
330  i Wb for the range 0<i<5A, 0.01<x<0.05m. If the current is maintained
x
331 constant at 4A, what is the force produced by the actuator when the displacement is
332 0.03m?
333
334 2. Over the intended operating range, the relationship between flux linkage λ, current i
335 and displacement x of the moving member of a ferromagnetic actuator may be
1
4.3 3
336 expressed approximately by   i Wb . Determine the force in x direction when i =
x
337 0.6A and x=0.02m.
338
339 3. A coil with a ferromagnetic core has a flux-linkage-current relationship that can be
340 approximated by: λ = 0.72i1/3 Wb. Determine the energy stored in the magnetic system
341 when the current is 2.1A.
342
343 4. An electromagnet in the form of a U shape has an air gap, between each pole and
344 an armature, of 0.05 cm. The cross sectional area of the magnetic core is 5 cm 2 and it
345 is uniformly wound with 100 turns. Neglecting leakage and fringing flux, calculate the
346 current necessary to give a force of 147.2 N on the armature. Assume 15% of the total
347 mmf is expended on the iron part of the magnetic circuit.
348
349 5. For a singly excited elementary two pole reluctance motor under constant current
350 conditions, calculate the maximum torque developed if the rotor radius is equal to 4
351 cm, the length of the air gap between a pole and the rotor equal to 0.25 cm, the axial
352 length of the rotor equal to 3 cm. The pole excitation is provided by a coil of 1000
353 turns carrying 5A.

Electrical Machines I: Lecture II Engr. Prof. E. S. Obe